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Quasi-Static Voltage Scaling For Energy Minimization With Time Constraints
Quasi-Static Voltage Scaling For Energy Minimization With Time Constraints
1, JANUARY 2011
Abstract—Supply voltage scaling and adaptive body biasing have their advantages and disadvantages. Offline voltage selec-
(ABB) are important techniques that help to reduce the energy tion approaches avoid the computational overhead in terms of
dissipation of embedded systems. This is achieved by dynamically time and energy associated with the calculation of the voltage
adjusting the voltage and performance settings according to the
application needs. In order to take full advantage of slack that
settings. However, to guarantee the fulfillment of deadline con-
arises from variations in the execution time, it is important to straints, worst case execution times (WCETs) have to be consid-
recalculate the voltage (performance) settings during runtime, i.e., ered during the voltage calculation. In reality, nevertheless, the
online. However, optimal voltage scaling algorithms are computa- actual execution time of the tasks, for most of their activations, is
tionally expensive, and thus, if used online, significantly hamper shorter than their WCET, with variations of up to ten times [11].
the possible energy savings. To overcome the online complexity, Thus, an offline optimization based on the worst case is too pes-
we propose a quasi-static voltage scaling (QSVS) scheme, with a
constant online time complexity (1). This allows to increase the simistic and hampers the achievable energy savings. In order to
exploitable slack as well as to avoid the energy dissipated due to take advantage of the dynamic slack that arises from variations
online recalculation of the voltage settings. in the execution times, it is useful to dynamically recalculate the
Index Terms—Energy minimization, online voltage scaling, voltage settings during application runtime, i.e., online.
quasi-static voltage scaling (QSVS), real-time systems, voltage Dynamic approaches, however, suffer from the significant
scaling. overhead in terms of execution time and power consumption
caused by the online voltage calculation. As we will show, this
overhead is intolerably large even if low-complexity on-
I. INTRODUCTION AND RELATED WORK line heuristics are used instead of higher complexity optimal al-
gorithms. Unfortunately, researchers have neglected this over-
T WO system-level approaches that allow an energy/perfor-
mance tradeoff during application runtime are dynamic
voltage scaling (DVS) [1]–[3] and adaptive body biasing (ABB)
head when reporting high-quality results obtained with dynamic
approaches [3], [7]–[9].
[2], [4]. While DVS aims to reduce the dynamic power con- Hong and Srivastava [7] developed an online preemptive
sumption by scaling down circuit supply voltage , ABB is scheduling algorithm for sporadic and periodic tasks. The
effective in reducing the leakage power by scaling down fre- authors propose a linear complexity voltage scaling heuristic
quency and increasing the threshold voltage through body which uniformly distributes the available slack. An acceptance
biasing. Voltage scaling (VS) approaches for time-constrained test is performed online, whenever a new sporadic task arrives.
multitask systems can be broadly classified into offline (e.g., [1], If the task can be executed without deadline violations, a new
[3], and [5][6]) and online (e.g., [3] and [7]–[10]) techniques, set of voltages for the ready tasks is computed.
depending on when the actual voltage settings are calculated. In [8], a power-aware hard real-time scheduling algorithm
Offline techniques calculate all voltage settings at compile time that considers the possibility of early completion of tasks is
(before the actual execution), i.e., the voltage settings for each proposed. The proposed solution consists of three parts: 1) an
task in the system are not changed at runtime. In particular, An- offline part where optimal voltages are computed based on the
drei et al. [6] present optimal algorithms as well as a heuristic WCET, 2) an online part where slack from earlier finished tasks
for overhead-aware offline voltage selection, for real-time tasks is redistributed to the remaining tasks, and 3) an online spec-
with precedence constraints running on multiprocessor hard- ulative speed adjustment to anticipate early completions of fu-
ware architectures. On the other hand, online techniques re- ture executions. Assuming that tasks can possibly finish before
compute the voltage settings during runtime. Both approaches their WCET, an aggressive scaling policy is proposed. Tasks are
run at a lower speed than the one computed assuming the worst
Manuscript received December 04, 2008; revised April 16, 2009 and June 29, case, as long as deadlines can still be met by speeding up the
2009. First published October 23, 2009; current version published December 27,
2010.
next tasks in case the effective execution time was higher than
A. Andrei is with Ericsson AB, Linköping 58112, Sweden. expected. As the authors do not assume any knowledge of the
P. Eles and Z. Peng are with the Department of Computer and Information expected execution time, they experiment several levels of ag-
Science Linköping University, Linköping 58183, Sweden.
