Basic Mechanical Engineering Notes ASIET, Kalady

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING NOTES
CODE: EST 120
Course Outcomes:
CO 7 Illustrate the working and features of IC Engines
CO 8 Explain the basic principles of Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
CO 9 Describe the working of hydraulic machines

Module 4
Syllabus: Efficiencies of IC Engines (Definitions only), Air, Fuel, cooling and lubricating systems in SI and
CI Engines, CRDI, MPFI. Concept of hybrid engines.

Efficiencies of IC Engines
The efficiency of an IC engine (Internal Combustion Engine) is defined as the ratio of work done
to the energy supplied to an engine.
a) Mechanical efficiency. It is the ratio of brake power (B.P.) to the indicated power (I.P.).

Mathematically, mechanical efficiency = B.P/I.P

Therefore mechanical efficiency is always less than unity (i.e. 100%).
b) Overall efficiency: It is the ratio of the work obtained at the crankshaft in a given time to the
energy supplied by the fuel during the same time.
Mathematically, overall efficiency = (B.P x 3600) / (mf x C)
B.P. = Brake power in kW,
mf = Mass of fuel consumed in kg per hour, and
C = Calorific valve of fuel in kJ / kg of fuel.
c) Indicated thermal efficiency: It is the ratio of the heat equivalent to one kW hour to the heat
in the fuel per I.P. hour,
Mathematically, indicated thermal efficiency

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d) Air standard efficiency: It is the thermodynamic cycle efficiency. The general expression for
the air standard efficiency for petrol and Diesel engine given as

DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF IC ENGINE – COOLING, LUBRICATING, FUEL, AIR

Different systems available for efficient functioning of an engine are as follows
1. Fuel supply system
2. Lubrication system
3. Air System
4. Cooling system
1. Air & Exhaust System
Air System for Petrol Engine
An intake system is a set of components that essentially allows an internal combustion engine to
inhale, in the same way that the exhaust system allows it to exhale. Early automotive intake
systems were simply inlets that allowed air to pass unimpeded into the carburetor, but modern
systems are much more complex.

Components:
Air Filter: Air filter purify the intake air from the atmosphere. The filter removes the dust particle
and also collect any airborne dirt entering the chamber.
Carburetor: It is the member of petrol engine in which the air and fuel gets mixed at the correct
proportion. The fuel from the fuel tank mixed with the incoming air steam from the air filter.
Air System for Diesel Engine
Diesel engines are started by supplying compressed air into the cylinders in the appropriate
sequence for the required direction.

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Air system for diesel engine

Air Filter: Air filter purify the intake air from the atmosphere. The filter removes the dust particle
and also collect any airborne dirt entering the chamber.
Turbo charger: A turbocharger, is a turbine-driven forced induction device that increases an
internal combustion engine's efficiency and power output by forcing extra compressed air into the
combustion chamber.
Exhaust System
The original purpose of an exhaust system was to safely route exhaust gases from the engine so
they can be exhausted into the environment, while also providing attenuation of combustion noise.
Exhaust gas, however, contains components that are harmful to human health and/or the
environment. As a consequence, emission levels of these exhaust gas components became
regulated.

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Manifold: The manifold is an assembly designed to collect the exhaust gas from two or more
cylinders into one pipe. Manifolds are often made of cast iron.
Catalytic converter: The main purpose of a catalytic converter on an automobile is to reduce
harmful emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere.
They work by transforming the polluted exhaust components into water and carbon dioxide.
Piping: The piping that connects all of the individual components of the exhaust system is called
the exhaust pipe. If the diameter is too small, power at high RPM will be reduced.
Muffler: The mufflers typically reduce the noise level from the tailpipe by bouncing sound waves
off of the back, front, and sides of the muffler
Tailpipe and exhaust: The end of the final length of exhaust pipe where it vents to open air,
generally the only visible part of the exhaust system part on a vehicle, often ends with just a straight
or angled cut.

2. Fuel supply system

Petrol Engine

The fuel supply system of spark ignition engine consists of:

(i) Fuel tank
(ii) Fuel filter
(iii) Carburetor
(iv) Fuel pipes
(v) Inlet manifold

In some spark ignition engine, the fuel tank is placed above the level of the carburetor. The fuel
flows from the fuel tank to the carburetor under the action of gravity. There are one or two filters
between the fuel tank and the carburetor. From the carburetor, the fuel goes to the engine cylinder,
through the inlet manifold of the engine.

