CDI: Traffic Management and Accident Investigation

Prepared by: Dr. Manolito D. Parazo, CST, CSP, MS CRIM. DPA

 Significant Traffic Laws

a. R.A. 4136- Land and Transportation Code of the Philippines

b. R.A.6539- Anti-Carnapping Law
c. R.A. 8749- Clean Air Act
d. R .A. 8750- Seat Belt Law
e. R.A. 7924- Law creating Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA)
f. PD. 96- Regulating the use of sirens, horn bells, and others, on motor vehicles, except government
vehicles intended for use in emergencies.
g. E.O 202- Creating the Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board (LTFRB).
h. RA 10054- Helmet Law of 2010
i. RA 10586-Anti- Drunk and Drugged Driving Act

 Components/Pillars in Traffic Management:

a. Traffic Education– it deals with public information and the safety education of both drivers and
pedestrians as to traffic laws.
b. Traffic Engineering– it deals with the planning and geometric design of streets and highways to
have safe and convenient transportation.
c. Traffic Law Enforcement – it comprises all police activities in connection with the direction of traffic
regulation, and investigation of accidents.
d. Traffic Ecology or Environment- it refers to the study of disastrous effect of the pollution emitted
from vehicles.
e. Traffic Economy – it deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.

 The Three (3) Traffic Principles or 3’s:

a. Engineering- responsible for planning, design, construction and maintenance of traffic facilities will
expedite the movement of traffic and prevents accidents in roads.
b. Education- users are informed or acquaint in different traffic laws and regulations.
c. Enforcement- strict implementation and compliance of traffic laws will prevent road accident.

Objectives of Traffic Control

 To increase safety level
 To ensure harmonious and comfortable environment
 To conserve energy

Methods of Directing or Guiding Traffic

 Use hand signals
 Supplement the arm/hand signals with a whistle
-one long blow to stop
-two short snappy blasts for go
-three blasts to be used for assistance
 To stop, point at the vehicle you intend to stop.
 The hand signal should be made with the arm extended and the palm facing the person or vehicle to
be stopped.

 Major Causes of Traffic Congestion:

a. Physical Inadequacy- characterized by lack of roads, narrow bridges, railroad crossing, lack of
traffic facilities, etc.
b. Poor Control Measures- characterized by ineffective mechanical control devices, inefficient traffic
officers, and poor implementation of traffic laws, rules and regulations.
c. Human Errors- caused by slow drivers or poor driving habits, pedestrian mistakes, officers’ errors,
poor planning..
d. Poor maintenance- attributed by unrepaired diggings cracks on road pavement.

 Agencies Involved in Traffic Management:

a. DOTC- through the LTO, responsible for the enforcement and/or implementation of the Land
Transportation Code of the Philippines (RA 4136).

LTO Functions:
a. Issuance of driver’s license
b. Registration of motor vehicles
c. Issuance of car plates and stickers
d. Implementation of RA 4136

LTFRB Functions:
a. Approval of franchises for public conveyances
b. Hear and decide fare increase
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 c. Cancellation and/or revocation of franchises

b. City or Municipal Engineers Office- in local area, responsible for the planning, construction and
maintenance of traffic facilities within their respective localities.
c. Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) it is responsible for the planning,
construction and maintenance of traffic facilities particularly those categorized as national highways or
roads.
d. Legislative (Congress/City or Municipal Boards)- responsible for the passing and amendments
of laws concerning traffic, planning, and approval of government projects.
e. Philippine National Police (PNP)- Highway Patrol Group (HPG) is primary responsible for the
enforcement of RA 6539 and also enforcement of traffic laws, rules and regulations.
f. Academic Institution- schools are responsible for the basic traffic education through integrating in
their school curriculum subjects in traffic.
g. Courts. it is responsible for the adjudication of traffic-related cases filed before them.
h. Public Information Office- it provides the necessary updated information to the public.
i. Citizen Support Group- give helps and support in the prevention of traffic congestion by assisting
government offices in various activities especially during especial occasion and holidays.
j. Media- provide necessary and updated traffic-related information.

 What is Biorhythm- it is a theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life
energy and moods states.

Note: Theoretically, when the biorhythm of a person is low or below the centerline, he is prone to
accident.