O. Jovanovic is with the Department of Computer Science XII, University of
gressiveness.
Dortmund, Dortmund 44221, Germany. Zhu and Mueller [9], [10] introduced a feedback earliest
M. Schmitz is with Diesel Systems for Commercial Vehicles Robert BOSCH deadline first (EDF) scheduling algorithm with DVS for hard
GmbH, Stuttgart 70469, Germany.
J. Ogniewski is with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Linköping
real-time systems with dynamic workloads. Each task is divided
University, Linköping 58183, Sweden. in two parts, representing: 1) the expected execution time, and
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TVLSI.2009.2030199 2) the difference between the worst case and the expected
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12 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI) SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2011
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ANDREI et al.: QUASI-STATIC VOLTAGE SCALING FOR ENERGY MINIMIZATION WITH TIME CONSTRAINTS 13
TABLE I 900 CPU cycles each time new voltage settings have to be calcu-
SIMULATION RESULTS (CLOCK CYCLES) OF DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS lated. Note that the complexity of the online quasi-static voltage
selection is independent of the number of remaining tasks.
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14 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI) SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2011
Fig. 3. QSVS based on prestored LUTs. (a) Optimization based on continuous voltage scaling. (b) Optimization based on discrete voltage.
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ANDREI et al.: QUASI-STATIC VOLTAGE SCALING FOR ENERGY MINIMIZATION WITH TIME CONSTRAINTS 15
A. Offline Algorithm
In this section, we will present the continuous voltage scaling
algorithm used in line 18 of Fig. 4. The problem can be formu-
lated as a convex nonlinear optimization as follows: Minimize
ENC
(4)
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16 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI) SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2011
(line 05–06). This guarantees the correct real-time ex- the expected number of clock cycles is used for each task in the
ecution, since the frequency from was calculated as- objective function.
suming a start time later than the actual one. The start time of the current task has to match the start time
We do not directly interpolate the setting for the body-bias assumed for the currently calculated LUT entry (13). The rela-
voltage , due to the nonlinear relation between frequency, tion between execution time and number of clock cycles is ex-
supply voltage, and body-bias voltage. We calculate the body- pressed in (14). For similar reasons as in Section V-A, the WNC
bias voltage directly from the interpolated frequency and supply number of clock cycles WNC is used for the current task .
voltage values, using (3) (line 08). The algorithm returns the For the remaining tasks, the execution time is calculated based
settings for the frequency, supply and body-bias voltage (line on the expected number of clock cycles ENC . In order to guar-
09). The time complexity of the quasi-static online algorithm is antee that the deadlines are met in the worst case, (18) forces
. task to complete in the worst case before its latest finishing
time LFT .
Similar to the continuous formulation from Section V-A, (16)
VI. VOLTAGE SCALING ALGORITHM WITH
and (17) are needed for distributing the slack according to the
DISCRETE VOLTAGE LEVELS
expected case. Furthermore, arrival times can also be taken into
We consider that processors can run in different modes consideration by replacing the value 0 in (19) with a particular
. Each mode is characterized by a voltage pair arrival time.
that determines the operational frequency , As shown in [6], the discrete voltage scaling problem is NP
the normalized dynamic power , and the leakage power hard. Thus, performing the exact calculation inside an optimiza-
dissipation . The frequency and the leakage power are tion loop as in Fig. 4 is not feasible in practice. If the restriction
given by (3) and (2), respectively. The normalized dynamic of the number the clock cycles to the integer domain is relaxed,
power is given by . the problem can be solved efficiently in polynomial time using
linear programming. The difference in energy between the op-
A. Offline Algorithm timal solution and the relaxed problem is below 1%. This is due
We present the voltage scaling algorithm used in line 22 of to the fact that the number of clock cycles is large and thus the
Fig. 4. The problem is formulated using mixed integer linear energy differences caused by rounding a clock cycle for each
programming (MILP) as follows. task are very small.