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CARBURETTOR:
The process of preparing an air-fuel mixture away from the cylinders of an engine is called
carburetion and the device in which this process take place is called carburetor.
Function of Carburetor: The main functions of the carburetor are:
(i) To mix the air and fuel thoroughly
(ii) To atomize the fuel
(iii) To regulate the air-fuel ratio at different speeds and loads and
(iv) To supply correct amount of mixture at different speeds and loads.
Simple Carburetor
The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle and a metering
orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a needle valve system maintain a
constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls
below the designed level, the float goes down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting
fuel. When the designed level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus stopping
additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float chamber is vented either to the atmosphere or
to the” upstream side of the venturi. During suction stroke air is drawn through the venturi.
Venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a minimum area at the throat, Venturi tube is
also known as the choke tube and is so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow.
As the air passes through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the venturi
throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. From the float chamber, the
fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in the throat of the venturi. Because of the
differential pressure between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi, known as carburetor
depression, fuel is discharged into the air stream. The fuel discharge is affected by the size of the
discharge jet and it is chosen to give the required air-fuel ratio.

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FUEL SYSTEM OF DIESEL ENGINE

During engine operation, the fuel is supplied by gravity from fuel tank to the primary filter where
coarse impurities are removed. From the primary filter, the fuel is drawn by fuel transfer pump
and is delivered to fuel injection pump through second fuel filter. The fuel injection pump supplies
fuel under high pressure to the injectors through high pressure pipes. The injectors atomise the fuel
and inject it into the combustion chamber of the engine. The fuel injection pump is fed with fuel
in abundance. The excess fuel is by-passed to the intake side of the fuel transfer pump through a
relief valve. The main components of the fuel system in diesel engine are: (1) fuel filter (2) fuel
lift pump (3) fuel injection pump (4) atomisers and (5) high pressure pipe.

3. Cooling system
A system, which controls the engine temperature, is known as a cooling system.
NECESSITY OF COOLING SYSTEM: The cooling system is provided in the IC engine for the
following reasons:
• The temperature of the burning gases in the engine cylinder reaches up to 1500 to 2000°C, which
is above the melting point of the material of the cylinder body and head of the engine. Therefore,
if the heat is not dissipated, it would result in the failure of the cylinder material.
• Due to very high temperatures, the film of the lubricating oil will get oxidized, thus producing
carbon deposits on the surface. This will result in piston seizure.
• Due to overheating, large temperature differences may lead to a distortion of the engine
components due to the thermal stresses set up. This makes it necessary for, the temperature
variation to be kept to a minimum.
• Higher temperatures also lower the volumetric efficiency of the engine.
TYPES OF COOLING SYSTEM
There are two types of cooling systems:
(i) Air cooling system and
(ii) Water-cooling system.

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AIR COOLING SYSTEM: In this type of cooling system, the heat, which is conducted to the
outer parts of the engine, is radiated and conducted away by the stream of air, which is obtained
from the atmosphere. In order to have efficient cooling by means of air, providing fins around the
cylinder and cylinder head increases the contact area. The fins are metallic ridges, which are
formed during the casting of the cylinder and cylinder head. The amount of heat carried off by the
air-cooling depends upon the following factors:(i)The total area of the fin surfaces,(ii)The velocity
and amount of the cooling air and(iii)The temperature of the fins and of the cooling air. Air-cooling
is mostly tractors of less horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small cars and small aircraft engines
where the forward motion of the machine gives good velocity to cool the engine.
Advantages of Air Cooled Engines
Air cooled engines have the following advantages:
1. Its design of air-cooled engine is simple.
2. It is lighter in weight than water-cooled engines due to the absence of water jackets, radiator,
circulating pump and the weight of the cooling water.
3. It is cheaper to manufacture.
4. It needs less care and maintenance.

WATER COOLING SYSTEM:

It serves two purposes in the working of an engine
a) It takes away the excessive heat generated in the engine and saves it from overheating.
b) It keeps the engine at working temperature for efficient and economical working

In this method, cooling water jackets are provided around the cylinder, cylinder head, valve seats
etc. The water when circulated through the jackets, it absorbs heat of combustion. This hot water
will then be cooling in the radiator partially by a fan and partially by the flow developed by the
forward motion of the vehicle. The cooled water is again recirculated through the water jackets .
Being the medium of cooling it is circulated through the passages called jackets around the main
components which are about to be heated. Pumps or gravity force does the circulation.
Fig shows a water cooling system used in an automobile engine. The hot water after circulating
through the jackets flows to the filler tank of the radiator at its top. The heated water gets cooled
in the radiator by air flow while falling down to the lower tank. Several tubes with fins are provided
in the radiator to increase the heat transfer area. A fan is provided to increase the flow of air.
Ethylene glycol is added, being the no freezing agent, in the circulating water, during cold
conditions. There are three types of water cooling systems.
1. Natural / gravity circulation.

