BAHASA INGGRIS

Course Material

Compiled by:

Abdullah

2020

BACTERIA

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 Bacteria are often maligned as the causes of human and animal disease (like this one,
Leptospira, which causes serious disease in livestock). However, certain bacteria, the
actinomycetes, produce antibiotics such as streptomycin and nocardicin; others live
symbiotically in the guts of animals (including humans) or elsewhere in their bodies, or on the
roots of certain plants, converting nitrogen into a usable form.
Bacteria put the tang in yogurt and the sour in sourdough bread;
bacteria help to break down dead organic matter; bacteria make up
the base of the food web in many environments. Bacteria are of
such immense importance because of their extreme flexibility,
capacity for rapid growth and reproduction, and great age - the
oldest fossils known, nearly 3.5 billion years old, are fossils of
bacteria-like organisms.

Find the meaning of following words!

Livestock : Actinomycetes:

Treptomycin : Sour :

Nocardicin : Tang :

Sourdough : Immense :

Answer the following questions!

1. What is Leptospira?
2. Write down some kinds of bacteria!
3. What are the functions of bacteria in food?
4. Why are the bacteria important?
5. What is the difference between bacterium and bacteria?

VIRUSES

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 In 1898, Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch found evidence that the cause of foot-and-
mouth disease in livestock was an infectious particle smaller than any bacteria. This was the first
clue to the nature of viruses, genetic entities that lie somewhere in the grey area between living
and non-living states.

Viruses depend on the host cells that they infect to reproduce. When found outside of
host cells, viruses exist as a protein coat or capsid, sometimes enclosed within a membrane. The
capsid encloses either DNA or RNA which codes for the virus elements. While in this form
outside the cell, the virus is metabolically inert; examples of such forms are pictured below.
When it comes into contact with a host cell, a virus can insert its genetic material into its host,
literally taking over the host's functions. An infected cell produces more viral protein and genetic
material instead of its usual products. Some viruses may remain dormant inside host cells for
long periods, causing no obvious change in their host cells (a stage known as the lysogenic
phase). But when a dormant virus is stimulated, it enters the lytic phase: new viruses are formed,
self-assemble, and burst out of the host cell, killing the cell and going on to infect other cells.

Find the meaning of following words!

Evidence : RNA :

Clue : Viral :

Genetic : Dormant :

DNA : Inert :

Answer the following questions!

1. What is Virus?
2. What was Friedrich Loeffler and Paul Frosch found in 1898?

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3. What do you know about Capsid?
4. What does the infected cell produce?
5. What will happen if a dormant virus is stimulated?

IMMUNE SYSTEM

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 The immune system is a system of biological structures and processes within an organism
that protects against disease. To function properly, an immune system must detect a wide variety
of agents, known as pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, and distinguish them from the
organism's own healthy tissue. In many species, the immune system can be classified into
subsystems, such as the innate immune system versus the adaptive immune system, or humoral
immunity versus cell-mediated immunity.

Pathogens can rapidly evolve and adapt, and thereby avoid detection and neutralization
by the immune system; however, multiple defense mechanisms have also evolved to recognize
and neutralize pathogens. Even simple unicellular organisms such as bacteria possess a
rudimentary immune system, in the form of enzymes that protect against bacteriophage
infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient eukaryotes and remain in their
modern descendants, such as plants and insects. These mechanisms include phagocytosis,
antimicrobial peptides called defensins, and the complement system. Jawed vertebrates,
including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to
adapt over time to recognize specific pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired)
immunity creates immunological memory after an initial response to a specific pathogen, leading
to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of
acquired immunity is the basis of vaccination.

Find the meaning of following words!

Pathogen : Parastic :

Worm : Distinguish :

Subsystem : Innate :

Adaptive : Unicellular :

Rudimentary : Eukaryotes :

Descendants : Peptides :

Answer the following questions!

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1. What is immune system?
2. How does the immune system function properly?
3. How is immune system classified?
4. What do you know about pathogens?
5. What is defense?
6. What does adaptive immunity create?

