KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND PRODUCTION
BACHELORS OF ENGINEERING IN MECHNICAL AND
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING.

TASK: PLASTICS COURSE WORK 2

LECTURER’S NAME: MR. ONEP SAMUEL

STUDENT’S NAME: MAYAMBALA JOHN

REGISTRATION NUMBER: 16 / U/ 6857/ EME/ PE

SUBMISSION DATE: 10 / NOV/ 2020

 1. Aware that the molecules of a polymer decreases as the temperature increases,
make a plot of the modulus of elasticity versus temperature. Comment on the slope
of the curve.

A GRAPH SHOWING MODULUS OF ELESTICITY AGAINST TEMPERATURE

Glass region: this is the region where the polymer behaves glassy. It is brittle and hard and has a
high modulus of elasticity at a low temperature. In this state, the polymer is highly crystalline
and this is what gives it the rigidity. As the temperature increases, the slope drops to the next
region as shown below.

Leathery region: the modulus of elasticity drops sharply with increase in temperature. In this
region the polymer behaves like a leathery material and loses the rigidity. The heat begins to
break the crystal and the polymer becomes more amorphous. This is the transition temperature
which is called the glass transition temperature where the polymer changes from glassy state to
leathery/rubbery state.
Rubber region: in this region, the modulus of elasticity stops to drop rapidly with increase in
temperature. It stabilizes and plateaus. The polymer now acts like a rubber and becomes very
elastic. The polymer can be stretched out.

Rubbery flow: in this region as the temperature increases the polymer begins to flow. The
modulus of elasticity once again begins to drop rapidly with increase in temperature. For
thermoplastic materials the modulus continues to decrease until the polymer flows like a liquid
but for thermosets, this the last region. When thermosets are heated past this point they begin to
decompose.

Viscous flow: in this region the polymer becomes viscous and flows like a liquid. Thermosets
cannot reach this temperature because they would have already decomposed. Here the modulus
of elasticity is low and at this point it’s the melting temperature.

Finally, the modulus of elasticity of the plastic polymer decreases with increase in temperature
and thermoplastics only continue to a flow state where as thermosets don’t go beyond the
rubbery region or else it will decompose. However, the glass transition temperature varies from
polymer to polymer.

2. Discuss the five major significances of glass transition temperature (Tg) in

engineering applications.

The temperature below which the polymer becomes hard, brittle and glassy and above which it is
softener and flexible (rubbery/leathery state) is known as glass transition temperature (Tg).

The glass transition is a property of only amorphous portion of a semi-crystalline solid. The
crystalline portion remains crystalline during the glass transition.

glassy state rubbery state visco fluid state

Tg Tm
(brittle plastic) (tough plastic) (polymer melts)

Many secondary forming processes are performed on plastics above their glass transition
temperature this is because at this stage the polymer is softer and malleable thus can be shaped
by an engineer to the required shape therefore it is critical that an engineer knows the glass
transition temperature.

Tg helps an engineer estimate the load carrying capacity of a polymer at a given temperature.
The polymer should have a glass transition temperature higher than the maximum temperature it
will be subjected to in its service life.

When a polymer is heated beyond Tg it passes from glassy state to rubbery state. Further heating much
above, causes melting of the polymer and it starts flowing. The temperature below which the polymer is
in rubbery state and above which it is a liquid is called melting temperature of the polymer, while the
temperature at which the polymer starts flowing is known as its Flow temperature. The significance of Tg
is as follows in engineering application;

