Republic of the Philippines

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SAMAR COLLEGE
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Handout in BEEDMC 403

Teaching Social Studies in the Elementary Grades

(Phil. History and Government)

The State

It has been pointed out that political science is the study of the foundations of the State.
Politics is a necessary or built-in character of the discipline. Succinctly put, politics is widely
practiced in the State and its agency, the government. But what is a State? The opt-quoted
definition of a State is given by Gardner, i.e. a community of persons more or less numerous,
permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, possessing a government of their own to
which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience and free from external control.
From the very definition given, it identifies the essential requisites or elements of State such as
people, territory, government and sovereignty.

People

The people constitute the most important requisite of the State. It is composed of the
citizens owing allegiance to it and other nationals or foreign governments who shall necessarily
uphold the sovereign power of the State. Although there is no requirement as to the number of
people that should reside in the State but this is a dependent on the size of the State. In the
definition, it is stated that the “community of persons should be more or less numerous” which
signifies that if the territory is big or large then it needs a “more numerous number of people.”
But if it is small it needs only a “less numerous number of people” to reside in it. China and
India, for Instance, exemplify more numerous people due to their large territory. These are two
countries which have more than a billion in population at 1.1 and 1.4 billion people, respectively.
Vatican, a city within a city and a State within a State, has only a population of more than a
thousand composed mostly of clerics and security personnel. This is because its land area is as
large only as that of the Rizal Park in the Philippines.

Territory

This element together with “people” is the most important element of the State. The
people might exist but if they do not have a fixed territory to live in would render useless their
existence. They will be considered nomadic people of the olden times and are Stateless in
modern context. As an element of the State, is there any requirement as to the size of a territory
needed by the people? The definition of State can clarify this question. It says in the definition
that the State is “permanently occupying a definite portion of territory.” The term used is clear
and unambiguous that it should be “permanent and definite portion of territory.” The Philippines,
for instance, is a small country, which has a land area of 300,000 square kilometers or 115,000
square miles or less. This territory is inhabited by about 91 million Filipinos. The existence of a
territory inhabited by the Filipinos satisfies the requirement of a “permanent and definite”
portion of territory. The countries that have big territories are Russia (17.07 million sq. km.),
Canada (9.98 million sq. km.), the USA (9.63 million sq. km.), China (9.59 million sq km.), and
Brazil (8.5 million sq. km.).

Government

This element is the agency through which the will of the State is formulated, expressed,
and carried out. The State is a perfect political institution and it operates through its agency- the
government. This agency of the State is responsible in organizing all the people (citizens and
foreigners), groups, sectors, agencies, and offices, which are operating within the territorial
boundaries and jurisdiction of the country. The word Government, in capital “G,” is sometimes
used to refer to the person or aggregate of persons in whose hands are placed for the time being
the function of political control. This body of men usually referred to as administration. This is
the reason sometimes people will refer to the government as the “Government or the
Administration of” Emilio Aguinaldo (Manuel Quezon, Jose P. Laurel, Sergio Osmena, Manuel
Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, Ferdinand
E, Marcos, Corazon Aquino, Fidel Ramos, and Joseph Estrada). This means that the term
“Government” refers to the “President” in the case of Presidential system or the “Prime
Minister” in the case of a Parliamentary system of government.

Sovereignty

This requisite refers to the supreme power of the State to command and enforce
obedience to its inhabitants. The sovereign power of the State has two manifestations: internal
and external. Internal is the authority of the State to rule within its territorial jurisdiction and
external is the freedom from control of other States.

KINDS OF GOVERRNMENT

Relative to the discussion on government is the classification of different types.