Minimize Using this linear programming formulation, we compute of-
fline for each task the number of clock cycles to be executed
(12) in each mode and the resulting end time, given several possible
start times. At this point it is interesting to make the following
observations.
subject to For each task, if the variables are not restricted to the
(13) integer domain, after performing the optimal voltage selection
computation, the resulting number of clock cycles assigned to
a task is different from zero for at most two of the modes. The
(14)
demonstration is given in [29].2 This property will be used by
WNC if the online algorithm outlined in the next section.
(15)
ENC if Moreover, for each task, a table of the so-called
can be derived offline. Given a mode ,
with deadline (16)
there exists one single mode with such that the
energy obtained using the pair is lower than the
energy achievable using any other mode
paired with . We will refer to two such modes and
(17) as compatible. The compatible mode pairs are specific for each
LFT is the current task (18) task. In the example illustrated by Fig. 6(b), from all possible
mode combinations, the pair that provides the best energy
(19) 2Ishihara and Yasuura [1] present a similar result, that is given a certain exe-
and is integer (20) cution time, using two frequencies will always provide the minimal energy con-
sumption. However, what is not mentioned there is that this statement is only
true if the numbers of clock cycles to be executed using the two frequencies are
The task execution time and the number of clock cycles not integers. The flaw in their proof is located in (8), where they assume that the
spent within a mode are the variables in the MILP for- execution time achievable by using two frequencies is identical to the execu-
mulation. The number of clock cycles has to be an integer and tion time achievable using three frequencies. When the numbers of clock cycles
are integers, this is mathematically not true. In our experience, from a practical
hence is restricted to the integer domain (20). The total en- perspective, the usage of only two frequencies provides energy savings that are
ergy consumption to be minimized, expressed by the objective very close to the optimal. However, the selection of the two frequencies must
in (12), is given by two sums. The inner sum indicates the energy be performed carefully. Ishihara and Yasuura [1] propose the determination of
dissipated by an individual task , depending on the time the discrete frequencies as the ones surrounding the continuous frequency cal-
culated by dividing the available execution time by the WNC number of clock
spent in each mode , while the outer sum adds up the energy of cycles. However, this could lead to a suboptimal selection of two incompatible
all tasks. Similar to the continuous algorithm from Section V-A, frequencies.
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ANDREI et al.: QUASI-STATIC VOLTAGE SCALING FOR ENERGY MINIMIZATION WITH TIME CONSTRAINTS 17
(21)
However, such a linear interpolation cannot guarantee the cor-
It is interesting to note that (21) and consequently the choice rect hard real-time execution. In order to guarantee the correct
of the mode with a lower frequency, given the one with a higher timing, among the two surrounding entries, the one with a higher
frequency, depend only on the task power profile and the on start time has to be used. For our example, if the actual start time
frequencies that are available on the processor. For a certain is 1.53, the LUT entry with start time 1.54 should be used. The
available execution time, there is at least one “high” mode that drawback of this approach, as will be shown by the experimental
can be used together with its compatible “low” mode such that results in Section IX, is the fact that a slack of
the timing constraints are met. If several such pairs can poten- time units cannot be exploited by the next task.
