Sarhad University, Peshawar

(Department: Civil Engineering Program: BE Civil___

Examination: Final Term Spring 2020

Course & Course Code: Engineering Hydrology CE-314 Total Marks: 50 (50% Weightage)
*Student Name:Imtiaz Ali Khan Instructor: Engr. Hassan Khan
*Registration # Su-17-01-074-036
*Student Email:imtiazalikhan994@gmail.com
IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE STUDENTS:
Answer All Questions in the same Question Paper under each question/section subsequently.
Before uploading, save the same file in this format FINAL EXAM_DEPARTMENT_COURSE_Student
Name_Reg#.doc. Upload it at your SUIT PORTAL before the deadline. Answer Sheet sent through EMAIL will not be
accepted. The total size of this file should not exceed 5MB at the time of uploading it at portal so don’t insert images.
Just type the answers under each question, avoid inserting images and follow the instructions at SUIT Portal.

Attempt All Questions.

Q#1: {10}
a) What do you know about Infiltration losses? Explain the factors affecting Infiltration rate.

Ans:

Infiltration Losses:
imt It is the process by which precipitation water is abstracted by
seeping into the soil below the surface.

It is also taken as water lost due to absorption of water by the ground surface.

The infiltrated water may move horizontally, vertically or in both the direction.

The horizontal moment of water is called interflow.

The vertical moment of water from deeper layer of soil is called percolation.

Infiltration is measured in term of depth of water lost in unit time.

The percolated water moved as Groundwater flow.

If total infiltrated water depth is divided by total time it is known as Average Infiltration
Rate.

Factor Affecting Infiltration Rate:

Infiltration is a complex process and depends on many factors
like;

 Condition of ground
 Presence of vegetation
Type of soil

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  Storm characteristics
 Temperature and
 Properties of water.
Explanation:Soil 1)compaction due to rain drop impact and other effects. The
use of hard agricultural equipment can have consequences on the surface
layer of soil.
2)the flow supply (rain intensity ,irrigation flow)
3)The initial condition of soil humidity.soil humidity is an important factor of
infiltration regime. The infiltration regime evolves differently in time for dry
or wet soils.
4)The topography and morphology of slopes.
5)The soil coverage. Vegetation has positive influence on infiltration by
increasing the time of water penetration in soil.
6)The soil type (texture ,structure, hydrodynamic characteristics) the soil
characteristics influence capillary forces and absorption.

b) Define Runoff also briefly explain factors affecting the rate of Runoff.
Ans:

Runoff:
 Runoff is defined as the portion of the precipitation that makes its way
towards rivers or oceans etc; as surface or subsurface flow.
 The discharge flowing in a river is the runoff from the basins drained by
that river.
 Thus, discharge, stream flow and runoff are generally used to mean one
and the same thing.

Factor Affecting The Rate Of Run Flow:

Various factors affecting runoff can be
divided into two categories.
1- Characteristics of precipitation
2- Characteristics of drainage basin

(a). Characteristics of precipitation:

Type of precipitation:
Precipitation usually occurs in the form of rain or snow. If the precipitation
occurs in the form of rain, it will immediately produce runoff, while snow will produce runoff at a
slow and steady rate

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 Rain intensity:
Rain intensity has a lot of effect on runoff. If the intensity of rain
increases, the runoff increases rapidly. For example, if the intensity is increased
four times, the runoff may increase nine times or so.

Duration of rainfall:
Duration of rainfall is important because of the fact that
infiltration capacity goes on reducing during the storm, till it attains a constant
value. If the infiltration is less the surface runoff will be more. In some cases, a
longer duration rain may produce considerable runoff even when the intensity is
mild.

Soil moisture deficiency: The runoff depends upon the soil moisture present at
the time of the rainfall. If a rain occurs after a long dry spell of time, the soil will
be dry and it can absorb huge amounts of water and thus even intense rain may
fail to produce any appreciable runoff. On the other hand, if the rain occurs after
a long rainy season, the soil will be already wet and there will be very less
infiltration and even a low intensity rain may produce considerable runoff which
sometimes might result in disastrous flood.