Governments vary widely in the nature of their organization, in the extent of authority that they
exercised, in the relations among their various organs, and in many other ways. The following
are the classifications:

1. According to the number of persons who share in exercising the sovereign powers of the
State, Aristotle classified it as :
1.1 Monarchy- This is known as the rule of one. A monarchial government is ruled by a King
or by an Emperor. It is further classified as:
1.1.1 Absolute Monarchy – One in which the ruler rules by divine right. This claim
to divine right ruling is prevailed in the ancient oriental empires where the
rulers consider themselves as the descendants of God. The Hebrews thought
the Lord had created the governmental order, and the early Christians believed
that God had imposed the State upon man as a punishment for his sins. The
Protestant Reformation strengthened this belief by the Monarchs that they have
received their authority to govern directly from God.
1.1.2 Constitutional Monarchy- One in which the authority of the ruler is limited by
the Constitution. Point in case was the Magna Carta (Great Charter) of 12 15 of
 the English people, which limited the power of the monarch. This signaled the
regeneration of a new kind of administrative order in governance.
1.2 Aristocracy – This is the government of the few for the benefit of the few. Or one in
which political power is exercised by a few privileged class like the intellectual or the
rich people.
1.3 Democracy- This is the government of the many. The Americans defined it as the
government of the people, by the people, and for the people. Democracy is further
classified as:
1.3.1 Direct or Pure Democracy – One in which the will of the State is formulated or
expressed directly by the people in a mass meeting or assembly.
1.3.2 Indirect, Representative, or Republican – One in which the will of the State is
formulated and expressed through the select body or persons or delegates chosen by the
people to act as their representatives in the government.

2. According to the nature of tenure of the officials

2.1 Hereditary – One ruled by persons deriving powers from their predecessors who are
related to them by consanguinity. Emperorship or kingship is an example of this government.

2.2 Elective or Popular – One in which the administrators of the government are chosen by
the people through the electoral process of a certain country.

3. According to the distribution or concentration of governmental powers

3.1 Unitary or Centralized – One in which the powers of government are concentrated in the
central government represented by the majority party in power.

3.2 Federal- One in which governmental powers are distributed between the central
government and the local governments or states. Each one being supreme within its
territorial boundaries but not in external relations.

4. According to the relations of the legislature and the executive

4.1 Parliamentary System – One in which the Chief Executive (the Prime Minister) and his
cabinet is directly responsible to the legislative branch of the government whereas, the Head
of State occupies the position of the irresponsibility. The head of the State is just a ceremonial
figure.

4.2 Presidential System – One in which the Chief Executive (the President) is directly
responsible to the people for he is directly chosen by them during elections. The three
branches of the government: the legislature, the judiciary, and the executive are distinct
and separate from each other. The legislature enacts the law, the executive executes the
law, and the judiciary applies or interprets the law.

PRE-SPANISH SOCIETY

Baranganic Government (AD 1-1565)

Long before Magellan arrived in the Philippines in 1521, the natives in this community
had their own government. This government was called barangay. The term barangay
comes from the Malay term balangay, which means boat. In this community, each
barangay was independent from each other like a sovereign state now. The barangay has
 sufficient inhabitants (people), definite portion of territory, independent and effective
government, and a chieftain exercising sovereign power over the area and its population.

POWERS OF THE DATU

The Datu as Chief Executive

The head of the barangay is called Datu. The Datu inherited his position. Likewise the
Datu is succeeded to the throne by his eldest son. If the Datu does not have a son, the
position can be passed on his eldest daughter. In the absence of a daughter, the Datu’s
eldest brother shall succeed him. If, still, the Datu does not have any relative to inherit the
position, then the people will elect who shall become the next leader of the barangay on
the basis of wisdom, bravery, wealth, experience, and noble deeds.

As the chief executive, the Datu has the responsibility to implement or execute the laws of
the barangay, written or unwritten.

The Datu as Chief Legislator

During the baranganic society, the Datu was the legislative authority. He has assisted by
the Council of Elders or the so-called Maginoos of the barangay. Whenever the Datu
proposes a law, he’s going to consult the Elders for their wisdom, which is necessary for
the adoption of a better law for the barangay. The Datu believes in the principle of “two
heads are better than one.” The Elders are experienced members of the society so that the
Datu cannot afford not to consult them. To be a member of the Council and to act as an
adviser of the Datu, one must be knowledgeable, respectable, honest, courageous, and
trustworthy.