MEDICAL EQUIPMENT

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 Medical equipment (also known as armamentarium is designed to aid in the diagnosis,
monitoring or treatment of medical conditions.

There are several basic types:

a. Diagnostic equipment includes medical imaging machines, used to aid in diagnosis.

Examples are ultrasound and MRI machines, PET and CT scanner equipment is used to
maintain a patient's bodily function. This includes medical ventilators, anaesthetic
machines, heart-lung machines, ECMO, and dialysis machines.
Example:
 The CT Scan (Computed Tomography Scanner) is a procedure used to obtain an
overview of the various angles of the small bones of the skull and brain. A CT scan is
a diagnostic support tool that has universal application inspection For all organs, such
as the arrangement of the central nervous, muscle and bone, the throat, the stomach
cavity.
 X-rays or X-ray is one tool that can emit electromagnetic rays. These X-rays have a
shape similar to ordinary light rays, infrared and radio waves. What distinguishes
ordinary x-rays with light is in terms of wavelength. X-rays have a shorter
wavelength measuring 10-7 to 10-9.
 Ultrasound or ultrasonography is a diagnostic imaging technique that uses ultrasonic
sound waves with a frequency that is higher than human hearing capabilities. The
technique used to image internal organs and muscle, size and structure. In general
usefulness of ultrasound is helpful in the diagnosis of various abnormalities of body
organs.

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 b. Medical monitors allow medical staff to measure a patient's medical state. Monitors may
measure patient vital signs and other parameters including ECG, EEG, blood pressure, and
dissolved gases in the blood.
Example:
 An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a medical test that detects cardiac (heart)
abnormalities by measuring the electrical activity generated by the heart as it
contracts. The ECG can help diagnose a range of conditions including heart
arrhythmias, heart enlargement, heart inflammation (pericarditis or myocarditis) and
coronary heart disease
c. Medical laboratory equipment automates or helps analyze blood, urine and genes.
d. Diagnostic Medical Equipment may also be used in the home for certain purposes, e.g. for
the control of diabetes mellitus.

Find the meaning of following words!

Sphygnomanometer: Watch :

Needle holder : Syringe :

Thermometer : Bowls :

Laryngeal mirror : Otoscope :

Vagina speculum : catheter :

Bandage scissors : Infusion set :

Infusion stand : Urin catheter :

Suture scissors: Big Forceps :

Bandage scissors : Artery forceps:

Reflex hammer :

Answer the following questions!

1. What is medical equipment?

2. What are the basic types of medical equipment?
3. Explain the function of X-ray?
4. What is ECG?
5. What can the ECG diagnose?

MAINTAINING GOOD DENTAL CARE HABITS

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 Taking care of your teeth at home can help you maintain your dental health and prevent
periodontal, or gum, disease from developing. Richard H. Price, DMD, spokes person for the
American Dental Association and a former clinical instructor at the Boston University Henry M.
Goldman School of Dental Medicine, says regular home care should include daily brushing and
flossing. “My advice is to brush thoroughly, at least twice a day, once in the morning and once in
the evening before going to bed,” says Dr. Price. “Be sure to floss at least once a day. I do it after
every meal when I can.” Proper dental care at home, combined with seeing your dentist
regularly, is your ticket to good dental health, says Price, who is retired from a 35-year private
group dental practice in Newton, Mass.

Dental Health at Home

Use products that have the ADA (American Dental Association) seal," says Price. "This
means that the products — toothbrush, toothpaste, floss, etc. — are safe to use as directed and
will keep your mouth healthy — no gum disease, no cavities."

Here are some basic principles to follow:

 Spend at least three minutes brushing your teeth two times a day. Use a timer if you have
to to ensure that you're spending enough time on your oral care routine.
 Use floss at least once a day every day to clean between your teeth.
 Buy ADA-approved dental cleaning tools and toothpaste.

“Basically, brush and floss, and do it correctly,” says Price.