tially be used, the one that provides the best energy consump- 2) Efficient Online Calculation: Let us consider a LUT like
tion has to be selected. More details regarding this issue are in Fig. 6(a). It contains for each start time the number of clock
given in the next section. To conclude the description of the dis- cycles spent in each mode, as calculated by the offline algo-
crete offline algorithm, in addition to the LUT calculation, the rithm. As discussed in Section VI-A, maximum two modes have
table is also computed offline (line 24 of the number of cycles different from zero. Instead, however, of
Fig. 4), for each task. The computation is based on (21). The storing this “extended” table, we store a LUT like in Fig. 6(b),
pseudocode for this algorithm is given in [29]. which, for each start time contains the corresponding end time
as well as the mode with the highest frequency. Moreover, for
B. Online Algorithm each task, the table of compatible modes is also calculated of-
fline. The online algorithm is outlined in Fig. 7. The input con-
We present in this section the algorithm that is used online to sists of the task actual start time , the quasi-static scaling
select the discrete modes and their associated number of clock table , the table with the compatible modes, and the number
cycles for the next task , based on the actual start time and of interval steps LUT . As an output, the algorithm re-
precomputed values from . turns the number of clock cycles to be executed in each mode. In
In Section V-B, for the continuous voltages case, every LUT line 01, similar to the continuous online algorithm presented in
entry contains the frequency calculated by the voltage scaling Section V-B, we must find the LUT entries and surrounding
algorithm. At runtime, a linear interpolation of the two consec- the actual start time. In the next step, using the end time values
utive LUT entries with start times surrounding the actual start from the lines and , together with the actual start time, we
time of the next task is used to calculate the new frequency. As must calculate the end time of the task (line 02). The algorithm
opposed to the continuous calculation, in the discrete case, a selects as the end time for the next task the maximum between
task can be executed using several frequencies. This makes the the end times from the LUT entries and . In this way, the hard
interpolation difficult. real-time behavior is guaranteed.
1) Straightforward Approach: Let us assume, for example, At this point, given the actual start and the end time, we must
a LUT like the one illustrated in Fig. 6(a), and a start time of determine the two active modes and the number of clock cycles
1.53 for task . The LUT stores, for several possible start times, to be executed in each. This is done in lines 05–13. From the
the number of clock cycles associated to each execution mode, LUT, the upper and lower bounds and of the higher exe-
as calculated by the offline algorithm. Following the same ap- cution mode are extracted. Using the table of compatible modes
proach as in the continuous case, based on the actual start time, calculated offline, for each possible pair having the higher mode
the number of clock cycles for each performance mode should in the interval , a number of cycles in each mode are cal-
be interpolated using the entries with start times at 1.52 and 1.54. culated (line 07–08). is equivalent
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ANDREI et al.: QUASI-STATIC VOLTAGE SCALING FOR ENERGY MINIMIZATION WITH TIME CONSTRAINTS 19
Fig. 9. Multiprocessor system architecture. (a) Task graph. (b) System model. (c) Mapped and scheduled task graph.
Thus, it is more energy efficient to begin the exe- task is the energy consumed by that task when executing
cution of in mode if ENC the expected number of clock cycles ENC at the nominal
. voltages. Consequently, in order to allocate the LUT entries
3) ENC ENC . In this case, assuming the for each tasks, we use the following formula:
execution starts in , it is expected that the task will
LST EST
finish before switching to . Alternatively, if the exe- NL (29)
cution starts in , after executing clock cycles, the LST EST
processor must be taken from to where additional
ENC will be executed
VIII. QSVS FOR MULTIPROCESSOR SYSTEMS
ENC (27)
In this section, we address the online voltage scaling problem
ENC (28) for multiprocessor systems. We consider that the applications
are modeled as task graphs, similarly to Section II-A with the
It is more energy efficient to begin the execution of in same parameters associated to the tasks. The mapping of the
mode if . tasks on the processors and the schedule are given, and are cap-
4) ENC ENC . Similarly to the previous
tured by the mapped and scheduled task graph. Let us consider
case, if , it is better
the example task graph from Fig. 9(a) that is mapped on the mul-
to start in mode .
tiprocessor hardware architecture illustrated in Fig. 9(b). In this
As previously mentioned, these four possible scenarios are
example, tasks , and are mapped on processor 1, while
investigated at the end of the online algorithm in Fig. 7 in order
tasks , and are mapped on processor 2. The scheduled
to establish the order in which the execution modes are activated
task graph from Fig. 9(c) captures along with the data dependen-
for the next task .
cies [Fig. 9(a)] the scheduling dependencies marked with dotted
arrows (between and and between and ).
