CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION “

1
1.1. INTRODUCTION

Braking is a process in which a mechanical or electrical device inhibits motion. It is

often necessary to brake the motor rapidly and smoothly according to a given speed
schedule. Braking torque may be applied by electrical or mechanical methods or
combination of both. The speed and accuracy of stopping operations improves the
productivity of a system and reliability of the product. While operating electrical
drives, it is often necessary to stop the motor quickly. For both these processes, a
retarding torque is required, which may be supplied mechanically or electrically. In
mechanical process, the braking action is performed by the frictional force between
the rotating parts and brake pads. On the other hand, in electrical braking, a braking
torque which opposes the motion of a rotating member is developed during braking
operation. Electrical methods are more precise than mechanical methods, when
accurate and smooth control of the stopping instant is possible. Braking torque is also
needed over some parts of the duty cycle and for emergency braking in respect of
some applications such as cranes. Reversal and speed control of drives may also be
undertaken by means of electric braking. The kinetic energy of the rotating parts gets
converted into electrical energy in case of electric braking.

1.2. TYPES OF BRAKING

Braking in ac systems: The methods of braking employed in an induction motor

drive can be classified into:

a) Regenerative braking

b) Plugging or reverse current braking

c) Dynamic or DC Rheostat braking.

a) Regenerative braking: If the rotor speed becomes greater than the synchronous
speed, the relative speed between the rotor conductors and air gap rotating field
reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf, rotor current and component of the
stator current which balances the rotor ampere turns. Consequently, the phase angle

2
between the stator phase voltage and stator phase current becomes greater than 90
degrees. Thus power flow reverses, resulting in regenerative braking.

b)Plugging or reverse voltage braking: When phase sequence of the supply of the
motor running at a speed is reversed by interchanging the connections of any two
phases of stator with respect to supply terminals, operation shifts from motoring to
plugging. Reversal of phase sequence reverses the direction of rotating field.

c)Dynamic or rheostat braking: It is obtained when the motor is run on a single

phase supply by disconnecting one phase from the source or leaving it open or
connecting it with another machine phase. When connected to a 1-phase supply the
motor can be considered to be fed by positive and negative sequence three- phase set
of voltages. Net torque produced by the machine is the sum of torques due to top
positive and negative sequence voltages. When rotor has a high resistance, the net
torque is negative and braking operation is obtained

Braking in dc systems: The braking in DC systems are again classified into three
categories:

(a) Regenerative braking

(b) Dynamic or rheostat braking,

(c) Plugging or Reverse voltage braking

a) Regenerative braking:

DC shunt motor: Regenerative braking is possible when an adjustable speed motor (a

motor which operates at rated condition with a weak field current) is used. Before
bringing the motor to rest the field excitation is increased to the permissible maximum
value due to which the speed of the motor falls to a minimum value and the KE
released from the rotor is fed back to supply.

DC series motor: Current and flux both increase with speed in dc series motor.
Therefore it is not possible to get e.m.f greater than terminal voltage by this means.
Also there is no way possible to make the field current greater than armature current
in simple series motor. Hence regeneration is not practicable in DC series motor.
3
b) Dynamic braking:

DC shunt motor: The retarding torque varies linearly with speed in case of DC shunt
motors. The motor characteristics slope depends upon the total resistance of the
armature circuit. Braking torque here can be obtained at very low speed.

DC series motor: In case of DC series motor, the interconnection of the armature

winding and the field winding is to be taken into account to ensure that the direction
of current in the field remains unchanged in spite of the change in current in the
armature winding. Only then, the self-excitation of series generator will take place.

c) Plugging or reverse current braking:

DC shunt motor: In plugging of DC shunt motor, the motor is reconnected to the line
with reverse polarity. The motor now produces a torque opposite to that of rotation.
Therefore, reverse current braking is employed to get either a quick reversal or a rapid
stop. In order to stop the motor, it is necessary to employ some means to disconnect
the motor from the supply at the time when it passes through zero speed.

DC series motor: Different constant torque loads acting on the motor develop various
magnitudes of plugging. Plugging torques varies significantly with changes in load
torque; i.e. with changes in motor speed before plugging.