The goal of regular home care is to combat the buildup of plaque in and around your teeth and
gums, and fight bad breath, tooth decay, and gum disease. Adults who neglect their teeth and
who let plaque build up often develop infections in the delicate tissue around their teeth, Price
explains. A whole arsenal of dental health tools is available in drugstores to help you clean your
teeth at home. These range from regular toothbrushes to power toothbrushes, inter-dental
cleaners (picks, etc.), waxed and unwaxed floss, oral irrigators, and mouth rinses. You should
ask your dentist which of these tools you might want to include in your daily cleaning routine.

Consequences of Poor Oral Hygiene

Poor oral hygiene invites plaque to accumulate around the base of your teeth and gum line,
causing your gums to become red and inflamed. "Plaque is the bacteria-laden film that, if
allowed to accumulate on teeth and gums, will cause tooth decay and gum disease," Price
explains.

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If you neglect the care of your teeth at home and fail to go to the dentist regularly, accumulated
plaque could potentially lead to the development of empty spaces around your teeth. These
spaces could eventually lead to the destruction of bone and other fragile tissues supporting your
teeth, and you could lose your teeth.

The good news is that being diligent about your dental health care and getting regular dental
checkups can prevent plaque from forming and even reverse early gum disease. "A plaque-free
mouth is a healthy mouth,” says Price. Along with regular dental checkups, “proper bushing and
flossing are the only effective ways I know of preventing plaque buildup.”

Answer the following questions

1. How to maintain our good dental care?

2. Haw many time does the person brush his teeth a day

3 .How many basic principles do the people keep dental health

4. What are the Consequences of Poor Oral Hygiene ?

5. What is the main idea of the last paragraph?

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 DENTAL HEALTH AND OVERALL HEALTH
The condition of your mouth is closely tied to your overall health. Find out how oral
health is linked to diabetes, heart disease, cancer, and more. Taking care of your teeth isn't just
about having a nice smile and pleasant breath. Recent research has found a number of links
between oral health and overall health. While in many cases, the nature of this link still isn't clear
researchers have yet to conclude whether the connections are causal or correlative, what is
certain is that the condition of your mouth is closely tied to your overall physical health.

Oral Health and Diabetes

Doctors have known for years that type 2 diabetics have an increased incidence of
periodontitis, or gum disease. In July 2008 the connection was further highlighted: Researchers
at Columbia University's Mailman School of Public Health followed 9,296 nondiabetic
participants, measuring their level of periodontic bacteria over the course of 20 years. "We found
that people who had higher levels of periodontal disease had a twofold risk of developing type 2
diabetes over that time period compared to people with low levels or no gum disease," explains
Ryan Demmer, PhD, associate researcher at the department of epidemiology at the Mailman
School and the lead author. While more research is needed before doctors can conclude that gum
disease actually leads to diabetes, there are already a few theories about why this might be the
case: One proposes that when infections in your mouth get bad enough, they can lead to low-
grade inflammation throughout your body, which in turn wreaks havoc on your sugar-processing
abilities. "There are all kinds of inflammatory molecules," says Dr. Demmer, "and it's believed
that maybe some attach to insulin receptors and prevent the body's cells from using the insulin to
get glucose into the cell."

Oral Health and Heart Disease

As with diabetes, the connection between poor oral health and cardiovascular conditions
has been recognized — the two are often found together — but it still hasn't been determined
conclusively whether or not there is a direct causal relationship between them. (One reason is
that there are a number of other potential risk factors — such as smoking and old age — that can
lead both to gum disease and heart disease.) However, in a 2005 study funded by the NIH, 1,056
randomly selected participants with no prior heart attacks or strokes were evaluated for levels of
periodontal bacteria: After removing the effects of the other risk factors of age, gender, and
smoking, it was found that there was an independent relationship between gum disease and heart
disease, says Moise Desvarieux, MD, PhD, associate professor of epidemiology at the Mailman
School and lead author of the study. One theory about why this may occur, says Dr. Desvarieux,
is that small amounts of bacteria enter your bloodstream while you're chewing. "Bad" bacteria
from an infected mouth may lodge itself inside blood vessels, ultimately causing dangerous
blockages. Strengthening his theory is the fact that when scientists have looked at atherosclerotic

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blood vessels, they have sometimes found fragments of periodontal bacteria. Meanwhile, a study
published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2007 established that aggressive treatment
of gum disease reduces the incidence of atherosclerosis within six months.