VII. CALCULATION OF THE LUT SIZES Similarly to the single-processor problem, the aim is to reduce
In this section, we address the problem of how many entries the energy consumption by exploiting dynamic slack resulted
to assign to each LUT under a given memory constraint, such from tasks that require less execution cycles than in their WNC.
that the resulting entries yield high energy savings. The number For efficiency reasons, the same quasi-static approach, based on
of entries in the LUT of each task has an influence on the so- storing a LUT for each task , is used.
lution quality, i.e., the energy consumption. This is because the The hardware architecture is depicted in Fig. 9, assuming,
approximations in the online algorithm become more accurate for example, a system with two processors. Note that each pro-
as the number of points increases. cessor has a dedicated memory that stores the instructions and
A simple approach to distribute the memory among the data for the tasks mapped on it, and their LUTs. The dedicated
LUTs is to allocate the same number of entries for each LUT. memories are connected to the corresponding processor via a
However, due to the fact that different tasks have different local bus. The shared memory, connected to the system bus, is
start time interval sizes and nominal energy consumptions, the used for synchronization, recording for each task whether it has
memory should be distributed using a more effective scheme completed the execution. When a task ends, it marks the corre-
(i.e., reserving more memory for critical tasks). In the fol- sponding entry in the shared memory. This information is used
lowing, we will introduce a heuristic approach to solve the by the scheduler, invoked when a task finishes, on the processor
LUT size problem. The two main parameters that determine the where the finished task is mapped. The scheduler has to decide
criticality (in the sense that it should be allocated more entries when to start and which performance modes to assign to the next
in the LUT) of a task are the size of the interval of possible task on that processor. The next task, determined by an offline
start times LST EST and the nominal expected energy schedule, can start only when its all predecessors have finished.
consumption . The expected energy consumption of a The performance modes are calculated using the LUTs.
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20 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI) SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2011
The quasi-static algorithms presented in Sections V and VI evaluated, resulting in a total of 10 000 evaluations for each
were designed for systems with a single processor. Neverthe- plot. As mentioned earlier, for this first experiment, we ignored
less, they can also be used in the case of multiprocessor systems, the computational overheads of all the investigated approaches,
with a few modifications. i.e., we assumed that the voltage scaling requires zero time
1) Continuous Approach: In the offline algorithm from and energy. Furthermore, the ANCs are set based on a normal
Section V-A, (7) that captures the precedence constraints be- distribution using the ENC as the mean value. Observing
tween tasks has to be replaced by Fig. 10(a) leads to the following interesting conclusions. First,
if the ANC corresponds to the WNC number, all voltage selec-
(30) tion techniques approach the theoretical limit. In other words,
if the application has been scaled for the WNC and all tasks
is the set of all edges in the extended task graph (precedence execute with WNC, then all online techniques perform equally
constrains and scheduling dependencies). well. This, however, changes if the ANC differs from the WNC,
2) Discrete Approach: In the offline algorithm from which is always the case in practice. For instance, in the case
Section VI-A, (17) that captures the precedence constraints has that the ratio between ANC and WNC is 0.1, we can observe
to be replaced by that ideal online voltage selection is 25% off the hypothetical
limit. On the other hand, the technique described in [3] is 60%
(31) worse than the hypothetical limit. The approaches based on
the methods proposed in [8] and [9] yield results that are 42%
Both online algorithms described in Sections V-B and VI-B and 45% below the theoretical optimum. Another interesting
can be used without modifications. observation is the fact that the ideal online scaling and our
At this point, it is interesting to note that the correct real- proposed quasi-static technique produce results of the same
time behavior is guaranteed also in the case of a multiprocessor high quality. Of course, the quality of the quasi-static voltage
system. The key is the fact that all the tasks, no matter when they selection depends on the number of entries that are stored in the
are started, will complete before or at their latest finishing time. LUTs. Due to the importance of this influence, we have devoted
a supplementary experiment to demonstrate how a number of
entries affect the voltage selection quality (this issue is further
IX. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
detailed by the experiments from Fig. 11, explained below). In
We have conducted several experiments using numerous gen- the experiment illustrated in Fig. 10(a)-(c), the total number of
erated benchmarks as well as two real-life applications, in order entries was set to 4000, which was sufficient to achieve results
to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed approach. The that differed with less then 0.5% from the ideal online scaling
processor parameters have been adopted from [2]. The transi- for task graphs with up to 100 nodes. In summary, Fig. 10(a)
tion overhead corresponding to a change in the processor set- demonstrates the high quality of the voltage settings produced
tings was assumed to be 100 clock cycles. by the quasi-static approach, which are very close to those
The first set of experiments was conducted in order to in- produced by the ideal algorithm and substantially better than
vestigate the quality of the results provided by different online the values produced by any other proposed approach.
