C H A P T E R

3.5
Rye (Secale cereale L.)

3.5.1  Morphological characteristics [1, 2] Dimensions

(Fig. 3.5.1 and Table 3.5.1) Length mm 5.5–9.5

Width mm 0.6–2.5

Thickness mm 0.4–2.0

Thousand kernel weight g 29–41

3.5.2 Production

3.5.2.1  Optimum stage of maturity

– Accumulation of nutrients is completed
– Maximum kernel dry weight is reached
– Kernel transitions from soft dough to hard dough
stage
– Color of the kernels changes from green to light
brown
FIG. 3.5.1  Structure of a rye kernel—caryopsis without husk.
– Moisture content < 20% w.b.

TABLE 3.5.1  Morphological properties of rye kernels [1, 3, 4]. 3.5.2.2  Production method [5]
Shape Elongated oval – Harvesting with combine
Color – Pre-cleaning with winnower
– Drying
Husk Gray
Gray, gray-yellow
– Cleaning with sieving machine
– Storing
Endosperm White

Main components

Endosperm % 84–86

Embryo % 3.5

Aleurone layer % 6–7

Seed coat % 6.5–8.5

Drying
Atlas. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818162-1.00012-2 99 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
100 3.5.  Rye (Secale cereale L.)

3.5.3 Drying

3.5.3.1  Drying parameters (Table 3.5.2)

TABLE 3.5.2  Drying parameters [4].

Parameter Unit Value

Initial moisture content % w.b. 16–25

Final moisture content % w.b. 14–15

a
Water to remove kg 1–15

Diffusion path mm 0.8–2.0

b 3
Particle density kg/m 1410 FIG. 3.5.2  Sorption isotherms of rye at different temperatures T [7].
b
Specific heat capacity kJ/kg K 1.7
b
Thermal conductivity W/m K 0.15
3.5.4.2  Storage facilities
Thermal diffusivity b 2
m /h 2.25·10− 4
a
Per 100 kg of dry product.
– Storage in containers or compartments in
b
MC = 14% w.b. warehouses
– Storage in outdoor silos (metal or concrete)

3.5.3.2  Drying methods [4]

3.5.5 Quality
Low-temperature in-storage drying
– Drying in containers or warehouses 3.5.5.1  Utilization of dried products [8, 9]
– Drying in outdoor steel silos (Fig. 3.5.3)
High-temperature drying – Bread
– Ingredient of pancake and waffle mixes
– Flat-bed batch dryer
– Breakfast cereal
– Recirculating batch dryer
– Fillers for sauces and soups
– Cross-flow continuous-flow dryer
– Animal feed
– Mixed-flow continuous-flow dryer
– Pet food
– Alcohol production
3.5.4 Storage [6]

3.5.4.1  Storage conditions (Fig. 3.5.2)

– Moisture content < 15%
– Temperature: < 25 °C
– Relative humidity < 60%
– Bulk Storage
– Pre-cleaning prior to storage
– Aeration or chilling in intervals during storage

FIG. 3.5.3  Dried rye kernels.

3. Cereals
 3.5.5  Quality 101

3.5.5.2  Quality standards (Table 3.5.3) 3.5.5.4  Chemical composition (Table 3.5.4)

TABLE 3.5.3  Quality standards of seed rye, bread rye and feed TABLE 3.5.4  Chemical composition of fresh and dry rye [16].
rye [10–15].
Content Fresh Dry
Seed rye [10, 11] Unit Value
Main ingredients %
Moisture content % w.b. < 15
Water 20 14
Germination rate % > 85
Protein 10 10.8
Bread rye [12–14]
Fat 1.7 1.8
Moisture content % w.b. < 14.5
Carbohydrates 54.6 58.7
Impurities % < 12
Fiber 12.2 13.1
Broken kernels % <5
Minerals 1.6 1.7
Maximum gelatinization temperature °C 63 Vitamins μg/100 g
Groats amylogram AE < 200
Vitamin E 1835 1972
Falling number s > 120
Vitamin B1 330 355
Maltose number % > 3.5
Vitamin B2 156 168
Ergot mg/kg < 0.05
Amino acids mg/100 g
Deoxynivalenol (DON) μg/kg < 1250
Arginine 450 483
Zearalenone (ZEA) μg/kg < 100
Histidine 174 187
T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin μg/kg < 100
Isoleucine 358 385
Ochratoxin A μg/kg <5
Leucine 615 661
Aflatoxin B1 μg/kg <2
Lysine 367 394
Aflatoxin total μg/kg <4
Methionine 128 138
Feed rye [15]
Nutritional value kJ/100 g
Deoxynivalenol (DON) μg/kg < 8000
1159 1246
Zearalenone (ZEA) μg/kg < 2000