i. Chemical cross – linking; Here the increase in cross linking decreases mobility which leads to
decrease in free volume and increase in Tg (glass transition temperature) thus glass transition
temperature is directly proportional to degree of cross links.
ii. Molecular structure; Insertion of bulky, inflexible side group increases glass transition
temperature of material due to decrease in mobility. Therefore, the glass transition is a great
factor in the molecular structure of a polymer.
iii. Plasticizers; The presence of plasticizers in a polymer decrease the glass transition temperature
of the polymer. Therefore, any further increase of plasticizers in the polymer will greatly affect
the Tg. Hence glass transition temperature is inversely proportional to plasticization
iv. Molecular weight; - In straight chain polymers, increase in molecular weight leads to decrease in
chain end concentration resulting in decreases of free volume at end group region and increase in
Tg hence molecular weight is directly proportional to glass transition temperature.
v. Polar groups; Presence of polar groups increases intermolecular forces; inter chain attraction and
cohesion leading to decrease in free volume resulting in increase in glass transition temperature.
Hence Tg is directly proportional to inter molecular forces.

3. Describe any five design considerations involved in replacing a metal beverage container
with one made of plastics.
Metal to plastic conversion is the process of taking parts that were initially made of metal and
reproducing or re-engineering them to be made out of plastic. Therefore, such a scenario of
replacing a metal beverage container with one made of plastic falls under metal to plastic
conversion. Because of this it is essential to understand your part and what your goal is for
considering plastic instead of metal. Thus, there is a good chance that as part of the evaluation
process we have to look at design changes by involving the basic plastic component design
considerations as described below to ensure quality of final product.

Radii. In design of an injection molded part, the part designer should avoid sharp corners. These
sharp corners act as stress risers or concentrators, reducing part strength and causing premature
failures. They may also affect plastic flow, producing parts with objectionable surface flow
patterns.

Ribs. The use of ribs is a practical way and economical means of increasing the structural
strength of a part. The part designer must consider adding ribs to the part by using guidelines that
govern adding ribs without causing sink marks or surface blemishes to your parts.
Bosses. They are used for locating, mounting and assembly purposes. The part designer must
consider boss design guidelines that must be followed to ensure highest quality in molded parts.
Too many times bosses are designed with thick wall sections that can affect the appearance of
the plastic part and the final product.

Draft. This is the degree of taper of a side wall or rib needed to allow plastic part to be removed
from the metal mold. Plastic parts must then be designed with a draft or taper in the direction of
mold movement to allow part ejection or removal from the mold. Without proper draft, plastic
parts may be difficult to remove from the mold.

Holes. Producing holes in molded parts are made by use of core pins that protrude into the mold
cavity. The holes can be either through holes or blind holes. It is a good rule for the part designer
to follow the design guidelines for both through and blind holes distinctively to achieve final
quality.
 4. Explain giving five reasons why plastic products fail during manufacture and in the
application.

Failure is a practical problem which implies that a product no longer fulfils its function. Often plastic
products fail during manufacture and also in their application. Current research establishes that plastic
products failure in different modes. Below are causes of failure and their reasons as to why.

 Poor processing. Research shows that even the best plastic designs with good material selection
can fail due to a disregard for sound processing procedures and guidelines provided by material
manufacturers. Therefore, if a poor process choice is employed, the products are more likely to
fail. Here are examples of common process that induce failure: Poor material drying, over heated
material, Improper use of additive / regrind, Poor weld lines / spider lines, Residual stress &
molecular orientation, Material contamination / inclusions, Poor material mixing, Development of
low or excessive crystallinity, under or over packing etc.

 Pitfall of technical plastic data sheet. The data is useful only for comparing the properties of
different plastics and screening tool for quality control guidelines. It is derived from ideal test
specimens processed and tested under ideal laboratory conditions. Therefore, Short-term plastic
data is not recommended and must never be used for engineering design or final material
selection or else the wrong data can misguide the process.

 Poor material selection or substitution. The problems posed by material selection are further
compounded by Poor standardization of test data and difficulty in comparing data on an equal
basis. Material selection is a challenge even for plastics experts due to the vast array of plastics
available. Therefore, in order to perform plastic material selection successfully the selector
should have a comprehensive understanding of many factors such as: plastic material
characteristics, specific material limitations and failure modes, consideration of application
requirements or else a wrong plastic material for use and will be the major root cause of failure.