Theory of Biorhythm:
1. 23 day cycle or our cycle of strength, endurance and courage (this is for male component)
2. 28 day emotional cycle equivalent to a female’s 28 day menstrual cycle) cycle of sensitivity, love and
intuition (this is for female component)
3. 33 day intellectual cycle (cycle where person can think logically)

Note: When the person physical biorhythm is high, he is tends to become energetic and full of vitality. If
emotionally high, he is artistic and cheerful. If intellectually high he is able to think quickly and logically.

 Categories of Drivers:
1. International Driver- tourists who are duly licensed may be allowed to operate motor vehicles
during their stay for 90 days of their stay/sojourn in the Philippines. Foreign license applicants
can only be issued a NON-PROF. LICENSE.
2. Government- designated to drive government vehicle
3. Professional- driving private or public vehicle for paid or hired
Qualifications of Prof Driver:
a. At least 18 years of age;
b. With Non-Prof issued to applicant for at least 4 months & SP issued to applicant for at least 5
months;
c. 3 years validity;
d. Identifying color is red (word professional)
4. Non-professional-driving private motor vehicle only
Qualifications:
a. At least 17 yrs of age;
b. With SP issued to applicant for at least 1 month from the date of application;
c. 3 years validity
d. Identifying color is green (word non-professional)
5. Student Permit- those who want/desire to learn driving (Note: A student driver cannot operate
a vehicle unless accompanied by an instructor who may either be a licensed prof. or non- prof.
driver.

Qualifications:
a. At least 16 years of age;
b. Physically sound, good health and no contagious ailment;
c. Mentally capable;
d. 12 months validity

Driver’s Restriction Code:

1. Motorcycles/Motorized Tricycles
2. Veh. up to 4500 kgs Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)
3. Veh. above 4500 kgs GVW
4. Automatic clutch up to 4500 kgs GVW
5. Automatic clutch above 4500 kgs GVW
6. Articulated veh. 1600 kgs GVW
7. Articulated veh. 1601 up to 4500 kgs GVW
8. Articulated veh. 4501 kgs & above GVW
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 Traffic Control Devices:
1. Traffic Islands– are areas within the roadway constructed in a manner to establish physical
channels through which vehicular traffic is guided, that will segregate pedestrian.

2. Traffic Signs – a device mounted on a fixed or portable means of words or symbols, officially
created and installed for the purpose of regulating, warning and guiding traffic.

 Types of Traffic Signs

1. Regulatory Signs - intended to inform road-users/drivers of special obligations, instructions or
prohibitions which must comply. A round shape is used for regulatory signs with exception of stop
and yield signs.

2. Warning or Caution Signs - intended to warn road-users of danger on the road. Equilateral
triangular shape, having red boarders, white background and black symbol.

3. Directional or Informative Signs - intended to guide road-users while they are traveling.
Rectangular shape white-colored on blue background. Green background is usually used for route
markers and destination signs.

3. Traffic Signal Lights

Traffic Light – is a power operated traffic control device by which traffic is warned or directed to take
some specific actions.

LIGHT: FLASHING RED

1. This is the same as STOP SIGN.
2. STOP at the designated line.
3. Vehicles will be crossing from the “other side”
4. Expect pedestrians to cross at the pedestrian lane.
5. PROCEED when clear.

LIGHT: FLASHING YELLOW

1. This is the same as a YIELD/GIVE WAY SIGN.
2. Proceed through the intersection with caution.
3. You have the right of way over a flashing RED light.
4. Vehicles on the other side will proceed to a FULL STOP.

LIGHT: STEADY GREEN AND STEADY LEFT/RIGHT ARROW

1. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the left lane can make a left turn.
2. Vehicles can go straight or vehicles on the right lane can make a right turn.
3. The RIGHT GREEN signal might or might NOT have a road sign disallowing a right turn while the
RED light is ON.

 Highway Traffic Control

1. Traffic Signs- device mounted on portable support along roads installed for the purpose of
regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
2. Pavement Markings – markings on the roads surfaces for the purpose of regulating, warning and
guiding traffic.
3. Traffic-Signal- devices installed along intersection to permit safe movement of vehicles.
4. Priority Control- one of the oldest methods of traffic control done by restricting or banning some
vehicles in the road.