voltage selection techniques in the case when their actual run- In order to evaluate the global quality of the different
time overhead is ignored. In Fig. 10(a), we show the results ob- voltage selection approaches (taking into consideration the
tained with the following five different approaches: online overheads), we conducted two sets of experiments
1) the ideal online voltage selection approach (the scheduler [Fig. 10(b) and (c)]. In Fig. 10(b), we have compared our
that calculates the optimal voltage selection with no over- quasi-static algorithm with the approaches proposed in [8] and
head); [9]. The influence of the overheads is tightly linked with the
2) the quasi-static voltage selection technique proposed in size of the applications. Therefore, we use two sets of tasks
Section V; graphs (set 1 and set 2) of different sizes. The task graphs from
3) the greedy heuristic proposed in [8]; set 1 have the size (total number of clock cycles) comparable to
4) the task splitting heuristic proposed in [9]; that of the MPEG encoder. The ones used in set 2 have a size
5) the ideal online voltage scaling algorithm for WNC pro- similar to the GSM codec. As we can observe, the proposed
posed in [3]. QSVS achieves considerably higher savings than the other
Originally, approaches given in [3], [8], and [9] perform DVS two approaches. Although all three approaches illustrated in
only. However, for comparison fairness, we have extended these Fig. 10(b) have constant online complexity , the over-
algorithms towards combined supply and body-bias scaling. head of the quasi-static approach is lower, and at the same
The results of all five techniques are given as the percentage time, as shown in Fig. 10(a), the quality of settings produced
deviation from the results produced by a hypothetical voltage by QSVS is higher.
scaling algorithm that would know in advance the exact In Fig. 10(c), we have compared our quasi-static approach
number of clock cycles executed by each task. Of course such with a supposed “best possible” DVS algorithm. Such a sup-
an approach is practically impossible. Nevertheless, we use posed algorithm would produce the optimal voltage settings
this lower limit as baseline for the comparison. During the with a linear overhead similar to that of the heuristic proposed
experiments, we varied the ratio of actual number of clock in [27] (see Table II). Note that such an algorithm has not
cycles (ANC) and WNC from 0.1 to 1 with a step width of been proposed since all known optimal solutions incur a higher
0.1. For each step, 1000 randomly generated task graphs were complexity than the one of the heuristic in [27]. We evaluated
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ANDREI et al.: QUASI-STATIC VOLTAGE SCALING FOR ENERGY MINIMIZATION WITH TIME CONSTRAINTS 21
Fig. 10. Experimental results: online voltage scaling. (a) Scaling for the expected-case execution time (assuming zero overhead). (b) Influence of the online
overhead on different online VS approaches. (c) Influence of the online overhead on a supposed linear time heuristic.
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22 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VERY LARGE SCALE INTEGRATION (VLSI) SYSTEMS, VOL. 19, NO. 1, JANUARY 2011
are: (1.8 V, 0 V), (1.4 V, 0.3 V), (1.0 V, 0.6 TABLE III
V), and (0.6 V, 1.0 V). The processor parameters have been OPTIMIZATION RESULTS FOR THE MPEG ENCODER ALGORITHM
adopted from [2]. An overhead of 100 clock cycles was assumed
for a mode transition overhead. The results are shown in Fig. 12.
