Course: Advanced Engineering Mathematics

Power Series

An infinite series of the form



 ci x i   ci x i  c0  c1 x  c2 x 2  ...  cn x n  ..
i 0 where the c’s are constants, and
called a power series in x.

Similarly, a power series about (x-a), or is any series that can be written in the form,


 c ( x  a)   c ( x  a)
i
i

i 0
i
i where a and cn are numbers.

• The cn’s are often called the coefficients of the series.

• There is a number R so that the power series will converge for |𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 and will diverge for
|𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅 . This number is called the Radius of Convergence for the series.

• Note that the series may or may not converge if |𝑥 − 𝑎| = 𝑅 . What happens at these points will
not change the radius of convergence.

• Secondly, the interval of all x’s, including the endpoints if need be, for which the power series
converges is called the Interval of convergence of the series.

• These two concepts are fairly closely tied together. If we know that the radius of convergence of
a power series is R then we have the following:

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Determine the Radius of Convergence and Interval of Convergence for this power series.

∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (𝑥 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1

Solution:
*The best test to use is almost always the ratio or root test. Let us use ratio test.

*Recall that in ratio test

𝑎𝑛+1
𝐿 = lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

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 * If 𝐿 < 1, the series is convergent and if 𝐿 > 1, the series is divergent.

*Remember that the given series is already your 𝑎𝑛 .

(−1)𝑛 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = (𝑥 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
*To determine 𝑎𝑛+1 , replace “n+1” to all n’s in the equation:
(−1)𝑛+1 𝑛 + 1
𝑎𝑛+1 = (𝑥 + 3)𝑛+1
4𝑛+1
*Re-write the equation:
𝑎𝑛+1 1
𝐿 = lim | | = lim |𝑎𝑛+1 ∙ |
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛

(−1)𝑛+1 ( 𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)𝑛+1 4𝑛

= lim | ∙ |
𝑛→∞ 4𝑛+1 (−1)𝑛 (𝑛)(𝑥 + 3)𝑛

*Simplifying and re-writing the equation:

−(𝑛 + 1)(𝑥 + 3)
= lim | |
𝑛→∞ 4𝑛
*Notice that since x is not dependent on the limit and it can be factored out of the limit.
(𝑛 + 1)
𝐿 = |𝑥 + 3| lim | |
𝑛→∞ 4𝑛
1
𝐿 = |𝑥 + 3|
4
*The ratio test tells us that if L < 1 the series will converge, if L > 1 the series will diverge.
1
|𝑥 + 3| < 1 |𝑥 + 3| < 4
4
1
|𝑥 + 3| > 1 |𝑥 + 3| > 4
4

It is noted that there is a number R so that the power series will converge for,
|𝑥 − 𝑎| < 𝑅 and will diverge for |𝑥 − 𝑎| > 𝑅 . This number is called the radius of
convergence for the series.

*Therefore the Radius of Convergence for this Power Series is 4.

*Now let’s determine the Interval of Convergence:

*The interval of convergence is

−4 < 𝑥 + 3 < 4
−𝟕 < 𝒙 < 𝟏

*This interval of convergence MUST be checked, by simply plugging them

(X = - 7 and X = 1) into the original power series and see if the series converges or
diverges using any test necessary.

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 *Here’s the original power series equation below. Let’s try first 𝒙 = −𝟕
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (𝒙 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (−𝟕 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (−4)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (−1)𝑛 (4)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 (4)𝑛 𝑛
∑
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞

∑𝑛
𝑛=1

*This series if Divergent since as n approaches infinity, the limit does not exist.

*Now, let us try the other value of x which is 𝒙 = 𝟏

∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (𝒙 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (𝟏 + 3)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛
∑ (4)𝑛
4𝑛
𝑛=1
∞

∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛=1

*This series is also Divergent since the limit doesn’t exist.

*By checking, the power series will not converge for either endpoint. And so the interval
of convergence satisfies

−𝟕 < 𝒙 < 𝟏

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Determine the Radius of Convergence and Interval of Convergence for this power series.

∞
2𝑛
∑ (4𝑥 − 8)𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1

Solution:
* Let us use ratio test.