1.3 BRAKING IN ELECTRIC VEHICLE

Braking Systems in electric vehicles can be of different types. For example,

conventional friction brakes are used in some vehicles. In those systems, continuous
4
braking is applied which in turn produces the necessary friction to stop the wheels
from rotating and thereby slowing down the vehicle. In conventional braking systems,
a considerable amount of energy is wasted as the braking pads get heated up. Another
type of brake system is the Anti-Lock Brake System. Here, continuous braking is not
applied, but a non-continuous braking pattern is employed which slows down or stops
the vehicle when needed. This system is more efficient than the conventional braking
system and indeed gives superior performance. Here, we can cite one more type of
efficient braking system, which is called the regenerative braking system. An electric
motor is used in regenerative braking system. When the driver applies the brake pedal
in an electric vehicle, the mechanism then tends to drive the motor in the reverse
directing by producing a torque in the opposite direction and thus slows down the
vehicle. During braking the motor works as a generator giving back energy to the
battery and slowing down the vehicle at the same time. Any other circuit can also be
used to divert the motor current during braking so that the vehicle slows down. Such
types of systems also recharge the battery and help in braking. But regenerative
braking systems cannot be used solely because it only causes the vehicle to slow down
and does not completely stop the vehicle. Therefore, such systems are used in
conjunction with conventional friction brakes or Anti-Lock Braking System.

1.4 ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM

In electric vehicles, the batteries carry the power in the form of electrical energy. The
amount of energy stored by it decides the range of vehicle. The batteries state of
charge(SOC) is the amount of charge stored by the storage system. The batteries in
electric vehicles are defined by their energy density, moderately high power to weight
ratio and energy to weight ratio. The graph in Fig. shows the comparative study of
various batteries on specific energy density and volumetric energy density parameters.

5
 Fig 1.1. Comparision of different batteries

The Lithium-ion battery is has lighter weight and smaller size with highest specific
energy density Mostly lead acid battery are used because of their price and reliability.
The battery should not be charged above its SOC, If so, it will degrade its
performance. But lead acid batteries can sustain voltage above rated without
performance degradation.

Energy Recovery Mechanism

Energy recovery process is the extraction of kinetic energy from the wheels of vehicle.
This energy gets wasted during conventional braking. The regenerative braking is
using this wasted energy to convert into useful electrical energy and store in batteries.
This in turn helps in extending the range of the vehicle. The kinetic energy contained

1 2
in the vehicle is given by, K . E .= M V Where,
2

m is mass of the vehicle and

v is the speed with which vehicle is moving.

The amount of energy extracted is maximum when the speed is above rated, during
coasting condition or on down slope region. At this condition, the battery voltage may
reach above rated value any may harm the battery, So, to limit battery SOC some
provision ha to be made to dissipate excess energy when battery gets fully charged.
6
For this, one resistance is connected across dc link, in which excess energy gets
wasted as heat. As the speed of engine increases, the losses also increases. The engine
losses can be reduced by maintaining lower speed, thus increasing tractive torque and
allowing the vehicle to keep on moving for longer duration while coasting. The fuel
efficiency can be increased, by increasing the coasting time more often when
travelling downhill.

1.5 RESEARCH MOTIVATION

The limitations which motivated the researchers to go further into this topic are
described below.

An electric vehicle is an ideal alternative to the IC engine vehicles (run on

petrol/diesel). As the consumption of fossil fuels is increasing at a prominent rate, so
alternative sources of energy have to be utilized to maintain a balance and at the same
time, reducing the effect of using these fossil fuels on the environment. In this
scenario, an electric vehicle can provide many benefits as they are environment-
friendly and to maximize the benefit, the electric vehicle should have the latest
braking system installed as braking is a crucial element to every vehicle. Regenerative
braking systems provide the energy efficiency to an electric vehicle and at the same
time make the vehicle safer and easier to handle. Thus, it should be implemented in
the vehicles. If such a braking system is incorporated in an electric vehicle, then this
will not only increase the sale of electric vehicles but at the same time, will reduce the
pollution rate. As the country is facing major problems with increasing pollution due
to the plethora of vehicles in the major cities, increase in the use of electric vehicles
will be beneficial to the society and to the environment.

1.6.RESEARCH OBJECTIVE

i. The creation of a better system to extract more energy while reducing the
braking time

ii. To find a improved hybrid energy storage system.

7
1.7. THESIS ORGANISATION

Chapter 2 deals with the Literature review. It also includes the summary derived from
the papers reviewed.

Chapter 3 deals with Brushless DC motors, its construction and working.Its

advantages ,disadvantages and applications are also discussed.