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2. Forced circulation.
3. Open circulation
The change of gravity due to change of temp is the reason for gravity circulation. Also called
thermo siphon. In forced circulation a pump is used to circulate water through jackets. Engine
drives the pump. In stationary diesel engine power plants open circulation system is used. Here a
pump is used to draw water from the cooling pond and to circulate it through the engine jacket.
After circulation water is returned to the pond in the form of spray from a higher level and gets
cooled during the down flow through air.

4. Lubrication System
If the moving parts are rubbing against each other for a long time, heat will be generated due to
friction and power will be lost. In order to avoid or minimize the power loss, a lubricating agent
(thin film of oil) is provided between the mating parts. This activity is called lubrication.
The functions of lubricating oils are:
1. Remove the heat from the mating parts.
2. Acts as a sealing agent between piston rings and cylinder to prevent the leakage of working
gases.
3. Clean the metal parts.
The main parts to be lubricated are crankshaft, bearings, crankpin, piston, cylinder walls, cams,
valve stems, gears, etc.
Types of lubricating systems: -
1. Mist Lubrication
2. Wet Sump: Splash lubrication

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3. Dry Sump

Splash: The splash is the simplest system. When the crankshaft rotates with in the crankcase, the
oil stored in the bottom of the crankcase will splash up by a spoon like provision made at the
counter weight side of the crank. This splash spray lubricates the internal part of the engine. This
system is employed in small single cylinder stationary engines.

Dry Sump: An engine lubrication system in which the lubricating oil is carried in an external tank
and not internally in a sump. The sump is kept relatively free from oil by scavenging pumps, which
return the oil to the tank after cooling. The opposite of a wet sump system. The pumping capacity
of scavenge pumps is higher than that of the engine-driven pumps supplying oil to the system.

Common Rail Direct Injection (CRDI) System

In conventional diesel engines, fuel pressure had to be generated repeatedly during each time of
injection. Hence fuel injection pressure was too low (35-40bar). CRDI system maintains fuel at
constant pressure in a rail throughout the working of engine. An ECU along with different sensors
controls the pressure &amount of fuel in the rail, injection pressure, fuel injection timing, amount
of fuel to be injected etc. Fuel from the tank is pumped to the common rail by high pressure pump.

Elements of CRDi

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 Low pressure circuit: comprises of fuel tank, fuel pump and fuel filter. Responsible for
transporting the fuel to the high pressure circuit
 High pressure circuit: comprises of high pressure pump with pressure control valve,
common rail with rail pressure sensor and injectors

 ECU and Sensors: ECU receives and evaluates the signal from the sensors, viz., speed
sensor, air temperature sensor, air mass meter and rail pressure sensor.
 ECU calculates injected fuel quantity, start of injection, duration of injection and control
the correct functioning of the injection system as a whole

Advantages
•Deliver 25% more power and torque
•Lower level of noise and vibration
•Higher mileage
•Lower emission and improved performance
Disadvantages
•Costly spare parts
•More maintenance
MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION (MPFI)

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MPFI is used in SI engines
•MPFI system injects fuel just upstream of each cylinder’s intake valve, based on commands
from ECU.
•In MPFI system, each cylinder has one injector placed on the side of the intake manifold near
the intake valve to supply fuel in the cylinders
•Uniform air-fuel mixture will be supplied to each cylinder

Advantages
•Better fuel economy and lower emissions
•Better performance and less vibrations
Disadvantages
•Expensive setup
•System is complex

Hybrid Vehicles
A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle.eg.
A conventional internal combustion engine and also a high voltage electric motor. Concept of
hybrid drive combines the best aspects of IC engines and Electric drives.

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SERIES HYBRID

The petrol (gasoline) engine turns a generator, and the generator can either charge the batteries or
power an electric motor that drives the transmission.
Engine mode operation
•Engine operates a generator, that operates a motor, which in turn drive the wheels
Battery mode operation
•Battery directly drives the motor which in turn drive the wheels

PARALLEL HYBRID

Fuel tank supplies gasoline to the engine and a set of batteries that supplies power to the electric
motor. Depending on requirement, Engine alone or Motor alone or Engine and Motor together
can drive the wheels. This system permits the engine to recharge the battery while powering the
vehicle.