Pregnancy Complications and Gum Disease

For many pregnant women, gum infections stem from the fluctuating hormone levels that
come with pregnancy, says Marsha Rubin, DDS, practicing diplomat of special-care dentistry at
New York-Presbyterian/Weill Cornell, who sees many pregnant patients in her practice. Others
neglect their oral care during pregnancy, since they have much on their minds, she adds. But
that's a mistake: Scientists believe that gum disease or inflammation in the mouth possibly
triggers an increase in a chemical compound called prostaglandin, which induces early labor.
While this theory has not yet been confirmed, a 2001 study found that pregnant women who
develop gum disease between weeks 21 and 24 are four to seven times more likely to give birth
before week 37. There is evidence that poor gum health in the extreme can lead to low birth
weight as well. A number of studies — including a 2007 study of 3,567 Turkish women and a
2007 study of 1,305 Brazilian women — found a relationship between periodontal disease,
preterm birth, and low birth weight.

Answer the following questions

1. What is meant the statement “ if dental health, overall physically health”

2. What do you know about oral health and diabetes?

3. What do you know about oral health and heart diseases ?

4. What is meant prostaglandin ?

5. What do you know about gum diseases?

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 WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT DENTAL X-rays

Dental X-rays are often part of a regular dental checkup. Learn how they help your
dentist to monitor your oral health. Depending on your oral health history and your dentist's
preferences, you will probably need to have dental X-rays taken from time to time. Dental X-
rays allow your dentist to more closely monitor the health of your teeth and gums, so that
changes and problems can be detected early, when treatment is most effective.

What Are Dental X-rays?

Dental X-rays are special images that allow your dentist to get a closer look at some of
the structures inside your mouth, including your teeth, the roots of your teeth, your bite, and your
facial bones. The process involves placing an X-ray film in a piece of cardboard or plastic, which
your dentist will ask you to bite down on to hold the film against the area he or she wants the X-
ray to capture. Depending on how many angles or areas of your mouth your dentist wants to see
on X-ray, this may be repeated several times. While the X-ray pictures are being captured, you
will wear a protective apron to shield your body from the X-ray machine's radiation.

Your dentist may use dental X-rays to look for:

 Tooth decay, also called cavities or caries, between your teeth or under your fillings
 Infections in the bones of your mouth
 Symptoms of gum (periodontal) disease
 An abscess, cyst, or tumor in your mouth
 Changes in your teeth or bones
 Problems with the ligaments that hold your teeth in place
 Dental developmental problems (in children)
 The location of an impacted or unerupted tooth (a tooth stuck in your gum tissue or bone)

Who Should Get Dental X-rays?

If you're seeing a particular dentist for the first time, there's a good chance that he or she
will want to take a set of dental X-rays, unless you can provide the dentist with copies of recent
X-rays. Your dentist will use these initial X-rays to evaluate your oral health, look for gum
disease, and have a basis for future comparisons. Your dentist will then determine how often
you need follow-up X-rays to monitor for changes in the health of your gums and teeth. The
interval at which you receive follow-up dental X-rays will depend on your age, overall oral
health, and risk of having dental problems in the future.

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Risks of Dental X-rays

X-rays are one of the most commonly used tools for medical screening and diagnosis, but
they are not without risks. The most worrisome issue associated with dental X-rays, as well as
other types of X-rays, is a small increase in the risk of developing cancer, which is associated
with exposure to radiation. The more X-rays you get throughout your lifetime and the younger
you are when you have the X-rays, the higher your risk of developing cancer. There is also
evidence that women are more susceptible to developing cancer caused by X-ray radiation
exposure than men. Still, in most cases, the benefits of having X-rays done outweigh the
potential risks. But the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has recommended that people take
steps to reduce their exposure to radiation from X-rays. Here are some tips to help reduce your
exposure:

 Bring a copy of previous X-rays to your new dentist to avoid having unnecessary, repeat
X-rays.
 Ask that a lead apron or other protective shield be used when you are getting an X-ray.
 Inquire about E- or F-speed film for X-rays, which are faster than conventional D-speed
film, and will reduce the radiation dose.