Chapter 4 deals with The regenerative braking,the working behind it and the various
merits and demerits associated with it.

Chapter 5 deals with simulation and the results.

Chapter 6 deals with the conclusion of the report.

8
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

9
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW “

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Electric Vehicles are really becoming the need of the hour, since the atmospheric
pollution caused by the conventional Internal Combustion (IC) engine vehicles is
alarming. The use of Electric Vehicles (EV’s) has increased a fresh. Most EV’s are
driven by energy accumulated in a battery. To use the battery’s energy productively is
a prime challenge in EV’s. The batteries have some shortcomings, such as limited life-
cycle, limited power density as well as high cost. The Electric double layer capacitors,
known as supercapacitors, are high capacitance capacitors that offer many outstanding
features such as high power density, long life-cycle, and wide operating temperature
range. Even though the supercapacitor has many benefits, it cannot be used as the
main Energy Storage System (ESS) since its energy density is relatively low.
Brushless dc (BLDC) motors have many merits over brushed dc motors and induction
motors, such as simple structure, high efficiency, high dynamic response, higher speed
range, large starting torque, noiseless operation, etc. Thus, BLDC motors find its
application in EV’s. The energy wasted during braking in traditional vehicles with IC
engines can be harvested effectively with help of regenerative braking in EV’s.
Regenerative braking is the process of feeding energy from the motor drive back into
the battery during the braking process, when the vehicle’s inertia forces the motor into
generator mode. But mechanical brake also will be present in vehicle, since in all the
conditions regenerative braking may not be possible, i.e; if brake is applied when
battery is fully charged regenerative braking cannot be accomplished.

2.2. LITERATURE REVIEW

In [5], the paper discusses the regenerative braking system of an electric vehicle and
the operation is performed with the help of a Brushless DC motor. Various types of
motor drives have been studied and it has been found out that BLDC motor is the most
suitable for regenerative braking. The PID control has been adopted as it has been
found that it has a fine transition between mechanical and electrical braking.PID
control is used to implement PWM technique to the inverter to maintain the constant
braking torque.
10
In [7], the author explained the theory behind regenerative braking. Analysis is done
on an experimental setup and the hypothesis is confirmed. According to the
experimental analysis the maximum current absorbed by the capacitor doesn’t exceed
a certain limit dependent on the super capacitor’s voltage, internal resistances of the
system and the motor’s speed. By varying the duty cycle the effect of it is also studied
to find the most efficient duty cycle to get the best efficiency in harvesting the
regenerated energy.

In reference [8], it is found that regenerative braking is one of the important systems
in electric vehicle since it has the ability to save the energy which will be otherwise
wasted up to 8-25%. This amount of saved energy can be use to extend the mileage of
the vehicle or can be used to power up the accessories in the car.The regenerative
braking system has been improved by the advanced power electronic component such
as ultra capacitor, DC-DC converter (Buck-Boost) and flywheel. The ultra capacitor
helps in improving the transient state of the car during starting, provide a smoother
charging characteristic for the battery and boost up the overall performance of the
electric vehicle system. The Buck-Boost converter helps maintaining the power
management in the regenerative braking system such as boosting the acceleration.The
flywheel is used to enhance the power recovery process thru the wheel of the car.

In reference[10],the author discusses the charging and discharging characteristics of a

duplex storage system of lead-acid batteries in parallel with ultra capacitors is studied.
The simplified equivalent circuit and the energy flow model is set up, the simulating
analyse is carried out, and then it is subjected to a verification test. Test results
showed that the lowest energy reclaiming rate is that of the battery and then followed
by the ultracapacitor, for the capacity of the capacitor which designed for the duplex
storage can not store the braking energy of one cycle,the reclaiming rate of duplex
storage is the highest one.

11
References [12-13] summarizes how the regenerative braking technique employed for
electric vehicle helps in improving the efficiency and driving range.The use of
advance power electronics helps in improving the efficiency of conversion.The system
can be improved by using flywheel and ultracapacitor. The regenerative braking
improves the driving range by 16.25%.The voltage also needs to be boosted when
back emf is not sufficient to provide reverse current to battery, especially at lower
speeds. Implementation of advance control algorithms like fuzzy logic improves the
energy savings in electric vehicle.