 Types of Pavement Markings

1. Curve markings – used to show where parking is legally prohibited or not allowed.
2. Object Markings – markings placed on objects on the road or beside the road like humps, rocks
or similar hazardous objects on the side of the road.
3. Reflectorized Markings – markings or gadgets designed to reflect and become luminous when
hit by vehicles headlight.

 Meaning of Pavement Markings:

1. Single White Dotted Line. This indicates:
a. on two-lane road, it separates traffic moving in opposite directions;
b. on a one-way street, separates traffic moving in one direction;
c. overtaking is possible when other lane is clear of oncoming possible.
2. Single White Continuous Line in a Two-Lane Traffic Way. This line indicates the following:
a. separate traffic moving in opposite direction;
b. could be found in road sections that are dangerous;

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 c. passing and overtaking can be made but ONLY under circumstances when there is NO
oncoming traffic.
3. Single Continuous Line On a Four-lane Road. This line indicates:
a. when there are slow and fast lanes, NEVER overtake by passing over the solid white line;
b. lanes 1 & 4 (outer lanes) for slow moving vehicles.
c. lanes 2 & 3 (inner lanes) are usually for faster moving vehicles.
4. Double Yellow Line or Double White Line. A double yellow or white line with a dotted line in
between means:
a. ABSOLUTELY NO OVERTAKING;
b. overtaking is extremely dangerous;
5. Single Yellow/White Line With a Dotted/ Broken Line. This line indicates:
a. that you cannot overtake if the solid line is on your side/lane, but you can overtake if the
dotted/broken lines is in your line/lane.
6. Yellow Continuous Line on Road Provided with a Passing Lane. This line indicates:
a. slow moving vehicles such as buses;
b. heavy trucks should always use the outer lane;
7. Crosswalk or Pedestrian Lane. This marking indicates:
a. for pedestrian to cross;
b. DO NOT STOP on pedestrian lane especially to load or unload passengers;
8. Directional Arrows. This marking indicates:
a. directions of permitted traffic movement;
b. when approaching intersections where pavement arrows are used, you should enter the
lane where the arrow points in the direction you want to go;

 Traffic Islands- constructed in roadway in a manner to establish physical channels through which
vehicular traffic is guided.
Classifications of Traffic Islands:
1. Pedestrian Island (Pedestrian Barriers)- constructed between the pedestrian sidewalk and
the road pavement to prevent pedestrian from using the roadway.
2. Traffic Islands- raised portion in the middle of the traffic way constructed to separate motor
vehicles traversing on opposite directions.

Three (3) sub-classified:

a. Division Islands. These are constructed primarily to divide the streams of the motor
vehicles;
b. Channelizing Islands. These are constructed to channelize or direct the flow of traffic;
c. Rotary Islands. These are constructed along intersections or “rotundas” for purposes of
turning-around.

 Traffic Enforcement Action:

Enforcement action is usual limited to:

1.) verbal or written warning;

2.) summon or citation requiring the offender to appear in court;
3.) arresting traffic violators for traffic violations not attended
4.) suspension or revocation of license;
5.) payment of fines or civil damages, and;
6.) prosecution of criminal offenses in relation to traffic.

Elements of street and highway traffic

1.) The road user
2.) The vehicle and its load
3.) The road

Police officers main functions in Traffic

1.) Police traffic directions
2.) Police traffic law enforcement
3.) Police traffic accident investigation

Elements of traffic accident are

1.) Vehicle involved
2.) Highway
3.) Road user

Duties of Driver in Case of Accident:

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 a. Stop
b. Show his driver’s license
c. Give his true name and address
d. Assist the injured person
e. Protect belongings of passengers
f. Report the accident

Exclusionary Rules Against Hit & Run

a. He left because his life is in imminent danger from the possible harm of people at the place;
b. He left because he will surrender to proper authority, let say police;
c. He left because he will summon/call doctor to aid his victim.

Rule in Overtaking and Passing:

General rule: The driver should pass to the left of the vehicle being overtaken.

1. Exception:
On highways or roads with two or more lanes, overtaking could be made by passing to the right
side of the veh. overtaken.