 Part design errors. The designer and engineer should be aware of the diverse range of plastic
materials and properties to avoid errors in the design criteria which changes from material to
material as well as application to application. Some of the design errors include: Direct
substitution of traditional engineering materials such as metal, ceramic, wood with plastic,
reduced design safety factors due to cost pressures, Poor consideration of creep, creep rupture,
 stress relaxation and fatigue mechanisms. These errors if not critically avoided lead to poor
designs that result in product failure at a later stage.

5. Make a survey of the technical literature and describe how at least two types of pneumatic
tires, automatic hoses and garden hoses are manufactured.

Pneumatic Tires

There are two main types of tires, those made of metal and those made of rubber. Railroad cars,
which run on smooth steel rails, use iron or steel tires for low rolling resistance. The metal tire is
basically a flat hoop fitted tightly over the exterior of the wheel. Besides low rolling resistance,
its other attributes are strength, durability, and resistance to wear.

Free-moving vehicles such as automobiles, trucks, buses, bicycles, and airplanes need more
friction to turn, climb, accelerate, and brake, so these vehicles use rubber tires, which provide
both high friction and some cushioning ability. Rubber tires are of two types: (1) solid, or
cushion, tires, in which the rubber portion functions to carry the load, absorb shocks, and resist
cutting and abrasion; and (2) pneumatic tires, in which the load is carried and the shocks are
absorbed mainly by the compressed air that fills the tire. Pneumatic tires are now used for almost
all free-moving vehicles because of their greater cushioning ability and other advantages. Solid
rubber tires are now used only on industrial and farm carts and on military vehicles, applications
where tires are liable to be cut or pierced.

Solid Tires

Solid rubber tires were introduced in 1881 on the wheels of hansom cabs in London. They were
formerly used for many types of road vehicles, but they have now disappeared from highways
owing to legislation that discouraged their use because they were hard on roads. The large sizes
were supplanted by large pneumatic tires (truck and bus casings), but small solid tires came to be
used extensively on industrial trucks and tractors and on carts. Solid tires are often adhered
directly to the wheel or to a metal band applied to the periphery of the wheel.
Pneumatic Tires
The pneumatic tire is designed to provide a flexible cover with an impermeable lining to contain
and restrain the compressed air. This cover is provided with a rubber tread portion that is
designed to withstand the cutting and abrasive wear of road contact and to protect the tire against
puncture and loss of air. Such a structure has, as distinct from a solid rubber or cushion tire, no
capacity in itself either to carry load or absorb shocks. It is entirely dependent on the contained
compressed air to enable it to function.

Figure 1 Three types of pneumatic tires

pneumatic tires

Pneumatic tires are designed to meet five main goals: low rolling resistance, low vertical
stiffness (to cushion the ride), high sliding friction in both wet and dry conditions, high
longitudinal and lateral stiffness (to minimize sliding motions in the “contact patch” where the
tread meets the road), and resistance to wear and damage such as cutting, puncturing, and
abrasion. In order to achieve these goals, tire designers must choose appropriate combinations of
materials and structures, such as those described below.

Tire Materials
A pneumatic tire is reinforced by layers of relatively inextensible cords that hold the air pressure
and restrict deformation and growth of the tire during use. To this end cord materials must have
high stiffness, resistance to repeated flexing, high strength-to-weight ratio, and good adhesion to
rubber. Tire cords have been made of cotton, rayon, nylon, polyester, and glass, but steel and
polyaramid (an extremely hard and stiff synthetic fibre) are currently the dominant materials in
use.
Various rubber compounds are used in different parts of the tire. The liner, which is intended to
minimize the loss of air, is usually made of butyl rubber because that material has a low
permeability to gas. Sidewalls, on the other hand, must resist scraping, flexing, and attack by
ozone in the air. A typical formulation for sidewalls (measured in parts by weight of each
ingredient) would be 50 parts natural rubber (for resistance to heat buildup), 50 parts butadiene
rubber (for abrasion resistance), and 50 parts carbon black (for reinforcement), along with small
amounts of processing oil, antioxidant, and protective wax. A tire’s treads must be especially
resistant to abrasion. A tread compound might have no natural rubber at all but rather 65
parts styrene-butadiene rubber (for hardness and abrasion resistance), 35 parts butadiene rubber,
and as much as 65 parts carbon black.