Other climatic conditions: Various climatic factors such as temperature, wind,

humidity, etc. affect the losses from the drainage basin and therefore, affect the
runoff. If the losses are more, runoff will be less and vice versa.

b). Characteristics of the drainage basin:

Size of the basin:

If the area of the basin is large, the total flow will take more time to
pass to the outlet (same volume of water has to cover more area).

Shape of the basin:

The shape of the drainage basin also governs the rate at which
water enters the stream. There are two types- of drainage basin in general, Fan shaped
catchment and Fern leaf shaped catchments. Fan shaped catchments produces greater
runoff as compared to fern leaf catchments.

Elevation of the watershed:

The elevation of the drainage basin governs the rainfall,
its amount and its type and hence produces effect on runoff.

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 The type of arrangement of streams:
If the arrangement of stream channel is
efficient, water will flow rapidly and will result in higher runoff as the
concentration time will be less.

Other factors:
Factors such as the type of soil, the type of vegetation cover, the slope
and orientation of the catchment etc. influences the runoff.

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Q#2: {10}
a) Explain the velocity area method of discharge measurement. Enlist methods of measuring
average velocity of a stream.
b) Briefly explain in your own words the procedure of measuring evapotranspiration by Lysimeter.

Solution#2 (PART A): Velocity area method (Free flow

method) of discharge measurement:
It is the methods, various instruments are used to observe the velocity in the stream ,and
the discharge is calculalated from the data thus obtained.
In this method the regime of the channel is not effected, that is depth remains
unaffected when instrument is inserted in stream.Also free flow method can be
employed at any suitable section.
The basic principle that Q = AV is used in this method.
Where Q = Discharge, A = Area of cross-section of flow,and V = mean flow
velocity.This equation means this needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the
flow cross-sectional area.The channel is divided into subsections, these both is
measured at each subsection and finally the total discharge is sum of all discharges
through these sub-sections.
Q = q1 + q2 +q3+………..qn
The names of method of measuring average velocity of a stream:

1.Current meter
2.Pitot tube
3.Floats
Also four types:
1.Single point Method
2.Two point method
3.Multiple point method
4.Direct integration Method

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For find average velocity names:
1.Type-1 floats
2-Type-2 floats
3-Type-3 floats.

(PART B): The procedure of measuring evapotranspiration by lysimeter:

A lysimeter is a measuring device which can be used to measure the amount of actual
evapotranspiration which is released by plants (usually crops or trees).By recording the
amount of precipitation that an area receives and the amount lost through the soil, the
amount of water lost to evapotranspiration can be calculated.Lysimeters are of two
types:1)weighing and 2)Non-weighing.
The instrument most commonly used for the measurement of evapotranspiration is
known as lysimeter.The lysimeter consists of a small tank filled with soil and having
the same vegetation cover as that of the adjacent area.It contains a drain and all
facilities for measuring the quantity of water entering and leaving the tank.The
vegetation in the tank is either watered from lower side of the tank by maintaining a
constant water table or from above.
Water is applied in measured amounts to the lysimeter,as irrigation is applied to the
surrounding cropped area.The overflow and deep percolation, if any,are measured.The
water received either through irrigation or precipitation,excluding overflow,deep
percolation and balance soil moisture,constitutes the water used by the crop in the
process of evapotranspiration.

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Q#3: {10}
The following are the daily pan evaporation data in mm in a certain week. What is the
evaporation loss of water (in Million cubic meter) in this week from a lake (surface area = 640 ha)
in the vicinity, assuming a pan coefficient of 0.75?