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Basic Mechanical Engineering Notes ASIET, Kalady

MODULE 5

[Refrigeration: Unit of refrigeration, reversed Carnot cycle, COP, vapour

compression cycle (only description and no problems); Definitions of dry, wet &
dew point temperatures, specific humidity and relative humidity, Cooling and
dehumidification, Layout of unit and central air conditioners. Description about
working with sketches of: Reciprocating pump, Centrifugal pump, Pelton turbine,
Francis turbine and Kaplan turbine]

UNIT OF REFRIGERATION AND COP

Refrigeration is the process of maintaining a system at a temperature below temperature of its
surroundings. Equipment’s employed to maintain a system at lower temperature by removing heat
from system is called Refrigerating system. System which is kept at lower temperature is known
as Refrigerated system. Working fluid used in refrigerating system is known as Refrigerant. Rate
of heat absorbed from a body or space to be cooled is termed as Refrigerating effect. Unit of
refrigeration is ton of refrigeration.

“One ton of refrigeration is defined as a mount of refrigerating effect obtained by melting

one ton of ice at 00C to water at 00C in 24 hours.”
 One ton of refrigeration =3.52kW =210kJ/min
Major application of refrigeration is in Food processing, Preservation &distribution, Chemical &
process industries, Medical field, Comfort air conditioning, etc.
Coefficient Of Performance
 COP is the measure of effectiveness or performance of refrigeration system.
 It is the ratio of desired refrigeration effect to work done to produce that refrigeration effect

 COP can be greater than 1

REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE

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Unlike the Carnot heat engine, the Carnot refrigeration cycle undergoes a process with opposite
direction. We see from the model, heat QL is absorbed from the low-temperature reservoir
(TL=constant) and heat QH is rejected to a high-temperature reservoir (TH=constant). In this case
a work input in the amount of W rev is required to achieve this process.

The reversed Carnot cycle also consists of two isentropic and two isothermal processes. The
process undergoes in direction 3-2-1-4-3

Process 3-2: Reversible Adiabatic Compression

This process is isentropic. The engine is perfect insulated so that no heat is lost and absorbed.

Gas is compressed slowly until the temperature rises from TL to TH.

Process 2-1: Reversible Isothermal Compression (TH=constant)

During this process, heat is rejected. Gas is compressed reversibly at the constant temperature
TH.

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Process 1-4: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion

This process is isentropic. The engine is perfect insulated so that no heat is lost and absorbed.

Gas expands slowly until the temperature drops from TH to TL.

Process 4-3: Reversible Isothermal Expansion (TL=constant)

During this process, heat is absorbed. Gas is compressed reversibly at the constant temperature
TH.

The coefficient of performance (COP) of any refrigerator or heat pump, reversible or

irreversible, can be calculated with the general expression:

Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

In this system, a liquid refrigerant is used which is alternately evaporates and condenses for
absorbing heat from the refrigerated space and for rejecting heat to the surroundings. During the
evaporation process, it absorbs heat from and gets converted from liquid to vapour. During the
condensing process, it rejects heat and gets condensed from vapour to liquid.

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Basic components of a VCR system

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 Compressor: Suck the low temperature refrigerant vapour from the evaporator and to
compress it to a high pressure and temperature
 Condenser: Condense the high pressure and temperature refrigerant vapour from the
compressor, by rejecting its latent heat to the cooling water at ambient temperature ( or
rejects heats to ambient air).
 Expansion valve (Throttle valve): Throttle the liquid refrigerant from the condenser. By
throttling, the pressure and temperature reduces and the refrigerant becomes partly liquid
and partly vapour at the required low temperature. It also regulates the flow of liquid
refrigerant to the evaporator
 Evaporator: To evaporate the liquid refrigerant by absorbing the latent heat of
vapourization from the cold refrigerated space.

Working Principle of VCR Systems

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It consists of four processes:

 1-2 Isentropic compression in a compressor

 2-3 Constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser
 3-4 Throttling in an expansion device(constant
enthalpy)
 4-1 Constant-pressure heat absorption in an
evaporator