During this set of experiments, we have compared the energy
savings achievable by two discrete quasi-static approaches. In
the first approach, the LUT stores for each possible start time
the number of clock cycles associated to each mode. Online, the
first LUT entry that has the start time higher than the actual one
is selected. This approach, corresponding to the straightforward TABLE IV
OPTIMIZATION RESULTS FOR THE MPEG DECODER ALGORITHM
pessimistic alternative proposed in Section VI-B1 is denoted
in Fig. 12 with LUT Y. The second approach uses the efficient
online algorithm proposed in Section VI-B2, and is denoted
in Fig. 12 with LUT XY. During the experiments, we varied
the ratio of ANC to WNC from 0.1 to 1, with a step width of
0.1. For each step, 1000 randomly generated task graphs were
evaluated. As indicated in the figure, we present the deviation
from the hypothetical limit for the two approaches, assuming quasi-static algorithm that improves over the nominal consump-
two different LUT sizes: 8 and 24 kB. Clearly, the savings tion by 78%.
achieved by both approaches depend on the size of the LUTs. The second real-life application, an MPEG2 decoder, consists
We notice in Fig. 12 that the size of LUT has a much bigger of 34 tasks and is considered to run on a platform with 3 ARM7
influence in case of LUT Y than in case of LUT XY. This is processors. Each processor has four execution modes. Details
no surprise, since when LUT Y is used a certain amount of regarding the hardware platform can be found in [32] and [33],
slack proportional with the distance between the LUT entries while the application is described in [34]. Table IV shows the
is not exploited. For a LUT size of 8 kB, LUT XY produces energy savings obtained by several approaches. The first line in
energy savings which can be 40% better than those produced the table shows the energy consumed when all the tasks are run-
with LUT Y. ning at the highest frequency. The second line gives the energy
The efficiency of the multiprocessor quasi-static algorithm is that is obtained when static voltage scaling is performed.
investigated during the next set of experiments. We assumed The following lines present the results obtained with the
an architecture composed of three processors, 50 tasks, and a approach proposed in Section VI, applied to a multiprocessor
total LUT size of 24 kB. The results are summarized in Fig. 13 system, as shown in Section VIII. The third line gives the
and show the deviation from the hypothetical limit, considering energy savings achieved by the straightforward discrete voltage
several ratios from ANC to WNC. We can see that the trend scaling alternative proposed in Section VI-B1. The fourth line
does not change, compared to the single-processor case. For ex- gives the energy obtained by efficient alternative proposed in
ample, for a ratio of 0.5 (the tasks execute half the worst case), Section VI-B2. A 16-kB memory was considered for storing
the quasi-static is 22% away from the hypothetical. At the same the task LUTs. We notice that both alternatives provide much
ratio, for the single-processor case, the quasi-static approach better energy savings than the static approach. Furthermore,
was at 15% from the hypothetical algorithm. In contrast to a LUT XY is able to produces the best energy savings.
single-processor system, in the multiprocessor case, there are
tasks that are executed in parallel, potentially resulting in cer- X. CONCLUSION
tain amount of slack that cannot be used by the quasi-static al- In this paper, we have introduced a novel QSVS technique
gorithm. for time-constraint applications. The method avoids an un-
In addition to the above benchmark results, we have con- necessarily high overhead by precomputing possible voltage
ducted experiments on two real-life applications: an MPEG2 scaling scenarios and storing the outcome in LUTs. The
encoder and an MPEG2 decoder. The MPEG encoder consists avoided overheads can be turned into additional energy savings.
of 25 tasks and is considered to run on a MPC750 processor. Furthermore, we have addressed both dynamic and leakage
Table III shows the resulting energy consumption obtained with power through supply and body-bias voltage scaling. We have
different scaling approaches. The first line gives the energy con- shown that the proposed approach is superior to both static and
sumption of the MPEG encoder running at the nominal voltages. dynamic approaches proposed so far in literature.
Line two shows the result obtained with an optimal static voltage
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