Type of Traffic Accident

• Collision with Non-Fixed- motor vehicle, pedestrian, bicyclist, animal, train other object-not fixed
• Collision with Fixed object- tree, sign post, fence etc
• Non-collision- overturned, fire or explosion, submersion, ran off roadway.

Contributing Factors
• Human- unsafe speed, failed to yield right-of-way, following too close, improper passing,
drug/alcohol involvement, etc.
• Vehicular Factor- brake, headlights, light defectives, over load, etc.
• Environmental factor- animal’s action, view obstructed, debris in roadway, slippery surface, fixed
object, road under construction.

Causes of Motors Veh. Traffic Accident

1. Simultaneous factors
a. Road conditions;
b. Driver’s attitude;
c. Weather condition.
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe;
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction)
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards;
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations;
4. Perception Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation;
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.

Note: Most vehicular accident in the Philippines is caused by human factor

Chain of Events in Vehicular Accident:

a. Perception of hazard- the driver noticed the possible risk/danger

b. Start of evasive action- the driver will avoid the risk/danger
c. Initial contact- should driver failed to avoid there will be preliminary touching of 2 vehicles.
d. Maximum engagement- full contact of the two vehicles
e. Disengagement- separation of 2 vehicles after the contact
f. Stopping of the vehicle
g. Injury- as a result there will injury or death

Classification of Accidents According to Severity:

1. Property damage accident- no injury to any person but only damage to the motor vehicle,
including animal.
2. Non-fatal Injury Accident- there is injury but not fatal to person.
3. Fatal- this is death to one or more persons.

Classification of Registered Motor Vehicles

a. Private (not for hire)- used for the personal use of the owner. Plate color is green with white
background.
b. Public Utility Vehicle (PUV)(For Hire)- used for the conveyance of passengers and other
commercial goods. The plate color is yellow.
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 c. Government- vehicles owned by the government offices and are used for official purposes only. Red
plate with white background.
d. Diplomat- used by foreign diplomats/dignitaries and consuls assigned in the Philippines. Blue plate.
e. Commemorative plate- special plate numbers are issued for specific purposes such as fund- raising
for government projects and programs.

Understanding the Registration of Motor Vehicle:

Last Digit of Plate Nr. Middle Digit of Plate Weekly Deadline

Nr. (working days of the
month only)
1- Jan 6- June 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2- Feb 7- July 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
3- March 8- Aug 7 8 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
4- April 9- Sep 9 0 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
5- May 0- Oct 29 30 31

Note: Vehicles may be registered one month in advance of weekly deadline. For motorcycles, use the 3 rd
digits.

Example: Plate nr.- TNG 984

The above motor vehicle shall be registered in April every year because the last digit is “4” and on
3rd week April 15-21 since the middle digit is “8”.

Letter Prefixes on Plate Numbers Determine:

a. Place of registration of the motor vehicle

b. Year model of the vehicle

Examples: Vehicle 1- PLT 255 Vehicle 2- TNU 636

Between the above vehicles, Vehicle 1 was registered earlier than Vehicle 2, and possibly Vehicle 2’s
model is later than Vehicle 1.

Special Plate Numbers for Government Officials:

1- President of the Phil.
2- Vice Pres.
3- Senate Pres.
16- Judges

What is Skid Mark - is the mark of a vehicle tire while the wheels stops rolling due to the application of
break where it slides or spins on the surface of the road.

 Skid marks are caused by rubbers deposited on the road.

 One form of trace evidence. Can determine or reveal about the vehicle speed.

Skid Marks are Divided into:

1. Acceleration marks - created on acceleration if the engine provides more power that the tire can
transmit.
2. Braking marks - if the brakes "lock-up" and cause the tire to slide.
3. Yaw marks - if the tire slides sideways.

What is Collision - an incident resulting in property damage, personal injury or death, and involving the
loss of control and/or the striking of one or more vehicles with another vehicle, person, an animal, or an
inanimate object.

Types of Collision

Collision primary - the impact between and another vehicle or a vehicle and a fixed object.

Collision secondary - the impact between the occupants

Collision tertiary - the impact between the occupant and the restraint system.