In reference[15] the author has implemented regenerative braking system for electric
vehicles. The combination of fuzzy control and PID controller is used in this and the
system is implemented in MATLAB simulink and same drive circuit is implemented
on hardware. The combination of fuzzy control and PID control ensures the
regenerative braking which can distribute electrical and mechanical braking force
dynamically. PID control in electric vehicles is more popular for control of car but it
is observed that it becomes very difficult to achieve braking parameters as there is
influence of many parameters like speed, Brake strength and SOC. While
implementing this paper author has chosen all three parameters for analysis.The
author has found that using regenerative braking system with fuzzy can obtain brake
current which is used for producing a brake torque. At the same instant application of
PID control for adjusting BLDC motor PWM duty to get constant brake torque.PID is
found out to be faster in comparision to fuzzy logic.These two methods are used in
combination to obtain the desired regenerative and mechanical braking combination.

In reference[19], the author proposes a new RBS based on utilization of HESS is

proposed for EVs driven by BLDC motor. During regenerative braking and/or energy
regeneration, the kinetic energy of the vehicle is harvested by the supercapacitor using
the appropriate switching template of the inverter. Hence, the need for additional
power electronics interfaces is eliminated. Meanwhile, the MLP-ANN controller is
utilized to control the braking force distribution between rear and front wheels of the
EV.The PI controller is used to control the duty-cycle of the PWM in the inverter to
realize constant torque braking. In comparison with other similar types of the
12
regenerative braking schemes, the proposed method has the advantages of being
simple and high efficient. Simulation is done on WVU 5 peak drive cycle and is found
that in comparision with regenerative braking with ESS,the efficiency of regeneration
is improved by 20% .The range of the vehicle is increased by 5 cycles.

In reference[21],The simulation and experimentation result illustrates the feasibility

and accuracy of low pass filter design methods mentioned. The dynamic response of
designed RC low pass filter is similar to DC-link transmission line, so it can be used
to obtain dc link current which back to the battery pack precisely. Using both armature
current which reconstructed from current sensor and DC-link current as two cascading
closed loop feedback is possible. Therefore a more efficient and cost efficient
regenerative braking control system can be implemented.

In reference[22], deals with the RBS of EVs which are driven by the BLDC motor.
The performance of the EVs’ regenerative brake system has been realized by the
control scheme which has been implemented both in the simulation and in the
experiments. By combining fuzzy control and PID control methods which are both
complex methods, RBS can distribute the mechanical braking force and electrical
braking force dynamically. PID control is a very popular method in electric car
control, but it is difficult to obtain a precise brake current.Braking force is affected by
many influences such as SOC, speed, brake strength, and so on. In this paper, the
author has chosen the three most important factors: SOC, speed, and brake strength as
the fuzzy control input variables. It has been found that RBS can obtain appropriate
brake current, which is used to produce brake torque. At the same time, the adopted
PID control to adjust the BLDC motor PWM duty to obtain the constant brake torque.
PID control is faster than fuzzy control, so the two methods combined together can
realize the smooth transitions.

In reference[24], The author simulates for the prototype of Regenerative Braking

System of an EV with supercapacitor-battery energy storage system in MATLAB
Simulink. Regenerative Braking helps to increase the milage by exploiting the
13
generator operation of motor and boost operation of motor driver inverter. In order to
attain smooth braking, Fuzzy logic controller is used for braking force distribution. PI
controller is used for controlling the braking current. The power of the motor used
here is 60W and nearly one-third of power is obtained back during regeneration.

In reference[27], The proposed RBS configuration employs Dual Stator-Dual Rotor

BLDC motor. The Dual Stator-Dual Rotor motor is employed with two stators and
two rotors in the same housing and both stators can be operated independently with
different speeds. Simulation is carried out to arrive at important performance indices
like depth of discharge of battery and range of vehicle. The results show that there is
an increment of 75% in the range of the vehicle with proposed configuration
compared to conventional. The proposed configuration of RBS shows that it can be
used in electric vehicles to increase the energy efficiency, thus increasing their
mileage.

2.3. SUMMARY OF LITERATURE REVIEW

Upon reviewing various papers, it was found that there are some problems related
with the efficient storage and utilization of the energy recovered from regenerative
braking. Implementation of super capacitors and hybrid energy storage system
somewhat mitigate the problem but a lot more is desired.

Also the various properties of a good regenerative system was discussed which are as
follows

1. Efficient energy conversion.

2. Energy storage with a high capacity per unit weight and volume.

3. Power rating should be high allowing large amount of energy to pass through in a
short duration of time.
14
4. Smooth delivery of power from the regenerative system.