When a law is adopted, the Datu will commission the services of the barangay crier or
announcer as umalohokan to inform the inhabitants about the enactment of a new
barangay law. The laws of the barangay are either written or unwritten (customary).
During the baranganic society, there were two known written laws or codes: (1) Maragtas
Code alleged to have been written by Datu Sumakwel of Panay in 1250 AD and (2) Code
of Kalantiaw written in 1433 AD by Datu Kalantiaw also of Panay.

The Datu as Chief Judge

As chief justice, he applies the law or adjudicates on cases brought before him by his
people. Accordingly, there are two judicial processes during the baranganic society, these
are: (1) the trial by jury, and (2) trial by ordeal. In the trial by jury, the Datu is the chief
judge while the Council of Elders acts as the jurors. The jurors shall be the ones to decide
cases while the Datu shall be the one to promulgate the decision of the jury.

In the trial by ordeal, the Datu shall preside and adjudicate on cases. The word ordeal
means test or painful process. For instance, the Datu will require the accused persons to
pick up a stone in a container of boiling water. If one of the accused persons to pick up a
stone in a ceremony, he will be adjudged as a guilty one. If all the accused will dare the
ceremony, then the accused who has had the biggest wound shall be declared guilty.

It is believed that these judicial processes are based on the belief system of the people. If
the accused is not guilty, his anito would save him from punishment, but if one is guilty
the anito does not tolerate wrongdoing hence, he will not be saved from punishment. Such
was the belief of the natives then.
The Datu as Military Commander

To complete the omnipotence of the Datu, he also wields the sword for having been
granted the power of military. The Datu is the commander of the barangay armed forces.
He can declare war but can also halt war by employing tact in diplomacy as a statesman.
Whenever the Datu declares war with another barangay, the maharlika will help the Datu
in financing the war and qualified members of the barangay shall serve as soldiers of the
Datu.

THE COMING OF MAGELLAN

Magellan’s falling out his hometown of Portugal started when he was accused of selling a
quantity of livestock (animals) back to the moors and pocketing the proceeds. When he
learned about the accusation, Magellan sailed back to Lisbon, Portugal to see King
Manuel I to clear his name. However, King Manuel I refused to give him an audience and
instead ordered Magellan to go back to Morocco, Africa. There, he was prosecuted for
theft. He easily defended himself and was cleared of all charges. Despite this acquittal, he
was never trusted again by King Manuel I. In short, he fell from the King’s grace.

MAGELLAN WENT TO SPAIN

When he returned to Portugal, he petitioned the King for a small allowance in

recognition for his long service but King Manuel I turned him down with contempt and
even suggested that Magellan should sell his services elsewhere. This seems to be the last
straw that broke the camel’s back, so to speak, that Magellan decided to wipe off
Portugal’s dust in his shoes and went to Spain to appease himself.

Rejected and frustrated he pound his time studying all the charts, maps, and
pilots’ logs that he could find in Lisbon’s House of the indies and the Guinea Coast, where
the nations ‘maritime achieves were kept. These were his sources about the voyages of
discovery westward across the Atlantic. He learned that:

1. Columbus had scouted much of Central American coast without finding th Indies or
a break in the land leading to the west.
2. In 1497, John Cabot expedition under King Henry VII of England had found a solid
continent to the North of Columbus explorations.
3. Pedro Cabral, following Da Gama’s route to India, had bumped out Brazil.
4. Amerigo Vespucci in 1501 had struck down Brazil and possibly up to Rio de la
Plata or even Patagonia (Argentina.)
5. Vasco Nunez de Balboa, a colonist in Panama, had crossed a narrow Isthmus of
Panama and found salt water and named it South Sea.

Armed with his navigational knowledge, he left Portugal in October 1517. He

travelled to Seville, Spain’s principal center of West Indian Trade. He presented his
project before the board of Seville’s Casa de Contratacion – a body responsible for
Spain’s colonial trade. It was initially rejected but the Chairman of the Board- Juan de
Andrada- came to Magellan’s rescue. He wanted to sponsor the expedition in exchange for
 a 1/8 share in the profits. This he relayed to the King’s Council- a powerful body that
could overrule the Casa de Contratacion.