Working Principle

 In vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1

as saturated vapour and is compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The
temperature of the refrigerant increases during this isentropic compression process to
well above the temperature of the surrounding medium.
 The refrigerant then enters the condenser as superheated vapour at state 2 and leaves as
saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat rejection to the surroundings. The temperature
of the refrigerant at this state is still above the temperature of the surroundings.
 The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by passing
it through an expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of the refrigerant drops
below the temperature of the refrigerated space during this process.
 The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a low-quality saturated mixture, and it
completely evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated space. The refrigerant leaves
the evaporator as saturated vapour and re-enters the compressor, completing the cycle
 The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the
evaporator, and the area under the process curve 2-3 represents the heat rejected in the
condenser.
AIR CONDITIONING
Air conditioning is the process of controlling and maintaining the internal atmosphere in a confined
space. It involves the control of temperature, humidity, motion of air and purity of atmosphere in
the space of interest
•Air temperature is controlled by cooling or heating the air.
•Humidity is controlled by adding or removing water vapour to or from the air.
•Air motion is controlled by appropriate air distribution equipment
•Air purity is controlled by filtering and removing undesirable contaminants from the air.
•For human comfort, air should have the following properties

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Psychrometry
Psychrometry is an engineering science that deals with the behaviour of moist air(dry air + water
vapour mixture)
•The amount of water vapour in air plays important role in both comfort and industrial air
conditioning.
1) Dry air: Air contains no water vapour.
2) Moist air: Mixture Of dry air and water vapour.
3) Saturated air: Air which contains maximum amount of water vapour which air can hold at a
given temperature and pressure.
4) Dry bulb temperature: Temperature of air measured by ordinary thermometer
5) Wet bulb temperature: Temperature Recorded by a thermometer, when its bulb is covered
by a wet cloth
6) Specific humidity: Ratio Of the mass of water vapour to the mass of dry air
7) Relative humidity: Ratio Of mass of water vapour in a given volume of moist air at a given
temperature to the mass of water vapour contained in the same volume of moist air at the same
temperature, when the air is saturated.
8) Dew point temp (DPT):- It is the temperature at which the water vapor in the moist air starts
condensation at constant pressure.

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1. Sensible Heating(C): Increase the dry bulb temperature of air without change in its specific
humidity (moisture content), using heating coil.
2. Sensible Cooling (G): Decreases dry bulb temperature of air without change in its specific
humidity (moisture content), using cooling coil.
3. Humidification (A): Increase the specific humidity without change in dry bulb temperature,
using humidifier.
4. Dehumidification (E): Decreases the specific humidity without change in dry bulb temperature,
using dehumidifier.
5. Heating with Humidification (B): Increases both dry bulb temperature and specific humidity of
air, using high temperature steam.
6. Heating with Dehumidification (D): Increases the dry bulb temperature and decreases the
specific humidity of air, using silica gel or alumina.
7. Cooling with Humidification (H): Decreases the dry bulb temperature and increases the
specific humidity of air, using cold water.
8. Cooling with Dehumidification (F): Decreases both dry bulb temperature and specific
humidity of air, using cooling coil with very low temperature.
Lay out of Unit and Central Air Conditioner
UNIT AIR CONDITIONER

CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING UNIT

The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings, hotels, theaters,
airports, shopping malls etc. are to be air conditioned completely.

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The main unit is located outdoors or in isolated area of a building.

Components
 Air handling unit(AHU)
 Supplying duct
 Return duct
 Diffusers/Registers
 Compressor
 Condenser
 Expansion device
 Evaporator
 Thermostat
Central AC system provides uniform distribution of conditioned air throughout the whole
building or space.

HYDRAULIC MACHINES

HYDRAULIC TURBINES:
Hydraulic turbines may be defined as prime movers that transform the kinetic energy of the falling
water into mechanical energy of rotation and whose primary function is to drive a electric
generator, Turbines convert hydraulic energy or hydro-potential into mechanical energy.
Mechanical energy developed by turbines is used to run electric generators coupled to the shaft
of turbines. Hydroelectric power is the cheapest source of power generation. Modern hydraulic
turbines have been developed by L.A. Pelton (Impulse), G. Coriolis and J.B. Francis (Reaction)
and V Kaplan (Propeller).
Classification of turbines

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Turbines can be classified on the basis of:
Head and quantity of water available
a) High head turbine: Head is more than 250m, low discharge, eg. Pelton turbine
b) Medium head turbine: 60m to 250m, medium discharge types, eg. Francis turbine
c) Low head turbine: Head will be below 60m, high discharge, eg. Kaplan turbine
Direction of flow of water in the runner
a) Tangential flow: Water strikes tangentially, eg.Pelton turbine
b) Radial flow: Water enters and leaves radially, eg. Francis turbine
c) Mixed flow: Water enters radially and leaves axially, eg. Modern Francis turbine
d) Axial flow: Water flows parallel to the axis of the turbine shaft, eg. Kaplan turbine
Action of water on moving blades
a) Impulse turbine: Water possess only kinetic energy at the inlet of the turbine, eg. Pelton turbine
b) Reaction turbine: Water possess both kinetic energy and pressure energy at the inlet, eg. Francis
and Kaplan turbine.