5. The absorption and storage of energy during braking should be in direct proportion
to the braking operation and the delay and the losses should be at least over a wide
range of speed and torque.

Also various types of motor are discussed and studied out of which it was found that
brushless DC motor is the best when it comes to regenerative braking.BLDC motor
has the advantages over other motor as follows:

1.Higher efficiency

2.Heat rejection is easier.

3. The motor has a constant torque up to base speed and power is constant up to the
maximum speed.

4. BLDC motors are used for low power applications.Regenerative braking comes
easier when bldc motor is used.

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15
 CHAPTER 3

BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR(BLDC)

16
 3. BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR
“

3.1. INTRODUCTION

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous motor
manufacturers as these motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many
applications, especially in the field of motor control technology. BLDC motors are
superior to brushed DC motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at high
speeds, high efficiency, and better heat dissipation.

They are an indispensable part of modern drive technology, most commonly

employed for actuating drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics,electric
vehicles, computer peripherals and also for electrical power generation. With the
development of sensorless technology besides digital control, these motors become so
effective in terms of total system cost, size and reliability.

3.2. WHAT IS A BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric

motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes
electronically controlled commutation system (commutation is the process of
producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents through it at
appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are
also referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.

Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the
mechanical contact with commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path
between a DC electric source and rotor armature windings, BLDC motor employs
electrical commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a sequence of
coils. In this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying
conductors are fixed.
17
The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled
rectifiers at the correct rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space
quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the force acting on the rotor causes it to
rotate. Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to sense the position
of the rotor and are positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the
sensor helps to determine when to switch the armature current.

This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and

brushes in a DC motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved.
Due to the absence of brushes BLDC motors are capable to run at high speeds. The
efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent, whereas as brushed type DC
motors are 75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC motors
available ranging from small power range to fractional horsepower, integral
horsepower and large power ranges.

3.3. CONSTRUCTION

BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on

the stator windings, these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-
phase motors. However, three-phase BLDC motors with permanent magnet rotor are
most commonly used.

18
 Fig 3.1.Construction of a bldc motor

The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as
well as conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other
motors.

3.3.1. STATOR

Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings.
These windings are placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of
the stator. These windings can be arranged in either star or delta. However, most
BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator. Each winding is constructed
with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in each slot.
In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over
the stator periphery.The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage
depending on the power supply capability. For robotics, automotive and small

19
actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC motors are preferred. For industrial
applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating motors are used.

3.3.2. ROTOR

A BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in
the rotor can vary from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles
depending on the application requirement. In order to achieve maximum torque in the
motor, the flux density of the material should be high. A proper magnetic material for
the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic field density. Ferrite magnets are
inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given volume. Rare earth
alloy magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are
Samarium Cobalt (SmCo), Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). The
rotor can be constructed with different core configurations such as the circular core
with permanent magnet on the periphery, circular core with rectangular magnets, etc.

3.3.3.HALL SENSOR

Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with
rotor position. Since the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the
stator windings should be energized in sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before
energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of rotor position is necessary.
So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position.

Most BLDC motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into the
stator. Each sensor generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass
near to it. The exact commutation sequence to the stator winding can be determined
based on the combination of these three sensor’s response.

20
3.4. WORKING PRINCIPLE AND OPERATION OF BLDC MOTOR

A BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor,

i.e., the Lorentz force law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force. As a consequence of reaction force,
the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In case BLDC motor, the
current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent magnet moves.

Fig.3.2 Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor Brushless DC Motor

When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes
electromagnet and starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source
of supply is DC, switching makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with
trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction between electromagnet stator and
permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.

Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited based on different
switching states. With the switching of windings as High and Low signals,
corresponding winding energized as North and South poles. The permanent magnet
rotor with North and South poles align with stator poles causing motor to rotate.

21
Fig.3.3. Switching sequence in a stator of a BLDC motor

It is observed that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction

forces (when North-South or South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when
North-North or South-South alignment). By this way motor moves in a clockwise
direction.

Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be
energized and when to do. This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on
the switching sequence around the coils. As discussed above that Hall sensors give
shaft position feedback to the electronic controller unit.