Magellan and Andrada presented their purported project to the King’s Council
with the help of Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, a crafty and powerful bishop of Burgos.
Bartolome de las Casa, a Spanish chronicler, provided a description of the historic
meeting, thus:

Magellan produced a painted leather globe that showed South

America and his intended down its east coast. He then proceeded to expound for
the Council on the wealth to be found in the East Indies. He produced a letter
from an old comrade-in-arms named Francisco Serrao, whom he had acquired
years before in Malacca. Then his friends Ruy de Faleiro demonstrated that, by
his calculations, the Spice Islands must fal within Spain’s share of the globe.

The presentation of Magellan convinced Fonseca and ordered him to have an

audience with King Charles I, who was only 18 years old at that time. On March 22, 1518,
King Charles I granted Magellan and de Faleiro a contract. Faleiro later was removed
from the expedition for he became paranoid that some people were plotting to steal their
plan and reach the Moluccas ahead of them (Humble, 1978). Part of the contract says:

The King agreed to fit the expedition to be commanded jointly by Magellan and
Faleiro and promised to send out no other expeditions by the same route for a period of
10 years and said expedition would consists of five (5) ships with crew, victuals, artillery,
and supplies sufficient for two yers. In the financial clauses, Magellan and Faleiro were
assigned one-twentieth (1/20) of all income to be derived from the lands they would
discover more than six islands. Furthermore, the contract conferred on Magellan and
Faleiro the title Adelantado of the lands they would find and the office of Captain
General with plenary powers (Zaide, 1957).

MAGELLAN’S VOYAGE

The voyage sailed into the Atlantic Ocean on September 20, 1519. The two most
important persons of the expedition were Enrique of Malaca and Antonio Pigafetta both were
on board on Magellan’s flagship- the Trinidad. Antonio Pigafetta was a Venetian adventurer.
He was accepted not as an officer or a crew but as an observer. He demanded nothing except to
be taken in. There was one theory to the self-inclusion of Pigafetta in that he was a spy in the
employ of Venice. This was because Venice represented the inroads made by Portugal on their
eastern trade and Spain might be doing the same through the Magellan’s expedition.

Pigafetta’s narrative of the voyage begins on August 10, 1519. The voyage
consists of five ships- Trinidad, Concepcion, Victoria, Santiago, and San Antonio. Magellan
passed through the bulge of Africa to the bulge of Brazil, to Pernambuco (Recife) on
November 29, 1519, then to Rio de Janeiro and stayed there until December 26, 1519, going
down to Rio del Plata, and then to the coast of Argentina (Patagonia) and named it Port San
Julian. The port was their home for five months. Something memorable happened in this place
on April 1, 1520. A mutiny broke out led by Gaspar Quesada (Concepcion) who took over San
Antonio and freed Juan de Cartagena (former captain of San Antonio and placed in command
of Concepcion by Gaspar Quesada), Luis de Mendoza (Victoria). Magellan was able to repulse
the mutiny. After the uprising, swift justice was meted out to the culprits. Both Mendoza and
Quesada were quartered (cut into four pieces) and Juan de Cartagena was lest in Argentina. He
found 40 crewmen guilty of treason and sentenced them to death. These men were later
pardoned along with two officers who had taken minor parts in the mutiny. Magellan’s
magnanimity paid off for these men became loyal for the rest of the voyage until they
rediscovered the Philippines.

When Magellan left Argentina, all his captains were Portuguese. These captains
were his brother-in-law Diego Barbosa (Victoria), his cousin Alvaro de Mezquita (San
Antonio), and Juan Serrao (Concepcion). The smallest ship, Santiago, was destroyed by a
strong typhoon while exploring the southern part of Argentina. Just after discovering the strait
at the tail end of Argentina, San Antonio, the biggest ship, which carried most of the stores of
food, deserted the expedition. On November 28, 1520, Magellan entered the Pacific Ocean.
Pigafetta recorded that “On Wednesday the 28 th of November, 1520, we issued forth from the
said strait and entered the Pacific Sea.”

On March 6, 1521, Magellan saw the outlaying atolls of Mariana Islands. When
they got there, the islanders swarmed out their belongings and tried to steal everything not
nailed down. Pigafetta said, “The people of those islands entered the ships and robbed us so
that we could not protect ourselves from them.”