2𝑛+1 (4𝑥 − 8)𝑛+1 𝑛

𝐿 = lim | ∙ 𝑛 |
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1 2 (4𝑥 − 8)𝑛

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 2𝑛(4𝑥 − 8)
𝐿 = lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
𝟐𝑛
𝐿 = |4𝑥 − 8| lim | |
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1
𝐿 = |4𝑥 − 8|
𝐿 = 𝟐 |4𝑥 − 8|

𝟐 |4𝑥 − 8| < 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠

𝟐 |4𝑥 − 8| > 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠
*Simplifying
1
8|𝑥 − 2| < 1 |𝑥 − 2| <
8
1
8|𝑥 − 2| > 1 |𝑥 − 2| >
8
1
*Therefore the Radius of Convergence for this Power Series is 8 .

*Now let’s determine the Interval of Convergence:

*The interval of convergence is

1 1
− < 𝑥−2<
8 8
15 17
<𝑥 <
8 8
*Again, this interval of convergence MUST be checked, by simply plugging them
15 17
𝒙= 8
and 𝒙 = 8
into the original power series and see if the series converges or
diverges using any test necessary.

15
*Here’s the original power series equation below. Let’s try first 𝒙 =
8
∞
𝑛
2
∑ (4𝑥 − 8)𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛
2𝑛 15
∑ ( − 8)
𝑛 2
𝑛=1
∞
2𝑛 1 𝑛
∑ (− )
𝑛 2
𝑛=1
∞
2𝑛 (−1)𝑛
∑
𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
(−1)𝑛
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1

*You can use any tests here, but this series will converge.

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 17
*Let’s try first 𝒙 = 8
∞
2𝑛
∑ (4𝑥 − 8)𝑛
𝑛
𝑛=1
∞ 𝑛
2𝑛 17
∑ ( − 8)
𝑛 2
𝑛=1
∞
2𝑛 1 𝑛
∑ ( )
𝑛 2
𝑛=1
∞
2𝑛 1
∑ ( )
𝑛 2𝑛
𝑛=1
∞
1
∑
𝑛
𝑛=1

*You can use any tests here, but this series will diverge.

*NOW, If x=15/8 the series is convergent and if x=17/8 the series will diverge, the
Interval of Convergence (IOC) from
15 17
<𝑥 <
8 8
*After checking, will now be written as
15 17
≤𝑥 <
8 8

Taylor Series

*A representation of a function as an infinite sum of terms that are calculated from the values of
the function's derivatives at a single point.
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
∑ (𝑥 − 𝑎 )𝑛
𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑓′(𝑎) 𝑓′′(𝑎) 𝑓 3 (𝑎)

𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)1 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 + ⋯
1! 2! 3!
where:

• n! denotes the factorial of n

• ƒ (n) (a) denotes the nth derivative of ƒ evaluated at the point a.

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 Maclaurin’s Series

*If the Taylor series is centered at zero, then that series is called a Maclaurin series,
∞
𝑓 𝑛 (0)
∑ (𝑥 − 0)𝑛
𝑛!
𝑛=0

𝑓′(0) 𝑓′′(0) 𝑓 3 (0)

𝑓 (0) + (𝑥)1 + (𝑥)2 + (𝑥)3 + ⋯
1! 2! 3!

Please consider watching the following video links for some example
problems and for better understanding of Taylor and Maclaurin Series:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cjPoEZ0I5wQ – Taylor and Maclaurin Series Example 1

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Os8OtXFBLkY - Taylor and Maclaurin Series Example 2

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
Find the Taylor Series for 𝑓(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) about x = 0.

Solution:
* Take some derivatives of the function and evaluate them at x = 0.

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 Fourier Series
*An expansion of a periodic function in terms of an infinite sum of sines and cosines. Fourier
series make use of the orthogonality relationships of the sine and cosine functions.

*In the figure above, this type of function is a square wave showing the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑡). It is a
periodic function that it completes 1 cycle every 2𝜋 secs. And so,
𝟏
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒇=
𝟐𝝅

𝟐𝝅
*Let’s analyze Fourier Series for a waveform 𝑓(𝑡) with a period 𝑻 =
𝝎

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 *Integrations are over a single interval t of T.

*The formula above can also be written as:

EXAMPLE PROBLEM 1:
Find the Fourier Series of

Solution:
* Since f(t) = f(t+2π), it is therefore Periodic @ T=2π
*Compute first the Fourier coefficients

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 EXAMPLE PROBLEM 2:
Find the Fourier Series of

Solution:
* Since f(t) = f(t+2), it is therefore Periodic @ T=2.

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