Terms to Ponder:

Articulated Vehicle- any motor vehicles with a trailer having no front axle and so
attached that part of the trailer to the motor vehicle.

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Biorhythm- a theory which asserts that man exhibits a constant variation of life
energy and moods states.

Bottleneck- a highway section that experiences operational problems such as

congestion.

Coefficient of Friction - is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio

of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together.

Collision primary - the impact between and another vehicle or a vehicle and a
fixed object.

Collision secondary - the impact between the occupant

Economy – deals with the benefits and adverse effects of traffic to our economy.

Driver- shall mean every and any licensed operator of a motor vehicle.

Driver’s license- a document issued to a qualified driver who possesses the

statutory qualification as provided in RA 4136

Fortuitous Event – an event which takes place by accident and could not have
been foreseen. In other words it is an Act of God.

Force Majure – a phenomenal accident. It is an Act of Man.

Imprudence –failure to take the necessary precaution to avoid injury to a person

or damage to property.

Last Clear Chance - it means that the driver who is in the better position to
prevent the accident shoulders the responsibility of preventing it.

Gridlock- no movement of vehicle is possible due to severe traffic jam.

Motor vehicle -is a self propelled wheeled vehicle that does not operate on rails
such as trains or trolleys.

Motor Vehicle Non-traffic Accident- it is any motor vehicle accident occurring

entirely at a place other than on a highway.

Motor Vehicle Non-traffic Accident- it is any motor vehicle accident occurring

entirely at a place other than on a highway.

Owner- the actual legal owner of a motor vehicle, in whose name such vehicle is
duly registered with the LTO.

Perception hazard- sense or understanding of the unusual or unexpected

movement of the vehicle would lead in an accident.

Profilograph- devised used to measure pavement surface roughness.

Professional Driver – any driver hired or paid for driving or operating a motor
vehicle, whether for private use or for public.

Pavement Markings – are markings on the roads surface conveyed by means of

words or symbols for the purpose of regulating, warning and guiding traffic.

Right of Way (ROW)- principle in traffic which allows a vehicle or pedestrian to go

ahead against another vehicle or pedestrian.

Regulatory Sign- these signs are intended to inform road users of special
obligations, instructions or prohibitions which motorists must comply.

Refuge island - (Pedestrian Island) is a small section of pavement where

pedestrian can stop before finishing crossing the road.

Reckless imprudence or Imprudence- it is voluntary, but without malice, doing or falling to do an act
from which material damage results by reason of inexcusable lack of precaution on the part of the person
performing of failing to perform such act, taking into consideration his employment or occupation, degree of
intelligence, physical condition and other circumstances regarding persons, time and place.

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Skid mark – it is the mark of a sliding tire at the surface of the road when a vehicle wheel stops due to the
application of brakes.

Scuff mark- this marking appears from vehicle’s wheels sliding and scrubbing while still turning.

Traffic – refers to the movement of persons, goods, or vehicles, either powered by

combustion system or animal drawn, from one place to another.

Traffic Accident – is an occurrence on a road, street or highway involving that

usually result in death, physical injury or damage to property.

Traffic Actuated Signal – is controlled by an traffic enforcer using his hands in

signaling the flow of traffic.

Traffic Accident Investigation – the process of obtaining, recording, and

interpreting of information surrounding the accident.

TOP- Temporary Operator’s Permit (3 days ) issued by LTO

TVR- Traffic Violation Receipt (3 days) issued by MMDA

TCT- Traffic Citation Ticket ( 3 days) issued by Cities/Municipalities

Traffic Ecology or Environment- refers to the study of disastrous effect brought

about by the air and water pollution from vehicles.

Traffic Citation- it is a traffic enforcement action that makes a violator to appear

in court without physical arrest.

Traffic Light Signal- this is operated manually or electrically by which traffic is

alternatively commanded to stop and to proceed.

Traffic Signal- a device mounted on a portable support where a message is

conveyed by means of words or symbols, officially erected or installed for the purpose of regulating warning
or guiding traffic.

Traffic Enforcement- the traffic action taken by the traffic police such as arresting, issuing traffic citation
ticket and giving warning to erring drivers for the purpose of deterring and discouraging and or preventing
such violations.