MAGELLAN IN THE PHILIPPINES

After this stopover, Magellan went ahead and on March 16, 1521 saw the towering height
of the inhabited little island of Homonhon, at the mouth of Leyte Gulf. Some of the crew went
out only on March 17, 1521 to look for fresh water. They found two excellent springs of
unlimited clean and clear water. They stayed in Homonhon for eight days. On March 28 (Holy
Thursday), they reached Limasawa. Communication with the natives was never a problem for
Enrique understood the local dialect. Magellan befriended its ruler Rajah Calambu and later
and later entered a “Sanduguan or blood compact.” On March 31, 1521 (Eastern Sunday), he
invited Rajah Calambu and his brother, Rajah Siaui, ruler of the Leyte Gulf Islands, to a public
mass. Now, under Republic Act No. 2733 (June 10, 1960), it asserts that the first mass in the
Philippines took place at a site in Limasawa, Southern Leyte and declared the site a national
shrine.

On April 3, 1521, Rajah Calambu accompanied Magellan to Cebu. Magellan met a very
different ruler in Humabon who demanded Magellan to pay tribute to him. He even told his
visitors that only four days a ship from the Kingdom of Siam came and paid him tribute of gold
and slaves. At this juncture, Enrique politely told Humabon that Magellan served the most
powerful ruler of the world. Enrique continued with a voice of admonition that the ships of
Spain had come in peace, but if Humabon wanted war, war he could have. At this tens
situation, a Siamese merchant came in and warned Humabon as well as saying:

“Have good care. O king what you do, for these men are of those who
have conquered Calicut, Malacca and all of India the Greater. If you give them good
reception and treat them well, it will be well for you, but if you treat them ill, so much the
worse it will be for you, as they have done at Calicut and at Malacca.”

After this exchange, Humabon was converted to Christianity in a public ceremony. He

was named “Don Carlos” in honor of King Charles I. On April 26, 1521, Zula, a rival of
Lapulapu in the island of Mactan, went to Cebu and reported that the latter refused to accept
the authority of Magellan. Instantly, Magellan organized a group of 60 European warriors and
commanded them to Mactan. On April 27, 1521, he went to the Island of Mactan to confront
Lapulapu. What followed was the so-called “Battle of Mactan” where Magellan was killed by
Lapulapu’s men. What happened to the Europeans had chronicled by Pigafetta, thus:

Lapulapu’s warriors, seeing that Magellan led the landing party,

concentrated their fire on him. But as a good captain and a knight, he still stood fast with
some others, fighting thus for an hour. And as he refused to retire further, an Indian
threw a bamboo lance, leaving on his body. Then, trying to lay hand on his sword, he
could draw it oput but halfway, because of a wpund from a bamboo lance that he had in
his arm. Which seeing, all those people threw themselves on him, and one of them with a
large javelin thrust it into his left leg, whereby he fell face downward. On this, all at once
rushed upon him with lances of iron and of bamboo and with these javelins, so that they
slew our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide.

The death of Magellan struck a blow to his men. The leaderless crew members were so
devastated. They could not decide who should lead the group. The men finally voted Duarte
Barbosa and Juan Serrao as joint commanders. The group went back to Cebu only to meet
another disaster. The Cebuanos massacred the Europeans including the new commanders
(Humble, 1978). It is believed that the massacre of the Europeans in the hands of the Cebuanos
was in retaliation with what they have done to the native women. Enrique of Malacca was part
of this plan as a way of revenge against Magellan’s brother-in-law.

After the grand party, the Europeans burned the Concepcion ship for there were no
enough men to navigate it. They sailed to the Moluccas where they loaded a handsome amount
of spices. The Trinidad, now captained by Gomez de Espinosa, shall go back to Spain via the
Pacific Ocean to discover the passageway in Panama but failed to leave the Moluccas for it
was captured by the Portuguese sailors. The Victoria ship, Sebastian de Elcano in command,
went back to Spain via the Cape Town in Africa. It reached Spain on September 6, 1522, with
only 18 survivors. This was the first ship to circumnavigate the world and Sebastian de Elcano
as the first man to have done so. The trip lasted for almost three years (2 years, 11 months and
16 days). As the historical adage says: … And the rest is history.