You should also avoid having dental X-rays if you're pregnant, since there may be a risk to your
unborn baby. In cases where a dental X-ray is recommended even though your dentist knows you
are pregnant, keep in mind that the radiation exposure from dental X-rays is very low, and that
your oral health is important for the health of your baby as well.

Answer the following questions

1. What is the main idea of paragraph one?

2. What is dental x-rays?

3. What is the function of dental x-rays?

4. What are the risks of dental x-rays?

5. What is the main idea of the last paragraph?

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 THE DENTAL CHECKUP
Maintaining good oral health is important to your overall health as well. Learn what to
expect from a basic dental checkup. In addition to daily brushing and flossing, you can help
protect your oral health by seeing your dentist regularly for checkups. It's recommended that
most people get a dental checkup every six months, but your dentist may recommend more
frequent or fewer visits, depending on your dental health history.

The Dental Checkup: What to Expect

In most cases, a dental hygienist and dentist will perform your dental checkup. Not every
dentist operates the same way, but a dental checkup typically involves:

 Cleaning and polishing. Your dental hygienist will use a special instrument called a
hand scaler or ultrasonic dental instrument to scrape and remove the tartar from your
teeth. He or she will then polish your teeth, often with a rotating rubber cup or brush, to
remove any remaining plaque or stains.
 Education. After the cleaning, your hygienist or dentist will discuss any dental hygiene
problems that were detected, and show you how to brush and floss more effectively, if
necessary.
 Examination. Both your dental hygienist and dentist will examine your teeth, gums, and
mouth, to look for changes or signs of a problem (for example, a cavity or gum disease or
early signs of oral cancer). During the examination, your dentist may also use a special
probe to measure the "pockets" between your teeth and gums, an explorer tool to poke at
your teeth and determine if any cavities are present, and a mouth mirror to get a better
view of the sides and back of your teeth. If you have any visible problems, your dentist
may recommend a particular treatment or may refer you to a specialist, such as a
periodontist or orthodontist, for further treatment.
 X-rays. At some of your dental visits, your dentist may decide to take X-rays of your
teeth to look for decay, gum disease, or other dental problems. X-rays expose you to
radiation so in order to avoid having them done more than necessary, bring copies of
previous X-rays with you when you're visiting a new dentist.

Sometimes you may have a more thorough dental checkup, which is called a comprehensive
examination. You will probably have a comprehensive examination the first time you see a
dentist, and periodically thereafter. During a comprehensive dental examination, your dentist
will:

 Thoroughly examine your mouth, head, and neck

 Discuss your medical history with you

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  Take a series of X-rays

Getting the Most Out of Your Dental Checkup

Since your oral health is closely related to your overall health, it's important to communicate any
concerns or problems you are having with your dentist. Be sure to:

 Tell your dentist about any new health problems you have been diagnosed with since
your last visit (for example, diabetes or heart disease).
 Make a list of all medications and supplements you take, including their dosages. Take
this list with you to your dental checkup so your dentist can review it.
 Let your dentist know if you suffer from dental anxiety. Fear of the dentist is common,
and your dentist can work with you to make you more comfortable during your checkup.
 Talk with your dentist about any problems or changes you've noticed with your teeth,
gums, or the inside of your mouth. The earlier your dentist knows about pain, sensitivity,
or a suspicious lump, the earlier he or she can diagnose and treat it.

Answer the following questions

1. What do you know about dental checkup?

2. How many times does the person checkup his dental?

3. What is meant by a comprehensive dental examination?

4. What is meant orthodontist

5. If you get problems about your dental health, what do you want to do?

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 HOW TO DEAL WITH A DENTAL EMERGENCY
Like cavities and gum disease, many dental problems develop gradually after months (or
years!) of dental-health neglect. But sometimes, pain or sensitivity in your teeth can come on
suddenly, and you may need immediate dental care, either at the emergency room or from your
dentist. It's not always easy to know whether a tooth, gum, or mouth problem requires
emergency care or what to do about it. In fact, most Americans are unprepared to handle a dental
health emergency, according to a survey of 1,000 participants.

