“For I know the plans I have

for you, declares the Lord,

plans to prosper you and not
to harm you, plans to give
you hope and a future.”
Jeremiah 29:11
 FUNSUR 214

Fundamentals
of Surveying
 LESSON I
INTRODUCTION
TO
SURVEYING
 GENERAL OVERVIEW
Surveying is one of the oldest
arts practiced by man. It has
always been necessary to mark
boundaries and divide tracts of
land from the earliest times. And
its use has expanded through the
years that today it is impossible
to undertake any type of
engineering project without
involving surveying.
 DEFINITION
Surveying is the art and science
of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the
form, extent, and relative position
of points, lines, and areas on or
near the surface of the earth or
on other extraterrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and
the use of specialized
equipments and techniques.
TWO GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS
1. PLANE SURVEYING
- Surveying that considers the
earth as a flat surface, and where
distances and areas involved are
of limited extent that the exact
shape of the earth is disregarded.
2. GEODETIC SURVEYING
- Are surveys of wide extent
which takes into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth.
 TYPES OF SURVEYS
1. CADASTRAL SURVEYS
- Are closed surveys which are
undertaken in urban and rural
locations for the purpose of
determining and defining property
lines and boundaries, corners,
and areas. These surveys are also
made to fix the boundaries of
municipalities, towns, and
provincial jurisdictions.
2. CITY SURVEYS
- Are surveys of areas in and
near a city for the purpose of
planning expansions or
improvements, locating property
lines, fixing reference
monuments, determining the
physical features and
configuration of the land, and
preparing maps.
3. CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS
- These are surveys which are
undertaken at a construction
site to provide data regarding
grades, reference lines, dimen-
sions, ground configuration, and
the location and elevation of
structures which are of concern
to engineers, architects and
builders.
4. FORESTRY SURVEYS

- Type of surveys executed in

connection with forest
management and mensuration,
and the production and
conservation of forest lands.
5. HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
- Refer to surveying streams, lakes,
reservoirs, harbors, oceans, and
other bodies of water. These
surveys are made to map shore
lines, chart the shape of areas
underlying water surfaces, and
measure the flow of streams. They
are needed for navigation,
development of water supply and
resources, flood control, irrigation,
production of hydro-electric power,
subaqueous const. and recreation.
6. INDUSTRIAL SURVEYS
- Use of surveying techniques in
ship building, construction and
assembly of aircraft, lay-out and
installation of heavy and
complex machinery and other
industries requiring accurate
dimensional lay-outs.
7. MINE SURVEYS
- Surveys performed to
determine the position of all
underground excavations and
surface mine structures, to fix
surface boundaries of mining
claims, determine geological
formations to calculate
excavated volumes, and
establish lines and grades for
related mining works.
8. PHOTOGRAMMETRIC SURVEYS

- Type of survey which makes

use of photographs taken with
specially designed cameras
either from airplanes or ground
stations.
9. ROUTE SURVEYS

- Involves the determination of

alignment, grades, earthwork
quantities, location of natural
and artificial objects in
connection with the planning,
design, and construction of
highways, railroads, pipelines,
canals, transmission lines, and
other linear projects.
10. TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYS

- Surveys made for determining

the shape of the ground, and the
location and elevation of natural
and artificial features upon it.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
1. TRANSIT
- Universal survey
instrument.
- Used by the
surveyor to
measure both
horizontal and
vertical angle.
TRANSIT
USED FOR
LAND
SURVEYS
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
2. STADIA/LEVEL
ROD
- A graduated rod
used for measuring
the vertical distance
between the line of
sight through an
instrument and the
point whose elevation
is required or known.
2. STADIA/LEVEL ROD
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
3. LEVEL
- An instrument
used in leveling
work.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
4. BRUNTON
COMPASS
- An instrument
used in measuring
magnetic direction.
Also used in
measuring vertical
and horizontal
angles.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
5. EDM
- An instrument
used for rapid
and accurate
measurement of
linear distances,
horizontal and
Vertical angles.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
6. TOTAL
STATION
- Newer models
of EDM that can
store field data.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
7. STEEL
TAPE
- A graduated
measuring device
used for measuring
linear distances.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
8. SEXTANT
- A portable and
hand-held instru-
ment used for
measuring hori-
zontal and vertical
angles.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
9. HAND
LEVEL
- Is a hand-held
instrument used
on surveys
involving short
sights, in
measuring
inclination.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
10. GPS
INSTRUMENT
- An instrument
used in determining
the exact position
of field stations/
points.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
11. PLANIMETER
- A mechanical
device used for
determining the
area of any shape
of figure plotted to
a known scale.
COMMON SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
12. SUBTENSE
BAR
- A convenient and
practical device
used for quick and
accurate measure-
ment of horizontal
distances. Consist
of a 2-meter bar
on a tripod.
 SURVEYING MEASUREMENTS
- A measurement is the process of
determining the extent, size or
dimensions of a particular
quantity in comparison to a given
standard.
TWO TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS
1. Direct Measurement – is a comparison of the
measured quantity with a standard measuring
unit or units employed for measuring a
quantity of that kind.
2. Indirect Measurement – used when it is not
possible to apply a measuring instrument
directly.
THE METER
- International unit of linear measure.
- A length equal to 1,650,763.73 wave
lengths of the orange-red light pro-
duced by burning the element krypton
(with an atomic weight of 86) at a
specified energy level in the spectrum.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENTS
SI (International System of units) Prefixes
mega- = 1,000,000 centi- = 0.01
kilo- = 1,000 milli- = 0.001
hecto- = 100 micro- = 0.000 001
deca- = 10 nano- = 0.000 000 001
deci- = 0.1
 1. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
1 kilometer (km.) = 1,000 meters
1 hectometer (hm.) = 100 meters
1 dekameter (dam.) = 10 meters
1 meter (m.) = 1,000 millimeters
= 100 centimeters
= 10 decimeter
1 decimeter (dm.) = 10 centimeters
= 0.1 meter
1 centimeter (cm.) = 10 millimeters
= 0.01 meter
1 millimeter (mm.) = 1,000 micrometers
= 0.001 meter
1 micrometer (um.) = 1,000 millimicrometers
 A. LINEAR MEASUREMENTS
1 meter (m.) = 3.28 feet
= 39.37 inches
1 foot (ft.) = 12 inches
1 inch (in.) = 2.54 centimeters
1 yard (yd.) = 3 feet
1 mile (mi.) = 5280 feet
= 1760 yards
= 1.609 kilometers
= 1,609.76 meters
 B. AREA MEASUREMENTS
1 hectare (ha.) = 10,000 square meters
= 100 ares
= 2.47 acres
1 are = 100 square meters
1 acre = 4,046.856 square meters
= 0.4047 hectare
= 4,840 square yards
1 square kilometer = 1,000,000 sq. m.
1 square mile = 640 acres
= 2.589 square km.
1 square yard = 9 square feet
= 0.8361 square meter
1 square foot = 144 square inches
2. ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS
a. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute, and
Second
1 degree = 1/360th of a circle
= 60 minutes
1 minute = 60 seconds
b. Centesimal Units – Grad is the angular unit
1 grad = 1/400th of a circle (g)
= 100 centesimal minutes (c)
1 centesimal min. = 100 centesimal sec. (cc)
c. SI Units - For plane angles the unit is radian
1 radian = Angle subtended by an arc of a
circle having a length equal to its radius.
2 pi. Rad = 360 degrees
1 radian = 57⁰ 17’ 44.8”
ERRORS
- An error is defined as the difference
between the true value and the
measured value of a quantity.
- It is a deviation of an observation or
a calculation from the true value
and is often beyond the control of
the one performing the operation.
MISTAKES
- Mistakes are inaccuracies in
measurements which occur
because some aspect of a surveying
operation is performed by the
surveyor with carelessness,
inattention, poor judgment, and
improper execution.
- A large mistake is referred to as a
Blunder.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Systematic Errors – Type of error
which will always have the same
sign and magnitude as long as field
conditions remain constant and
unchanged.
2. Accidental Errors – Errors purely
accidental in nature. Caused by
factors beyond the control of the
surveyor.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
1. Instrumental Errors – These errors
are due to imperfections in the
instruments used
2. Natural Errors – Errors caused by
variations in the phenomena of
nature such as changes in
magnetic declination, temperature,
humidity, wind, refraction, gravity,
and curvature the earth.
SOURCES OF ERRORS
3. Personal Errors – errors committed
by the person performing the
survey operation and arises
principally from limitations of the
senses of sight, touch and hearing.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy – Indicates how close a
given measurement is to
the true or absolute value
of the quantity measured.
Precision – Refers to the degree of
refinement & consistency
with which any physical
measurement is made.
ACCURACY AND PRECISION
THEORY OF PROBABILITY
Probability – The number of times
something will probably
occur over the range of
possible occurrences.
MOST PROBABLE VALUE (mpv)
– Is the arithmetic mean or average of
a group of repeated measurements.
- Refers to a quantity which, based on
available data has more chances of
being correct than any other.
mpv = Σ X / n = (X₁ + X₂ + X₃ + …. + Xn) / n

Where;
mpv – most probable value of
the quantity measured.
ΣX – is the sum of the
individual measurements
n – total number of
observations made.
Sample Problems:
1. A surveying instructor sent out six
groups of students to measure a
distance between two points on the
ground. The students came up with
the following six different values;
250.25, 250.15, 249.90, 251.04,
250.50, and 251.22 meters. Assuming
these values are equally reliable and
that variations result from accidental
errors, determine the most probable
value of the distance measured.
Solution:
MPV = ΣX/n
= (250.25 + 250.15 + 249.90 +
251.04 + 250.50 + 251.22)m./ 6
= 250.51 m. Ans.
2. The observed interior angles of a
triangle are A = 35° 14’ 37”, B = 96° 30’
09”, C = 48° 15’ 05”. Determine the
discrepancy for the given observation
and the most probable value of each
angle.