The addition of carbon black or silica as reinforcing agents in rubber compounds has greatly
prolonged tire life. Also contributing to longevity are the abrasion-resistant polymer
polybutadiene and improved vulcanization systems. (Vulcanization is the interlinking of rubber
molecules in order to create a usable elastic solid. It is conducted by heating the rubber mix
along with sulfur and various additives in a tire mold for about 20 minutes at a temperature of
approximately 300° F, or 150° C.) These advances, together with the almost universal adoption
of radial-ply construction (described below), have extended the life expectancy of some tires to
more than 90,000 miles (150,000 km). Still, it must be emphasized that the formulation of rubber
mixes for tires is more an art than a science. For instance, why a tread recipe based on butadiene
rubber will have greater abrasion resistance than one based on natural rubber or styrene-
butadiene rubber is not known.

Pneumatic Tire Structures

The most important feature of tire design is the ply, i.e., the way in which the layers of
reinforcing cords in the inner carcass are laid, or arranged. The three main types of arrangements
are the bias-ply, the bias-ply belted, and the radial-ply belted. As shown in the illustration, the
cords in a bias-ply tire are laid at a “crown” angle of about 50 degrees to the axis of the tire tube,
and the cords in successive plies (two or four) cross one another—an arrangement that serves to
equalize cord tensions. In a bias-ply belted tire, another set of cords overlies the bias-laid ones.
This extra set of cords, called a belt, is typically made of fibreglass. A radial-ply belted tire also
has a belt running around the entire tire, but the cords are typically made of steel wire-mesh,
hence the term “steel-belted radial” tire.

Belted bias-ply tires have a longer tread life and provide better gasoline mileage than
conventional bias-ply tires. They also have better resistance to blowouts and reduce stopping
distance in braking. Belted tires supplanted conventional bias-ply tires in the United States in the
1960s and ’70s. Meanwhile, though, radial-ply tires had already become standard equipment in
Europe.

In the radial structure, layers of cords are arranged to lie almost perpendicular to the axis of the
tire tube. Because the tire is actually a toroid (a circular tube) rather than a straight cylinder, the
ply cords actually lie approximately 11 degrees off the perpendicular. This arrangement
maximizes the tension across the width of the tire for a given air pressure, and hence gives
greater resistance to lateral distortion of the tire on cornering. Radial tires provide better steering
characteristics and less rolling resistance than bias-ply tires, tend to run cooler, are safer in bad
weather, and are said to give considerably more mileage. They are more expensive than bias-ply
tires and have a slightly hard riding quality. Radial tires are now the most widely used type of
tire. Bias-ply tires are still widely used in Third World countries, and they are also used for
aircraft because they are less susceptible to damage by severe overloads.

Automatic Hoses

The automatic hose is a hose that has a hose guide. The guide is a tool that guarantees the correct
arrangement of the hose on the drum, avoiding the disorderly rewinding. The tool has been
designed to move independently during the re-entry of the hose. The guide can be spring
retractable, manual rewind and motor driven.

Automatic hose reels are manufactured to meet requirements for a variety of applications.
Smaller versions are able to house smaller diameter and lighter hosing such as automatic water
hoses for gardens while larger versions such as fire hose reels are used for fire department and
construction hoses.
There are certain automatic hose reels that are utilized solely for transportation and others that
are used for transportation and storage. Some automatic hose reels allow the use of the hose
while it is still wound up, referred to as live connection hose reels. Overall, automatic hose reels
provide easy access and storing efficiency, which is the main draw for consumers.