Think your mouth issue is a dental health 911? Here’s a handy guide to situations that are
generally considered dental emergencies:

 Lip or tongue bite with excessive bleeding. If you accidentally bite your lip, tongue, or
other soft tissue in your mouth, clean the area and apply a cold compress to decrease
swelling. If the bleeding is severe, or will not stop, go to the emergency room.
 Broken or cracked tooth. In the case of a broken or cracked tooth, call your dentist
immediately. Until you can get to your dentist's office, rinse your mouth with warm water
and apply a cold compress outside the affected area.
 Damaged braces. If your braces become damaged, call your orthodontist right away.
Some instances of damaged braces need to be fixed immediately; others can wait until
your next appointment.
 Injury to your jaw. If you suspect you may have broken your jaw, apply a cold
compress to the area and immediately go to your dentist's office or to the emergency
room.
 Loose tooth. If one of your teeth is partially dislodged, see your dentist right away they
may be able to save the tooth. Until you can get to your dentist's office, take an over-the-
counter pain reliever and apply a cold compress to the affected area to relieve pain.
 Tooth that has been knocked out. Grasp your lost tooth by the crown and rinse its root
if it is dirty, avoiding scrubbing the tooth or removing pieces of tissue that may be
attached. You can attempt to reinsert the tooth into its socket in your mouth, but if that
doesn't work, you'll need to see your dentist quickly. The American Dental Association
recommends placing the tooth in milk, which acts as a preservative until you can get to a
professional.
 Lost filling or crown. When one of your fillings or crowns falls out, put the filling or
crown in a safe place and call your dentist to make an appointment. Applying clove oil to
the sensitive areas in your mouth and dental cement from the drug store on your tooth's
surface can help decrease sensitivity, but check with your dentist before doing these
things.

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  Object lodged between your teeth. If something gets stuck between your teeth, try to
gently remove it with dental floss. If the object still won't come out, call your dentist.
Depending on the situation, he or she may want to see you quickly.
 Painful swelling. Call your dentist to schedule an appointment if you have painful
swelling in your mouth, as you may have an abscess, an infected pocket of pus that can
lead to a serious systemic infection. Until you can see your dentist, try rinsing your
mouth with saltwater to relieve the pain and pressure.
 Pericoronitis. This is an infection that occurs when your wisdom teeth don't come into
your mouth properly. If you experience symptoms of pericoronitis, which may include
swollen and irritated gums, a bad taste in your mouth, or bad breath, or you are not able
to fully open your mouth, see you dentist as soon as you can.
 Sudden or severe toothache. If your tooth is aching, rinse out your mouth with warm
water and gently floss around the tooth to make sure there is nothing lodged between
your teeth. Call your dentist if your toothache does not go away.

Answer The following questions

1. What is meant by dental emergency?

2. How to overcome if someone gets dental case?
3. What do you do if someone gets broken teeth?
4. How to serve someone if she/he gets toothache?
5. How to keep and save our health teeth?

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 DENTAL CARE ON A DIME
For nearly 40 percent of Americans, it’s been too long, according to a recent Gallup-
Healthways Well-Being Index poll. For those living in states with high uninsured rates states like
Mississippi, Louisiana, and West Virginia the situation is even graver: About half of them
haven’t gone to the dentist in the last 12 months. But these people are at risk for more than just
cavities: Poor dental health has been linked to an increased risk of heart disease, stroke,
respiratory infections, and other health problems. There’s no debating the importance of dental
care but many Americans say it’s financially out of reach for them, even with dental insurance.

Who Lives Without Dental Insurance?

About 60 percent of low-income Americans don’t have dental insurance. For higher-
income Americans, dental coverage can still be expensive, with limited coverage and high co-
pays (which may explain why 36 percent of these higher-income adults also forgo dental
coverage). Many Americans choose to go without dental care because they do not know how to
find dental care they can afford," says Alyson Hope Koslow, DDS, a clinical assistant professor
of restorative dentistry at the University of Illinois Chicago.