Given:
B A, B, & C = Vertices of
triangle ABC
96° 30’ 09” n = no. of observed
angles
A 35° 14’ 37” 48° 15’ 05”

C
Solution:
a.) Determining the correction to be applied:
∑ of Interior Angles = A + B + C
= 35° 14’ 37” + 96° 30’ 09” +
48° 15’ 05”
= 179° 59’ 51”
∑ of Interior Angles of a triangle = (n-2)(180)
= 180°
Error = 180° - 179° 59’ 51”
= + 0° 0’ 09”

Correction = Error / n
= + 0° 0’ 09” / 3
= + 0° 0’ 03” (Correction to be added to
each observed angles)
b.) Determining the most probable values (mpv):
A’ = A ± Corr. = 35° 14’ 37” + 0° 0’ 03”
= 35° 14’ 40” (most probable value of angle A)
B’ = B ± Corr. = 96° 30’ 09” + 0° 0’ 03”
= 96° 30’ 12” (most probable value of angle B)

C’ = C ± Corr. = 48° 15’ 05” + 0° 0’ 03”

= 48° 15’ 08” (most probable value of angle C)

c.) Solution Check:

A’ + B’ + C’ = 180°

35° 14’ 37” + 96° 30’ 12” + 48° 15’ 08” = 180°

180° = 180° (Ok)

RESIDUAL (Deviation)
PROBABLE ERROR

- Is a quantity which, when added

to or subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range
within which there is a 50 percent
chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or
outside) the limits thus set.
Where:
PEsm = Probable error of any single
measurement of a series
PEm = Probable error of the mean
Σ v² = Summation of the squares of the
residual
n = number of observations
RELATIVE (ERROR) PRECISION
- Ratio of the error to the measured
quantity.
- Expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the
numerator and the magnitude of a
measured quantity as the
denominator. Both with the same
units, and the numerator reduced to
unity or 1.
Weighted Observations
- Assignment of relative weight
(degree of reliability) to different
measurements.
Based upon;
1. Judgment of the surveyor.
2. Number of measurements taken
for a particular quantity.
3. Assumption that the weights are
inversely proportional to the
square of the probable errors.
SAMPLE PROBLEM:
1. The following values were determined in
a series of tape measurements of a line:
1,000.58, 1,000.40, 1,000.38, 1,000.48,
1,000.40, and 1,000.46 meters.
Determine the following:
a. Most probable value of the measured
length.
b. Probable error of a single measurement
and probable error of the mean.
c. Final expression for the most probable
length.
d. Relative precision of the measurement.
b. Cont’n.

PEsm = ± 0.05 m. (probable error of a single

measurement)

PEm = ± 0.02 m. (probable error of the mean)

c. Final Expression of the line
= 1,000.45 m. ± 0.02 m.
d. RPsm = PEsm / mpv
= 0.05 m. / 1000.45 m.
= 1/20,000 (Relative Precision of
a single measurement)

RPm = PEm / mpv

= 0.02 m. / 1000.45 m.

= 1/50,000 (Relative Precision of

the mean)
2. It is desired to determine the most probable value of
an angle which has been measured at different
times by different observers with equal care. The
values observed were as follows: 74° 39’ 45” (in two
measurements), 74° 39’ 27” (in four measurements),
and 74° 39’ 25” (in six measurements).
Solution:
Measured Values No. of Observations Product (V x W)
74° 39’ 45” 2 149° 19’ 30”
74° 39’ 27” 4 298° 37’ 48”
74° 39’ 25” 6 447° 56’ 30”
_____________________________ __________________________________________________________

sums 12 895° 53’ 48”

Weighted Mean = 895° 53’ 48” / 12
=74° 39’ 29”(mpv of the angle measured)
PROBLEM EXERCISES:
1. The measured values of the longest bridges in
the Philippines are: 2,164.0 m., 1,442.0 m., and
1,369 m. Determine the equivalent length of
each bridges in kilometers, decimeters, feet
and yard.
2. If the area of a rectangular property is 75 Ares,
and its width is 164 feet, determine the length
in meters. If the area is doubled and the ratio
of the sides are maintained, what will be the
new dimensions in hectometers?
3. The interior angles of a quadrilateral were
observed to be: A = 100⁰ 35’ 40”, B = 118⁰ 44’
15”, C = 80⁰ 54’ 35”, and D = 59⁰ 45’ 50”.
Determine the most probable value of each
angle.
4. Convert 145g 67c 92cc to degrees and radians.
5.

6.