As revolvable drum-shaped devices designed for hoses to wrap around, automatic hose reels are
designed for convenient, automated winding and unwinding in indoor or outdoor facilities as
well as on the back of vehicles. Automatic hose reels offer three main retraction methods:
electric, hydraulic and pneumatic rewinding, which have motors that drive the reel's rewinding;
and spring rewinding, with an internal spring that rewinds the reel.

There are also two main types of automatic reel designs: open design and closed, or cage, design.
Open design automatic hose reels leave the hose uncovered, which provides little protection. In
closed design automatic hose reels the reel is covered by an outer structure. This outer structure
is typically constructed from metal or plastic and referred to as a cage or box.

The cage protects the hose from atmospheric threats such as sun, fumes or chemicals. However,
both automatic hose reel designs are durable and will often last a lifetime. In addition, many
automatic hose reels come with a latching mechanism that assures positive extension stop and
easy retraction at any length.

Garden Hoses
A garden hose is simply a flexible tube used to convey water. There are a number of common
attachments available for the end of the hose, such as sprayers and sprinklers (which are used to
concentrate water at one point or to spread it over a large area). Hoses are usually attached to a
hose spigot or tap. These hoses are usually made from vinyl, rubber or polyurethane.
Vinyl hose

Vinyl Tubing is a kind of non-reinforced PVC hose, also called single clear hose.

It is made from excellent quality pure PVC compound after extrusion. They are used for piping
at factories, sprinkling water for farmlands and gardening. They are available from small to
large, variety of sizes are available to fit your usage.

Rubber hose
Rubber hose is widely used in conveying systems for both pipeline and bends and in systems
where a degree of natural flexibility is required. Its particular properties also make it ideal for use
in systems where the material being conveyed may be friable, abrasive, or cohesive. Its natural
flexibility makes it ideal for use in vacuum off-loading applications, mobile conveying systems,
and for joining pipeline sections in situations where standard pipeline bends will not match the
geometry required. Rubber hose has the capability of withstanding erosive wear better than steel
pipeline in certain situations. Although the hardness of the surface material is generally much
lower than that of alternative metal surfaces, and of the particles impacting against the surface, it
derives its erosive wear resistance from the fact that it is able to absorb much of the energy of
impact by virtue of its resilience. By the same mechanism, the impact energy of friable materials
can also be absorbed and so particle degradation may also be reduced appreciably.
 KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING AND PRODUCTION

TASK: PLASTICS COURSE WORK 2

LECTURER: MR. ONEP SAMUEL

 1. How can polymers be made to conduct electricity? Explain.

Polymers which conduct electricity are referred to as conductive polymers. To be able to conduct
electricity, they have to be conjugated. Conjugation means that the polymer is the stringing of
the chain of carbon atoms around a single and multiple bond this makes the structure of the
material comparable to that of silicon. However, the conductivity of the polymers is low.

The conductivity of polymers can be increased by a process known as Doping.

When the polyacetylene films are exposed to vapors of electro accepting compounds (p-type
dopants), the electrical conductivity of the material increases by orders of magnitude over the
undoped material. P-dopants include Bromine (Br2), Iodine (I2) and Chlorine (Cl2). Bromine
captures some of the electrons leaving room for positive charges which allow the electric current
to circulate such that gaps are created which can travel along the polymer chain, thus becomes an
electrical conductor.

Electron-donating (n-type) dopants can also be used to create conductive polyacetylene. n-type
dopants for polyacetylene include lithium, sodium and potassium. Applications are in lighting in
screens. Moisture absorption: it can be applied in capacitors rechargeable batteries, thermo
actuating motors, radar dishes, and micro electric devices

Doping is performed at much higher levels (20–40%) in conducting polymers than in

semiconductors (<1%).