Based on this signal from sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize.
Hall-effect sensors generate Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles pass
near to it. These signals determine the position of the shaft.

3.5. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BLDC MOTOR

22
3.5.1. ADVANTAGES OF BLDC MOTOR

BLDC motor has several advantages over conventional DC motors and some of these
are

a. It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems.

b. High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor.
c. High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the
absence of brushes that limits the speed.
d. Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and
induction AC motors.
e. Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system.
f. Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
g. Less electromagnetic interference.
h. Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes.

3.5.2. DISADVANTAGES OF BLDC MOTOR

a. These motors are costly.

b. Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive.
c. Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions,
especially for tiny BLDC motors.
d. Requires complex drive circuitry.
e. Need of additional sensors.

3.6. APPLICATION OF BLDC MOTOR

23
The cost of the Brushless DC Motor has declined since its presentation, because of
progressions in materials and design. This decrease in cost, coupled with the
numerous focal points it has over the Brush DC Motor, makes the Brushless DC
Motor a popular component in numerous distinctive applications. Some of them are

1. Brushless motors are found in electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles and personal
transporters. Most electric bicycles use brushless motors that are sometimes
built into the wheel hub itself, with the stator fixed solidly to the axle and the
magnets attached to and rotating with the wheel.
2. Brushless motors are found in many modern cordless tools, including some
string trimmers, leaf blowers, saws, and drills/drivers.
3. There is a trend in the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) and
refrigeration industries to use brushless motors instead of various types of AC
motors. The most significant reason to switch to a brushless motor is the
dramatic reduction in power required to operate them versus a typical AC
motor. While shaded-pole and permanent split capacitor motors once
dominated as the motor of fan, many fans are now run using a brushless motor.
4. The application of brushless DC motors within industrial engineering
primarily focuses on manufacturing engineering or industrial automation
design. In manufacturing, brushless motors are primarily used for motion
control, positioning or actuation systems.
5. Brushless motors are commonly used as pump, fan and spindle drives in
adjustable or variable speed applications as they are capable of developing
high torque with good speed response.
6. Brushless motors are used in industrial positioning and actuation applications.

3.7. CHAPTER SUMMARY

24
The chapter discusses about the bldc motor, its construction, working principle and
method of operation of the motor.The need for hall sensors are also discussed.The
various advantages and disadvantages of ab bldc motor are also discussed in this
chapter.

x z

25
 CHAPTER 4

REGENERATIVE BRAKING

26
 4. REGENERATIVE BRAKING

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Interest in regenerative braking is growing drastically nowadays; as the market is

slowly transitioning to electric vehicles instead of using traditional vehicles that run
on fossil fuel. Regenerative braking (RB) utilizes the kinetic energy generated by the
motor during a brake process. Usually, in traditional vehicles, all of this energy is lost
in the form of heat energy due to friction losses. In RB, the motor acts as a generator
and the kinetic energy is harvested by applying the proper switching schemes to the
driver switches. Regenerative braking is an energy recovery mechanism which slows a
vehicle or object by converting its kinetic energy into a form which can be either used
immediately or stored until needed. In this mechanism, the electric motor uses the
vehicle's momentum to recover energy that would be otherwise lost to the brake discs
as heat. This contrasts with conventional braking systems, where the excess kinetic
energy is converted to unwanted and wasted heat by friction in the brakes, or with
dynamic brakes, where energy is recovered by using electric motors as generators but
is immediately dissipated as heat in resistors. In addition to improving the overall
efficiency of the vehicle, regeneration can greatly extend the life of the braking system
as its parts do not wear as quickly. The most common form of regenerative brake
involves an electric motor as an electric generator. In electric railways the electricity
generated is fed back into the supply system. In battery electric and hybrid electric
vehicles, the energy is stored chemically in a battery, electrically in a bank of
capacitors, or mechanically in a rotating flywheel. A hybrid energy storage system can
be used to alternate power generation and storage between a supercapacitor and a
battery depending on the required power.

4.2. THEORY OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

The figure below shows the general topology used in electric drives applications,
where the mechanical load is typically coupled to a Permanent-Magnet Synchronous
Machine supplied by a battery source through an inverter. A supercapacitor module
(SC) is used as an auxiliary power source connected through a bi-directional dc-dc
27
converter to the dc-link, thus making it possible to obtain an optimized
charge/discharge operation mode.