GOVERNMENTS DURING THE SPANISH COLONIZATION (1565-1898)

The discovery by Ferdinand Magellan (Spanish name, Fernando Magallanes; Portuguese

Magalhaes) of the Philippines in 1521 was the backdrop of the coming of Spain to the
Philippines. After Magellan’s expedition, Spain sent four successive but unsuccessful
expeditions led by Cabot, Loaisa, Saavedra, and Villalobos, Spain, against all odds, sent
another one in 1564 headed by a rich banker, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. This was the most
successful expedition for it planted the seeds of Spanish sovereignty in the Philippines. Spain
gave the name Isla Felipinas (Philippine Islands) in honor of then Prince Philip who later
became King Philip II.

From the beginning of Spanish rule, the Philippines was ruled by the King of Spain
through the viceroy of Mexico, which lasted up 20 1821. Assisting the viceroy was the Council
of the Indies that was created by King Charles I (Emperor Charles V of the Holy Roman
Empire) on August 1, 1524. At the onset, the first governor general, Miguel Lopez de Legazpi,
constituted the so-called encomienda headed by an encomiendero. An encomienda is given to a
Spanish officer who helped in the pacification of the natives. The duties and responsibilities of
the encomiendero were: (1) to keep peace and order, (2) to protect the inhabitants, (3) to
 Christianize the people, (4) to educate the people, and the most important is (5) to collect tax.
There are three kinds of encomienda:

1. Royal – This was exclusively owned by the King of Spain and was consisted
of cities, seaports, and inhabitants of regions rich in natural resources.
2. Private – Owned by private persons or charitable institutions such as the
College of Santa Potenciana and the Hospital of San Juan de Dios.
3. Ecclesiastical – This is owned by religious orders.

The encomienda system lasted and finally ended in the first decade of the 19th Century
(Zaide, 1999). The encomienda has later replaced by the provinces, cities, municipalities, and
barrios. Hence, the Spanish government in the Philippines could be dissolved into two, the
national and local levels.

THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

At the national level, in 1821 the Spanish King governed the colony through his personal
representative, the governor general, who was also under the immediate supervision of the
Council of Minister (Minister of the Colonies). Aruego, Resano-Condez, Aquino, and Dumalo
(1974) cited that the term of office of the governor general was at first for eight years, then, it
was reduced to three years. However, since the governor general was the personal representative
of the King of Spain, he served only at the pleasure of the King. There were also instances when
the governor general himself was a victim of the political tug-of-war of the conservative and
liberal parties in Spain, or when he had manipulated by the hing ranking officers of the church.

From 1822 to 1898, the governors general were officers of the Spanish Army. The first
governor general was Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the last was Diego de los Rios.

The governor general had broad powers, In reality, he exercised the powers of the King
of Spain in the Philippines. His powers are:

1. Executive – The governor general, as the chief executive, has the duty to execute the
laws, appoint and remove officials, preserve peace and order, supervise the collection of
taxes, and supervise and control administrative branches of the government.
2. Legislative – The governor general can enact his own decree, edict, or ordinance, which
has the force of law. He can also suspend the enforcement of royal decrees and orders
coming from the Spain.
3. Judicial – The governor general was the president of the Royal Audiencia in the
Philippines up to 1861. He had also the power to grant pardon and amnesty.
4. Military – The governor general acted as the Captain General. S such, he was the
commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of Spain in the country. He had therefore the
obligations to suppress revolts, uprisings, foreign invasion, and at the same time to send
expeditionary forces to foreign lands.
5. Diplomatic – The governor general was empowered to appoint ambassadors to and
receive ambassadors from foreign countries. He was also empowered to declare war and
conclude peace treaties.
6. Religious – As governors general and upon the recommendation of the Bishop or
Archbishop, he can appoint or assign priests to their parishes and approve the creation or
abolition of parishes.