2. Explain how you would go about determining the hardness of plastics.

Hardness is the material’s resistance to permanent indentation. Hardness of plastics can be

determined by three ways i.e. Rockwell test, Brinell test and vicker’s diamond test. In case of
Rockwell test, the specimen of at least 6.35mm thickness is indented by a hard steel ball.
First a small preload is applied, and the apparatus is zeroed then a larger load is applied and
removed. After short while a preload still applied, the remaining indentation is read from the
scale. In case of a shore durometer hardness a spring-loaded needle is placed against the sample
and pressure is applied, the needle penetrated the material and the depth of indentation is
measured.

A test of hardness on plastics refers to conducting tests on the properties of plastics material.
Raw plastics has many different shapes and types and the test is dependent on the form of plastic
that you want to test. Molded parts and plastic sheets are commonly used for the hardness test.

Procedure
 An external force is applied on the plastic to check its resistance.
 Using an indenter the force is applied at the center of the sample material.
 The indenter is pushed into the plastic in a certain motion with the specific force until the
presser touches the plastic.
 The depth of the indenter into the sample material is then measured. That is the depth to
which it has penetrated into the plastic.
 The level of resistance of the plastic is calculated.
 If the indenter deeply penetrated in the plastic sample then it is termed as a soft plastic. If
the indenter fails to penetrate the sample, it’s termed an extremely hard plastic.
 Hardness level is determined by measuring the indenter depth.
 However, a failed test can arise due to too much load than the required tests.

3. Discuss the significance of glass transition temperature in engineering

application.

When a polymer is heated beyond Tg it passes from glassy state to rubbery state. Further heating much
above, causes melting of the polymer and it starts flowing. The temperature below which the polymer is
in rubbery state and above which it is a liquid is called melting temperature of the polymer, while the
temperature at which the polymer starts flowing is known as its Flow temperature. The significance of Tg
is as follows in engineering application;

i. Molecular weight; - In straight chain polymers, increase in molecular weight leads to decrease in
chain end concentration resulting in decreases of free volume at end group region and increase in
Tg hence molecular weight is directly proportional to glass transition temperature.
ii. Chemical cross – linking; Here the increase in cross linking decreases mobility which leads to
decrease in free volume and increase in Tg (glass transition temperature) thus glass transition
temperature is directly proportional to degree of cross links.
iii. Molecular structure; Insertion of bulky, inflexible side group increases glass transition
temperature of material due to decrease in mobility. Therefore, the glass transition is a great
factor in the molecular structure of a polymer.
iv. Polar groups; Presence of polar groups increases intermolecular forces; inter chain attraction and
cohesion leading to decrease in free volume resulting in increase in glass transition temperature.
Hence Tg is directly proportional to inter molecular forces.
v. Plasticizers; The presence of plasticizers in a polymer decrease the glass transition temperature
of the polymer. Therefore, any further increase of plasticizers in the polymer will greatly affect
the Tg. Hence glass transition temperature is inversely proportional to plasticization

4. Discuss the health hazards associated with the use of plastics.

Due to increased concern and use of plastics, some of chemicals used are hazardous.

Plastics deteriorates human health, toxic chemicals leach out of the plastic and are found in the
blood and tissue of nearly all humans which leads to cancers, birth defects.
Plastics spoils ground water as toxic chemicals drain out sip into ground water from the landfills.
When wildlife gets entangled with plastics, they eat it mistakenly for food and this leads to death.
Plastics poisons the food chain for example plankton consumes micro plastics absorbing their
hazardous chemicals.
Tetrafluoro-Ethelyn Can irritate eyes, nose and throat and can cause breathing difficulties
Acrylic can cause breathing difficulties, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, weakness, headache and
fatigue
Polyurethane Foam can release toluene diisocyanate which can produce severe lung problems
Urea-Formaldehyde is a suspected carcinogen and has been shown to cause of birth defects and
genetic changes. Inhaling formaldehyde can cause swelling of the throat, watery eyes, breathing
problems, headaches, rashes, tiredness
Finally, the chemical of great concern is BSA (Bisphol - A) which is the chemical used for many
water bottles.