1. IMPULSE TURBINE – Pelton Wheel

A Pelton wheel is an impulse-type water turbine invented by Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s. The
Pelton wheel extracts energy from the impulse of moving water. Pelton Turbine is a Tangential
flow impulse turbine in which the pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy to form
high speed water jet and this jet strikes the wheel tangentially to make it rotate. It is also called as
Pelton Wheel. The energy available at the inlet of the Pelton turbine is only kinetic energy. The
pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric pressure.
Main Parts
1. Nozzle and Flow Regulating Arrangement (Spear)
Nozzle is used to increase the kinetic energy of the water that is going to strike the buckets or
vanes attached to the runner. The quantity of water that strikes the buckets is controlled by spear.
The spear is installed inside the nozzle and regulates the flow of water that is going to strike on
the vanes of the runner. The spear is a conical needle present in the nozzle. It is operated by a hand
wheel or automatically in an axial direction.
2. Runner and Buckets
Runner is a rotating part of the turbine. It is a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of
buckets evenly spaced are fixed. The buckets are made by two hemispherical bowl joined together.

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Each buckets have a wall in between two hemispherical bowl called splitter. The splitter splits the
jet of water striking the buckets into two equal parts and the jet of water comes out at the outer
edge of the bucket.
3. Casing:
The outer covering of the turbine is called casing. It prevents the splashing of the water and helps
to discharge the water to the trail race. It also acts as a safeguard in the case of any accident occurs.
Cast iron or fabricated steel plates are used to make the casing of the Pelton Turbine.
4. Breaking jet
When the jet of water is completely closed by pushing the spear in forward direction than the
amount of water striking the runner becomes zero. But still the runner keeps moving due to the
inertia of the runner. In order to stop the runner in the shortest possible time a small nozzle is
provided which directs the jet of water at the back of the vanes. This jet of water used to stop the
runner of the turbine is called breaking jet.
Working
The water stored at high head is made to flow through the penstock and reaches the nozzle of the
Pelton turbine. The nozzle increases the K.E. of the water and directs the water in the form of jet.
The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the buckets (vanes) of the runner. This made the runner to
rotate at very high speed.
The quantity of water striking the vanes or buckets is controlled by the spear present inside the
nozzle. The generator is attached to the shaft of the runner which converts the mechanical energy
(i.e. rotational energy) of the runner into electrical energy.
Application
Pelton turbine is used in the hydroelectric power plant where the water available at high head i.e.
150 m to 2000 m or even more. In hydroelectric power plant it is used to drive the generator
attached to it and the generator generates the mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical
energy.

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2. REACTION TURBINES
The functioning of reaction turbines differs from impulse turbines in two aspects.
1. In the impulse turbine the potential energy available is completely converted to kinetic energy
by the nozzles before the water enters the runner. The pressure in the runner is constant at
atmospheric level. In the case of reaction turbine the potential energy is partly converted to kinetic
energy in the stater guide blades. The remaining potential energy is gradually converted to kinetic
energy and absorbed by the runner. The pressure inside the runner varies along the flow.
2. In the impulse turbine only a few buckets are engaged by the jet at a time In the reaction
turbine as it is fully flowing all blades or vanes are engaged by water at all the time.
Reaction turbines are well suited for low and medium heads (300 m to below)
Francis Turbine:
Francis turbine is a radial inward flow turbine and is the most popularly used one in the medium
head range of 60 to 300 m. Francis turbine was first developed as a purely radial flow turbine by
James B. Francis, an American engineer in 1849. But the design has gradually changed into a
mixed flow turbine of today.
The main components are (i) The spiral casing (ii) Guide vanes (iii) Runner (iv) Draft tube and (v)
Governor mechanism. Most of the machines are of vertical shaft arrangement while some smaller
units are of horizontal shaft type.