Motor drive
system
BATTERIES POWER CONVERTERS

SUPERCAPACITORS DC-DC CONVERTERS

Fig4.1 Topology of battery super capacitor energy storage system

A super capacitor is used to drive the motor in motoring mode. And store the
regenerated energy in regenerative braking mode. The motor’s rotation is controlled
by an H-Bridge. Figure below shows the circuit diagram of the system setup. 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
is the internal resistance of the supercapacitor which can be measured using a simple
charge-discharge experiment.

28
Fig 4.2:circuit diagram of system setup

In regenerative braking mode, the motor acts as a generator and converts the
mechanical energy of the rotating rotor to electrical energy. By applying the suitable
switching scheme to the H-Bridge switches, the regenerated energy can be harvested
and fed back to the supercapacitor. The idea is to utilize the motor’s inductor along
with the H-Bridge switches to function as a boost converter that boosts the generated
back EMF allowing the current to reverse its direction and flow back to the
supercapacitor. The operation of the H-Bridge switches can be divided into 3 modes
of operation:

1. Driving Mode:

In this mode, Q1 and Q3 are switched on. Allowing the current to flow directly from
the supercapacitor to the motor terminals to drive the motor in its forward direction.
Q 2 and Q 4 by default are always complementary to Q 1 and Q 3 to avoid short circuiting

the DC source. To control the motor’s speed, switching between Q 1−Q 3 and Q 2−Q 4 is
done using pulse width modulation (PWM) signals. Figure below shows the direction
of current flow in this mode of operation. This mode of operation is ended when a
brake command is sent. This break command switches all the switches OFF and the
motor runs freely due to its inertia. The current decreases gradually until it reaches
zero.
29
2. Regenerative Braking:

Regenerative braking is achieved by controlling Q 4 only and switching off all of the
remaining switches. In this mode, Q 4 is controlled by a separate switching command
using a PWM signal. Therefore, it has an ON-time period and OFF-time period.

a. ON-time

a. ON-time period: During its ON-time period, Q 4 utilizes the motor’s rotation due to
its inertia. Where it creates a path for the current to flow in the opposite direction
through Q 4 and D3. During this time interval, the current flows in this closed loop as
shown in figure below, charging the motor’s inductance.

b. OFF-time period: During the OFF-time period, Q 4 does not conduct current,
however the current must maintain its direction. Therefore, the current is forced to
flow through an alternate path created by the D1 − D3 and back to the supercapacitor
to maintain its direction. In this period, the supercapacitor is charged by the electrical
energy generated from the motor’s rotation. Regenerative braking is achieved in this
mode of operation. Figure below shows the current flow during this mode.

30
Fig 4.3.(a) Current flow in driving mode. (b) Current flow during ON-Time period of
Q4. (c) Current flow during Off-time period of Q4 (Regenerative mode)

31
The maximum amount of current that could be regenerated from braking a DC motor
and stored back inside a battery. The same analysis is carried out to study the amount
of current regenerated in the supercapacitor.

The source current in the above configuration can be found from power balancing
between source and motor. Putting in consideration electrical losses in between. The
source current can be derived as:

V SC ± √ V 2sc −4 R sc Pe
i source = (1)
2 Rsc

Where Pe is the electric machine total input power. To find the maximum amount of
current absorbed by the source during the regenerative braking process, the source
current i s is minimized with respect to the controlled armature current i a.

d is
=0 (2)
d ia

V SC ± √ V 2sc −4 R sc Pe
d( )
2 Rsc =0
d ia
(3)

d pe
SinceV sc and R sc are constant, therefore the equation is simplified to =0.
d ia

The electric machine total input power is the power used to run the motor in addition
to some electrical power losses in the motor.

Pe =Pmotor + P losses (4)

32
Pe =τω+ i a2 Ra
(5)

Pe =K t i a ω+i a2 R a

d ( K t i a ω+i a2 R a)
=0
d ia
(6)

K t ω +2i a Ra=0

−K t ω
i amax=
2 Ra
(7)

Substituting in (9) to find the maximum power:

Pe ,max =K t i a , max ω+i a2 R a

−K t ω K 2t ω2 R a
Pe ,max = +
2 Ra 4 R a2

K t2 ω2
Pe ,max =¿ (8)
4 Ra

33
 Substituting the maximum power in (5) to find the maximum current absorbed by the
source

Rsc

i source ,max =
√
V sc ± V 2sc + K 2t ω2 (

2 R sc
Ra
)
(9)

Thus it can be noticed that the maximum current that can be absorbed by the source is
dependent of the input voltage, the speed of the motor and the internal resistance of
the source and the armature resistance.