Checks to Gubernatorial Powers

 In any governmental setup, democratic or totalitarian, checks to the powers of the ruling
class shall be provided to make it function effectively. The King of Spain has decided to create
the following agencies to safeguard the excesses of the governor general. These are:

1. Residencia – It is a special court, which hosts the trial of an outgoing governor general
and other Spanish colonial officials for them to account for their acts while in office
(Aruego, 1974; Zaide, 1999).
2. Visitador – A secret investigator, which the King or viceroy of Mexico sent to the colony
to investigate conditions in the colony and to make necessary reports to the King of
Spain.
3. Royal Audiencia – This was the Supreme Court in the Philippines during the Spanish
colonization. It was created by a royal decree of May 15, 1583. The President of the royal
audiencia was the governor general. It started operating on June 15, 1584 with Governor
General Santiago de Vera as its first President. The Royal Audiencia had also performed
executive function (acted as governor general), legislative function (through the creation
of laws called autos acordados or acts agreed upon), and administrative function ( as
auditor of the colonial government).
4. Archbishop and the clergy – These religious figures were very influential in the king’s
court. They could remove a governor general like in the case of Ramon Blanco in 1896.
5. Complaints sent by subordinate officials and private citizens to the King’s court.

Local Governments

The local administration in the Philippines was entrusted to the following administrations:

1. Provincial government – This territory was formerly known as the encomienda. It was
also called lalawigan or provincial. There were two kinds of provinces:
1.1 Alcaldia or a pacified provinces headed by the Alcalde Mayor. The alcalde
mayor can engage in trade through the so-called indulto de commercio. This
special privilege was granted to them from 1751 to 1844. Only a Spaniard can
be an alcalde mayor. Aside from being the provincial administrator, the
alcalde mayor also acted as judge, chief of police, tribute collector, and
captain general of the province (Agoncillo, 1990). In 1886, executive function
was removed from the alcalde mayor. In place of him a civil governor was
appointed but the alcalde mayor continued to perform judicial functions
(Aruego, et al., 1974).
1.2 Corregimiento or an unpacified province (military zones) headed by the
Corregidor.
2. City government – The city government was known as ayuntamiento. The ayuntamineto
was headed by a cabildo. A cabildo or city council was composed of one or two alcaldes
ordinaries (mayor) who were elected by the Spanish residents of the city, regodores or
councilors, alguacil mayor or chief constable, and escribano or secretary. At the end of
the 17th century, there were six cities in the Philippines, these were:
2.1 Manila
2.2 Vigan (Villa Fernandina)
2.3 Lal-lo Cagayan (Nueva Segovia)
2.4 Naga (Nueva Caceres)
2.5 Cebu
2.6 Iloilo (Villa Arevalo)
3. Municipal government – The provinces were divided into towns or pueblos. The
municipio was headed by a gobernadorciillo, the highest position that could be held by a
 Filipino. In 1894, the gobernadorcillo was replaced by a captain or capitana. The
administrative functions of a gobernadorcillo were:
3.1 Preparation of a pardon or tribute list
3.2 Recruitment and distribution of men for the draft labor
3.3 Communal public work
3.4 Quinto or military conscription
3.5 Postal clerk
3.6 Judge in civil suits involving ₱44.00 or less
His multifarious duties earned for him an annual salary of ₱24.00 but
exempt from paying taxes. For him to function effectively, he has to be
assisted by the following officers:
3.7 Supernumeraries or inspectors (teniente de justicia)
3.8 Constables (aguaciles)
3.9 Four teniente segunda
3.10 Lieutenants of districts ( teniente del barrio)
3.11 Secretary (directorcillo)
4. Barrio government – Every municipality was divided into barrios. These barrios were
carry-over from the pre-Spanish barangays headed by the Datu. During the Spanish
colonization, each barrio was headed by a cabeza de barangay. The cabeza de barangay
was exempt from paying taxes for those who served 25 years were exempt from forced
labor. The duties and functions of the cabeza de barangay were the following:
4.1 Collection of tax and contributions
4.2 Promotion of peace and order
4.3 Recruitment of polistas for communal public works
The following qualifications of cabeza de barangay who served for three-year
term were as follows:
4.4 Literacy to Spanish
4.5 Good moral character
4.6 Property ownership

Francis Arthur P. Limbaga

Instructor