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1. Spiral casing
It is a spiral casing, with uniformly decreasing cross- section area, along the circumference. Its
decreasing cross-section area makes sure that a uniform velocity of the water striking the runner
blades.
2. Stay vanes
Stay vanes and guide vanes guides the water to the runner blades. Stay vanes remain stationary at
their position and reduces the swirling of water due to radial flow, as it enters the runner blades.
3. Guide vanes
Water after passing through stay vanes, glides through guide vanes to enter the runner blades.
Guide vanes can change their angle thus can control the angle of attack of water to the runner
blades, making them work more efficiently. Moreover they also regulate the flow rate of water
into the runner blades thus controlling the power output of a turbine according to the load on the
turbine.
4. Runner blades
Design of the runner blades decides how well a turbine is going to perform. So runner blades of
mixed flow turbine can be divided into two parts, the upper part of the blades use the reaction force
of water flowing through it and the lower half is in the shape of a small bucket using the impulse
action of water flowing through it. These two forces together makes the runner to rotate.
5. Draft tube
Draft tube connects the runner exit to the tail race. Its cross-section area increases along its length,
as the water coming out of runner blades is at considerably low pressure, so its expanding cross-
section area help it to recover the pressure as it flows towards tail race.
Working of Francis Turbine
The water is allowed to enter the spiral casing of the turbine, which lead the water through the stay
vanes and guide vanes. The spiral case is kept in decreasing diameter so as to maintain the flow
pressure. The stay vanes being stationary at their place, removes the swirls from the water, which
are generated due to flow through spiral casing and tries it to make the flow of water more linear
to be deflected by adjustable guide vanes.
The angle of guide vanes decides the angle of attack of water at the runner blades thus make sure
the output of the turbine. The performance and efficiency of the turbine is dependent on the design
of the runner blades. In a Francis turbine, runner blades are divided into 2 parts. The lower half is
made in the shape of small bucket so that it uses the impulse action of water to rotate the turbine.

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The upper part of the blades use the reaction force of water flowing through it. Thus runner blades
make use of both pressure energy and kinetic energy of water and rotates the runner in most
efficient way. The water coming out of runner blades would lack both the kinetic energy and
pressure energy, so draft tube used to recover the pressure as it advances towards tail race.
Applications of Francis Turbine
 Francis turbine is the most widely used turbine in hydro-power plants to generate
electricity.
 Mixed flow turbine is also used in irrigation water pumping sets to pump water from
ground for irrigation.
 It is efficient over a wide range of water head and flow rate.
 It is most efficient hydro-turbine we have till date.

Fig. Francis Turbine

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KAPLAN TURBINE
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed
in 1913 by Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically adjusted propeller
blades with automatically adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow
and water level. The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the
working fluid changes pressure as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy.
Main Components of Kaplan Turbine
The main parts of Kaplan Turbine are,

1. Scroll Casing
It is a spiral type of casing that has decreasing cross section area. The water from the penstocks
enters the scroll casing and then moves to the guide vanes where the water turns through 90° and
flows axially through the runner.
2. Guide Vane Mechanism
It is the only controlling part of the whole turbine, which opens and closes depending upon the
demand of power requirement.
3. Runner Blades
The heart of the component in kaplan turbine are its runner blades, as it the rotating part which
helps in production of electricity. Its shaft is connected to the shaft of the generator.
4. Draft Tube
The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric
pressure. The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually
increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race. This tube of
increasing area is called Draft Tube.
Working Procedure of Kaplan Turbine
The water coming from the pen-stock is made to enter the scroll casing. The scroll casing is made
in the required shape that the flow pressure is not lost. The guide vanes direct the water to the
runner blades. The vanes are adjustable and can adjust itself according to the requirement of flow
rate. The water takes a 90 degree turn, so the direction of the water is axial to that of runner blades.

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The runner blades start to rotate as the water strikes due to reaction force of the water. The runner
blades has twist along its length in order to have always optimum angle of attack for all cross
section of blades to achieve greater efficiency.
From the runner blades, the water enters into the draft tube where its pressure energy and kinetic
energy decreases. Kinetic energy is gets converted into pressure energy results in increased
pressure of the water. The rotation of the turbine is used to rotate the shaft of generator for
electricity production.
Application of Kaplan Turbine
 Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production.
 It can work more efficiently at low water head and high flow rates as compared with other
types of turbines.
 It is smaller in size and easy to construct.
 The efficiency of Kaplan turbine is very high as compares with other hydraulic turbine.

HYDRAULIC PUMP
Pump: Pumps are hydraulic machines which convert the mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Pump is generally used for raising liquid from low level to high level
Classification
All pumps may be classified as either positive-displacement or rotodynamic. Most pumps used in
hydraulic systems are positive-displacement.