Ochratoxin A μg/kg < 250

Ergot % < 0.01

3.5.5.5  Important ingredients
– Starch
– Pentosan
– Lysine
3.5.5.3  Drying relevant parameters [4] – Vitamin E
– Germination rate
– Falling number
– Gelatinization temperature
– Baking volume
– Milling yield

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102 3.5.  Rye (Secale cereale L.)

3.5.6  Drying kinetics

3.5.6.1  Influence of temperature [4, 17]

(Figs. 3.5.4–3.5.9)

FIG. 3.5.6  Product temperature vs. time at different temperatures

T during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b.

FIG.  3.5.4  Moisture content vs. time at different temperatures

T during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b.

FIG.  3.5.7  Moisture content vs. time at different temperatures

T during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b.

FIG. 3.5.5  Drying time vs. temperature during through-flow dry-

ing of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b.,
MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG. 3.5.8  Drying time vs. temperature during through-flow dry-

ing of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b.,
MC2 = 14% w.b.

3. Cereals
 3.5.6  Drying kinetics 103

3.5.6.3  Influence of air velocity [17]

(Figs. 3.5.12 and 3.5.13)

FIG. 3.5.9  Product temperature vs. time at different temperatures

T during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b.

3.5.6.2  Influence of relative humidity [17] FIG.  3.5.12  Moisture content vs. time at different air velocities
v during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; T  =  60  °C,
(Figs. 3.5.10 and 3.5.11) TDP = 17 °C, MC1 = 24% w.b.

FIG. 3.5.10  Moisture content vs. time at different relative humidi- FIG. 3.5.13  Drying time vs. air velocity during through-flow dry-
ties RH during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; T = 40 °C, ing of rye kernels cv. Hallo; T = 60 °C, TDP = 17 °C, MC1 = 24% w.b.,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 24% w.b. MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG. 3.5.11  Drying time vs. relative humidity during through-flow

drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; T = 40 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 24% w.b.,
MC2 = 14% w.b.
3. Cereals
104 3.5.  Rye (Secale cereale L.)

3.5.6.4  Influence of initial moisture content

[17] (Fig. 3.5.14)

FIG. 3.5.16  Influence of the temperature T on the germination rate

during through-flow drying of seed rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG.  3.5.14  Influence of the initial moisture MC1 content on the Influence of the product temperature [17]
drying time during through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; (Figs. 3.5.17 and 3.5.18)
TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC2 = 14% w.b.

3.5.7  Quality kinetics

3.5.7.1  Seed rye

Influence of temperature [17] (Figs. 3.5.15 and 3.5.16)

FIG. 3.5.17  Influence of the product temperature on the germina-

tion rate at different initial moisture contents MC1 during through-
flow drying of seed rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C, v  =  0.5  m/s,
MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG. 3.5.15  Influence of the temperature T on the germination rate

during through-flow drying of seed rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C,
v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

3. Cereals
 3.5.7  Quality kinetics 105

FIG.  3.5.18  Influence of the product temperature on the sprout

length ratio at different initial moisture contents MC1 during through-
FIG.  3.5.20  Influence of the temperature T on the gelatinization
flow drying of seed rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP  =  13  °C, v  =  0.5  m/s,
maximum ratio during through-flow drying of bread rye kernels cv.
MC2 = 14% w.b.
Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

3.5.7.2  Bread rye

Influence of temperature [17] (Figs. 3.5.19–3.5.22)

FIG.  3.5.21  Influence of the temperature T on the falling num-

ber ratio during through-flow drying of bread rye kernels cv. Hallo;
TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG.  3.5.19  Influence of the temperature T on the gelatinization

maximum ratio during through-flow drying of bread rye kernels cv.
Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 21% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

FIG.  3.5.22  Influence of the temperature T on the falling number

r­ atio at different temperatures during through-flow drying of rye ker-
nels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC1 = 30% w.b., MC2 = 14% w.b.