Day 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th

Evaporation (mm) 9 9 12 8 7 9 9

Ans:
Solution:

Day: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ep: 14-5 6+3 12 8 7 5+4 6+3
(mm): =9 =9 =9 =9

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Pan evaporation in the week = ⅀71 Ep = 63 mm

Pan coefficient 0.75 = EL / EP

Lake Evaporation during the week EL = 63 * 0.75

= 47.25mm

Water lost from the lake = A . EL

= 640 * 47.25/1000

= 30.24 ha.m

= 0.3 Mm3
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Q#4: {20}
a) What is Unit Hydrograph? Discuss Unit Hydrograph method of estimating maximum Probable
Discharge.

Ans:

Unit Hydrograph:
The unit hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of storm runoff resulting from
an isolated rainfall of some duration occurring uniformly over the entire area of the catchment,
produces a unit volume (i.e., 1 cm) of runoff

Unit Hydrograph Method:

There are three methods of Unit Hydrograph Method
which is mentioned below:

a. Rainfall Duration: 
The volume under unit hydrograph is always the same for a given catchment and is
equal to one unit, say one inch of runoff ( note that volume of one inch of runoff
means that one inch of rainfall excess over the whole catchment. The actual
volume will be the catchment area multiplied by one ). Peak value for a lesser

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 duration unit hydrograph is higher and is sharp, but the peak value for a higher
duration unit hydrograph is lower with larger base length. 

b. Time Intensity Pattern:

An infinite number of hydrographs would be required if an attempt is made to
draw separate unit hydrograph for each of the possible time-intensity patterns.
Practically the unit hydrograph may be based only on an assumption of uniform
intensity. Higher-intensity storms will have higher peak with low base, and vice
versa.

c. Areal Distribution of Rainfall: 

The unit hydrograph is based upon uniformly distributed rainfall over whole of the
catchment. So the actual flood hydrograph has to be estimated accordingly from
the unit hydrograph taking into account the effect of areal distribution of rainfall.
Estimation of maximum discharge:
(a) Rational Formula:
Q p = 1 ⁄ 36 k * i * A
Where A ( area of cross section )
I (in cm \ hr)
K ( run off coefficient )
(b) Emperical formula:
Flood speak Qp=CD A power %

CD is dicken’s constant and depend on catchment.

A is constant.
Statistical probability method: Suitable when sample data are available for large
period of time and it is required to find peak discharge after a given period of
time.

b) The given table shows a unit hydrograph of 2-hour duration. Derive 4-hour unit hydrograph for
the same catchment.

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 Time (hours) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Flow (m3/sec) 0 86 122 93 52 22 0

Ans:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
                               
0 0                           0
2 86 0                         86
4 122 86 0                       208
6 93 122 86 0                     301
8 52 93 122 86 0                   353
10 22 52 93 122 86 0                 375
12 0 22 52 93 122 86 0               375
14   0 22 52 93 122 86 0             375
16     0 22 52 93 122 86 0           375
18       0 22 52 93 122 86 0         375
20         0 22 52 93 122 86 0       375
22           0 22 52 93 122 86 0     375
24             0 22 52 93 122 86 0   375
26               0 22 52 93 122 86 0 375
28                 0 22 52 93 122 86 375
30                   0 22 52 93 122 289
32                     0 22 52 93 167
34
36
 
 
 
 
   
  450  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
S-Curve  
 
  S- Curve 
     
0 22
0
52
22
74
22
38       400                     0 0
350
Flow (m3/s)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 Page308 of 10

Time (Hours)
 2-hour Unit 4 Hour Unit
Lagged S-
Time Hydrograph S-Curve Difference Hydrograph
Curve
Ordinates Ordinates
-1 -2 -3 -4 (5)=(3)-(4) (5)*2/4
0 0 0   0 0
2 86 86   86 43
4 122 208 0 122 61
6 93 301 86 215 107.5
8 52 353 208 145 72.5
10 22 375 301 74 37
12 0 375 353 22 11
14   375 375 0 0
16   375 375 0 0
18   375 375 0 0

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