Traffic Management – it comprises all public surfaces, facilities and agencies having responsibility for
licensing, approving, maintaining and controlling the flow of traffic and the use of traffic facilities.

Traffic Direction- an activity of traffic enforcer, which involves telling drivers and pedestrians when, and
where they may or may not go/move.

Traffic Signal- is the control of the movement of people and vehicles on the road by means of
devices such as SIGNALS, SIGNS and MARKING in order to achieve safety, mobility, and energy
conservation.

Tribometer - an instrument that measures friction on a surface.

Runabout - is type of circular intersection or junction in which road traffic is slowed and flows almost
continuously in one direction around a central island to several exits into the various intersecting roads.

Test Use to Determine Whether a Person is Under the Influence of Liquor or Drug.

Chemical Test- refers to the breath, saliva, urine or blood tests to determine the BAC level and/or
positive indication of dangerous drug.

Sobriety test- refers to standardized tests to initially asses and determine intoxication, like:
a. Eye Test (horizontal gaze nystagmus)- refers to horizontal or lateral jerking of the driver’s eyes as he
or she gazes sideways following a moving object such as pen or tip of the penlight held by traffic officer
from a distance of one (1) foot away from the face of the driver.
b. Walk and Turn- requires the driver to walk heel-to-toe along a straight line for nine (9) steps, turn at
the end and return to the point of origin without any difficulty.
c. One Leg Stand- requires the driver to stand on either right or left leg with both arms on the side for 30
seconds while raising the foot for 6 inches.

Devised Used to Determine Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol (DUIA):

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a. Alcohol Breath Analyzer (ABA) or Breath Analyzer- refers to the equipment which can determine
the Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) through testing of the person’s breath.

Note: A driver of a private vehicle with a GVW not exceeding 4500 kg. a BAC of 0.05% or higher-DUIA.

For trucks, buses, motorcycles, and PUVs, BAC required is more than 0.0%- DUIA

Note: Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS)- a devise use to validate and confirm the
result of a drug screening test. Or a person Driving Under the Influence of Dangerous Drug (DUID).

Evolution of Traffic:

A. Manpower

1. Carrying Pole- this is done by balancing on one shoulder in carrying goods, or the ends of the pole are
supported by two men, with goods suspended from pole in between.

2. Back Load and Tumpline- it is done by carrying the goods on the back.

3. Sledge on rollers- here, the movement of heavy goods was to place on sledge which rested on a series
of rollers.

4. Sledge on runners- here, using a sledge and drawn by man to transfer or moves
5. Travois- poles were arranged which serves as a platform on which the burdens are placed.

B. Animal Power

1. Ox- in Mesopotamia, they considered Cattle as first domesticated animal and used as draft to draw war
chariots.

2. Reindeer- first domesticated in Siberia. These animals were ridden with saddle (seat for riding animal).

3. Dog- too slight or small to carry heavy loads. It was used to raw small carts.

4. Donkey or Ass- first domesticated in Middle East. It was considered as the chief beast of burden among
farmers of the Near East, Mediterranean area and Mexico.

5. Llama- it was used as a pack animal by the Incas.

6. Elephant- the Carthaginians used African elephant in their war against Rome. Some countries used
elephant for ceremonial processions and in lumber industry.

7. Horse- used to draw chariots, wheeled vehicles and for riding.

8. Camel- used by Arab for transport and draw carts. However, it has less endurance.

9. Yak- used as ridden and as pack animal.

C. Wind Animal

1. Ancient Chinese Kite- used to flown as a popular past time. The Korean was first used kite for
transport.

2. Montgolfier Balloon- used several balloons when they proposed to use two condemned prisoners for
the first ascent with passengers.

3. Santos Dumont’s Airship- one of the pioneers of lighter-than-aircraft was Alberto Santos Dumont, who
experimented with the steam-powered balloons in Paris.

D. Wheel Vehicle

a. Romans- major road builders in the ancient world.

b. John L. Macadam- introduced feeder road building and perfected the macadamized road in England
about 1815.

c. John Palmer- introduced his first fast mail coach and later on English coach system was adapted.

“The difference between a successful person and others is not a lack of strength, not a lack of
knowledge, but rather a lack of will”. Vince Lombardi

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END

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