3. Cereals
106 3.5.  Rye (Secale cereale L.)
Influence of product temperature [17]
(Figs. 3.5.23 and 3.5.24)
FIG.  3.5.23  Influence of the product temperature on the gelatini-
zation maximum ratio at different initial moisture contents during
through-flow drying of rye kernels cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s,
MC2 = 14% w.b.
FIG.  3.5.24  Influence of the product temperature on the falling
number ratio at different initial moisture contents during through-flow
drying of rye cv. Hallo; TDP = 13 °C, v = 0.5 m/s, MC2 = 14% w.b.
3.5.8 Recommendations
3.5.8.1  Major quality parameters
Seed rye
– Germination rate  < 85%
Bread rye
– Falling number  > 120 s
– Groats amylogram  < 200 AE
– Gelatinization temperature  < 63 °C
– Maltose number  > 3.5
3. Cereals
3.5.8.2  Production and processing
– Early harvest to prevent germination on the stalk
– Harvesting at moisture content < 20% w.b.
– Pre-cleaning to remove impurities
– Immediate drying after harvest
– Drying with recirculating batch dryer or mixed-flow
continuous dryer
– Drying air temperature
Seed rye  < 60 °C
Bread rye  < 70 °C
Feed rye  < 100 °C
– Drying to an uniform moisture content of 15% w.b.
– Cooling back to ambient temperature
For further reading see: [18–21].
References
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the rye grain, in: W.  Bushuk (Ed.), Rye: Production, Chemistry
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[2] E.  Riahi, H.S.  Ramaswamy, Structure and composition of ce-
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[4] W.  Mühlbauer, Handbuch der Getreidetrocknung—Grundlagen
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[6] G.  Boumans, Grain Handling and Storage, Elsevier Science,
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[7] M.F. Ertugay, M. Certel, Moisture sorption isotherms of cereals at
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[11] F. Wagner, G. Prediger, E. Wojtke, Landwirtschaftliche Samen und
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[12] M.G. Lindhauer, K. Lösche, T. Miedaner, Warenkunde Getreide,
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[13] W.  Seibel, E.  Drews, Charakterisierung der Qualitätsklasse
“Brotroggen”, Die Mühle und Mischfuttertechnik 110 (32) (1973)
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[14] EC, Maximum levels for certain contaminants in food, in:
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Commission, Brussels (Belgium), 2006.
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[15] EC, Presence of deoxynivalelol, zearelenone, ochratoxin A, T-2
and HT-2 and fumoisms in products inteded for animal feed-
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European Commission, Brussels (Belgium), 2006.
[16] S.W.  Souci, W.  Fachmann, H.  Kraut, Food Composition and
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(Germany), 2008.
[17] H.  Staudenmaier, Der Einfluss der Trocknungsbedingungen bei
Roggen unterschiedlichen Wassergehalts auf die Qualität der da-
raus hergestellten Mehle, M.Sc.-thesis, Institute of Agricultural
Engineering, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart (Germany),
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[18] R.C. Hoseney, Structure of cereals, in: Principles of Cereal Science
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Paul, MN, 1998, pp. 1–28.
[19] United States Standards for Grain Subpart H, United States
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Washington, DC, 1988.
[20] G. Sathya, D.S. Jayas, N.D.G. White, Safe storage guidelines for
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[21] W. Aufhammer, Getreide- und andere Körnerfruchtarten, Eugen
Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart (Germany), 1998.

3. Cereals