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•Positive displacement pump
–Reciprocating pump, gear pump
•Roto dynamic pump
–Centrifugal pump
RECIPROCATING PUMP
Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. It creates the lift and pressure by displacing
the liquid using a moving mechanical element called plunger (piston) inside a cylinder.
Main parts of a reciprocating pump
Components of reciprocating pumps:-
a) Piston or plunger: – a piston or plunger that reciprocates in a closely fitted cylinder.
b) Crank and Connecting rod: – crank and connecting rod mechanism operated by a power source.
Power source gives rotary motion to crank. With the help of connecting rod we translate
reciprocating motion to piston in the cylinder.
c) Suction pipe: – one end of suction pipe remains dip in the liquid and other end attached to the
inlet of the cylinder.
d) Delivery pipe: – one end of delivery pipe attached with delivery part and other end at discharge
point.
e) Suction and Delivery value: – suction and delivery values are provided at the suction end and
delivery end respectively. These values are non-return values.

WORKING OF RECIPROCATING PUMP

The working of reciprocating pump is as follows:
 When the power source is connected to crank, the crank will start rotating and connecting
rod also displaced along with crank.

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 The piston connected to the connecting rod will move in linear direction. If crank moves
outwards then the piston moves towards its right and create vacuum in the cylinder.
 This vacuum causes suction valve to open and liquid from the source is forcibly sucked by
the suction pipe into the cylinder.
 When the crank moves inwards or towards the cylinder, the piston will move towards its
left and compresses the liquid in the cylinder.
 Now, the pressure makes the delivery valve to open and liquid will discharge through
delivery pipe.
 When piston reaches its extreme left position whole liquid present in the cylinder is
delivered through delivery valve.
 Then again the crank rotate outwards and piston moves right to create suction and the whole
process is repeated.
Advantages of Reciprocating pump
 Gives high pressure at outlet.
 Gives high suction lift.
 Priming is not required in this pump.
 They are used for air also.
Disadvantages of Reciprocating pump:
 High wear and tear, so requires a lot maintenance.
 The flow is not uniform, so we have to fit a bottle at both ends.
 The flow is very less and cannot be used for high flow operations.
 More heavy and bulky in shape.
 Initial cost is much more in this pump

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: Centrifugal pump is a hydraulic machine which converts mechanical
energy into hydraulic energy (i.e. pressure energy) by the use of centrifugal force acting on the
fluid. The flow of liquid takes place in radial outward direction which is reverse of the inward
radial flow reaction turbine. It is used in different areas where fluid is needed to raise from low
level to high level.
Main Parts: The various main parts of a centrifugal pump are
1) Impeller
2) Casing
3) Suction pipe with a foot valve and strainer
4) Delivery pipe
1. Impeller
It is the rotating part of the pump. The impeller is mounted on a shaft and the shaft of impeller is
again connected with the shaft of an electric motor. It is rotated by the motor and consists of series
of backward curved blades.
2. Casing
It is an air tight passage which surrounds the impeller. The design of the casing is done in such a
way that it is capable of converting the kinetic energy of the water discharging from the outlet of
the impeller into pressure energy before it leaves the casing and enters into the delivery pipe.
Commonly three types of casing are used in centrifugal pump and these are 1) Volute casing 2)
Vortex Casing 3) Casing with Guide Blades
3. Suction Pipe with Foot Valve and Strainer

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A pipe whose one end is connected with the inlet of the impeller and the other end is dipped into
the sump of water is called suction pipe. The suction pipe consists of a foot valve and strainer at
its lower end. The foot valve is a one way valve that opens in the upward direction.
4. Delivery Pipe
It is a pipe whose one end is connected to the outlet of the pump and other end is connected to the
required height where water is to be delivered.
Working
 As the electric motor starts rotating, it also rotates the impeller.
 The rotation of the impeller creates suction at the suction pipe. Due to suction created the
water from the sump starts coming to the casing through the eye of the impeller.
 From the eye of the impeller, due to the centrifugal force acting on the water, the water
starts moving radially outward and towards the outer of casing.
 Since the impeller is rotating at high velocity it also rotates the water around it in the casing.
 The area of the casing increasing gradually in the direction of rotation, so the velocity of
the water keeps on decreasing and the pressure increases, at the outlet of the pump, the
pressure is maximum.
 Now form the outlet of the pump, the water goes to its desired location through delivery
pipe.

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Application
The centrifugal pump is used in almost every field to raise the liquid from low level to high
level. They are mostly used at home for filling water tanks, almost in every industry such as
chemical, automobile, marine, manufacturing, for irrigation etc.

Centrifugal pump vs Reciprocating pump

Department of Mechanical Engineering Prepared by Asst. Prof. Eldhose K Joy