4.3 MERITS OF REGENERATIVE BRAKING

1. It improves the fuel economy of the vehicle.

The amount of fuel consumed can be dramatically reduced with this type of braking
system. The International Journal of Vehicle Design noted in 2011 that fuel
consumption covering the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) was improved by
25%.

2. It allows for traditional friction-based brakes.

A friction braking system is included with a regenerative system to ensure a vehicle is

able to stop in time.

3. It prolongs the charge of the battery.

34
Once the energy is captured by the regenerative brakes, the energy is used to recharge
the batteries of the vehicle. Because this energy would normally be lost, it allows each
vehicle to experience a prolonged charge while driving.

4. It reduces the wear and tear on the braking system.

Because an electric drive train is part of this system, the greater efficiency given to the
braking allows for a reduced level of wear on the brakes of the vehicle. With standard
friction brakes, there is no way to accomplish this benefit.

4.4. DEMERITS OF REGENERATIVE BREAKING

1. It offers a sliding scale of benefits.

The effects of regenerative braking decrease with the speed a vehicle is traveling. At
low speeds, friction brakes are required to bring most vehicles to a complete stop.
That means there is still energy being lost.

2. It offers a different feel to the driver.

Regenerative braking systems feel different to drivers who are used to traditional
systems. The brake pedal on the vehicle often feels soft, described as “mushy” by
many drivers. Until you get used to the new system, some may have a lack of
confidence in the capabilities of their brakes.

The pros and cons of a regenerative braking system offer drivers new benefits and
cost-savings opportunities. Its one primary limitation is the requirement for friction-
based brakes during low speed situations.

35
4.5. CHAPTER SUMMARY “

This chapter discusses about regenerative braking, the theory behind its working and
the various merits and demerits associated with it.

CHAPTER 5 5
CHAPTER
SIMULATION AND RESULTS

SIMULATION AND RESULTS

36
Table 5.1DC Motor Parameters

37
 Fig.5.1.Block Diagram of a DC Motor

Fig.5.2 Simulation Diagram of a BLDC Motor

38
Fig.5.3 Simulations vs Actual system response.

Fig. 5.4 Motor and Capacitor currents during regenerative braking of the DC motor.

39
 Fig.5.5 Motor speed in rad/s

Fig.5.6 Supercapacitor voltage.

Table 5.2 Comparison between maximum theoretical and experimental current.

40
The maximum measured current never exceeds the maximum theoretical current that
was previously derived.

Fig.5.7 Capacitor and Motor Currents with Brake Command of d=0.7 Fsw = 4 KHz.
(b)Motor Speed in RPM. (c) Capacitor Voltage

41
Fig. 5.8 (a) Capacitor and Motor Currents with Brake Command of d=0.5 Fsw = 4
KHz. (b) Motor Speed in RPM. (c) Capacitor Voltage

The energy of the motor and the energy stored in the supercapacitor during braking
are given by

EMotor =0.5jω 20 (1)

Ecapacitor =0.5C(∆ V ¿2 (2)

Where 𝜔0 is the initial speed of the motor when the braking process starts. Therefore,
the efficiency of the braking process putting into consideration some power losses
during switching and due to the motor’s internal resistance.

This efficiency is calculated for different braking duty cycles to see the effect of
varying the duty cycle during the braking process.

Table 5.3: Efficiency of braking at different duty cycles

42
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION

43
6.1 CONCLUSION “

The theory behind regenerative braking is explained. Analysis similar to the literature
is carried out to an experimental setup to confirm the hypothesis. Experimental results
show that the maximum current absorbed by the capacitor doesn’t exceed a certain
limit dependent on the supercapacitor’s voltage, internal resistances of the system and
the motor’s speed. The effect of varying the duty cycle is also studied to find the most
efficient duty cycle to get the best efficiency in harvesting the regenerated energy. In
conclusion, the regenerative braking is a tremendous concept that has been developed
by the automotive engineers. In the near future, if this system is fully utilized and
further improve, a new generation of electric vehicle will be fully on the road. energy.
Further research is needed in regenerative braking to create a better system for
extracting more energy and reduce the braking time. The use of artificial intelligence
can bring smartness to the control.

44
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