Unsurprisingly, having dental insurance and getting dental checkups go hand in hand.
About 35 percent of these higher-income adults and 67 percent of lower-income adults went
without a checkup in the past year. The problem spans across all age groups, too. According to a
recent study, nearly 50 percent of Americans age 65 and older did not visit their dentist in the
past year, with high costs cited as the No. 1 reason. One problem for retired people is that
Medicare doesn’t cover routine dental care or most dental procedures.

Decoding Your Dental Insurance Plan

"Your dental insurance options may depend on your age, your job, and where you live, as well as
your income," explains Dr. Koslow. These options may include:

 Private insurance. Dental insurance may be offered by your workplace, but know that
plans may not be as generous as the medical portion of your benefits. Private dental
insurance plans tend to have high deductibles, limited coverage, and high co-pays.
 Medicaid. Federal law does not require states to cover dental health under Medicaid, so
even if your income qualifies you for Medicaid, how much dental care you have access to
will depend on where you live. For instance, New York provides comprehensive dental
care and Florida provides emergency care, whereas Texas provides no dental care. Check
with your state Medicaid office.
 Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP). Dental care for children is available
under this federal program. Each state is required to provide the dental coverage

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 necessary to promote and restore oral health for children younger than 19 who are
without dental insurance. Services are different from state to state, so check with your
state health department.

A Look at Low-Cost Dental Care Options

According to a survey done by the Kaiser Family Foundation, 79 percent of low-income

adults without dental insurance do not know of any affordable options for dental care. The good
news? Many options do exist, says Koslow.

These low-cost dental care resources may be available in your community:

 Dental schools. Many dental schools run dental clinics at low or reduced cost. Dental
care is provided by students and supervised by faculty members. "Many dentists
associated with medical schools donate their services at these clinics," Koslow says.
Dental hygiene schools may also offer free or reduced-cost clinics.
 Community health centers. Reduced-cost or free dental care is often offered at
community health centers across the country thanks to dental care professionals who
volunteer their services at these clinics. The Bureau of Primary Health Care may be able
to help you find reduced-cost dental care.
 Discount dental plans. These plans are usually less expensive than dental insurance.
They work like a discount membership club. You pay a monthly fee and get a list of
dentists who offer discounted dental care. The monthly fee for membership may be as
low as $10, and discounts can range from 10 to 60 percent.
 Clinical trials. Dental schools often conduct clinical research trials for certain dental
conditions that allow volunteer participants to receive free or low-cost treatment. Call
dental schools in your area to see if they are looking for participants.

Answer the following questions

1. What is meant dental care?

2. What do you know dental schools?
3. Why do not American people join insurance of dental care?
4. How is the clinical trial dental care on a dime?
5. What do the purposes of community health centers?

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 GOING TO THE DENTIST WHILE PREGNANT

Dental care is especially important during pregnancy. Let your dentist know you're
pregnant, so proper screening and treatment guidelines can be followed. Carrying a child affects
your entire body and that goes for your mouth, too. Since your teeth and gums can be affected
by the hormonal changes that take place during pregnancy, you'll need to pay special attention to
your dental health when you're pregnant. In addition, there are a few extra safety measures you
will need to be sure are followed when going to the dentist. Here's how to stay on top of your
dental care when you're expecting.

How Pregnancy Affects Your Dental Health

Problems that women may experience with their teeth and mouth during pregnancy include:

 Pregnancy gingivitis. Increased levels of the hormone progesterone can result in

gingivitis, an inflammation of the gums. This, along with pregnancy-related changes in
your immune system, can cause your gums to become red and swollen, and you may
experience bleeding when you brush or floss your teeth. Symptoms of pregnancy
gingivitis usually go away after the baby is born.
 Periodontal disease. Some pregnant women experience a more serious dental condition,
called periodontal, or gum disease. Periodontal disease occurs when a bacterial infection
develops in pockets below the gum line, which can damage the fibers that hold your teeth
in place. Periodontal disease can also affect the health of the baby, since women with
periodontal disease are at higher risk of having babies early and with lower birth weights.
 Pregnancy granuloma. A pregnancy granuloma is a red growth that usually appears
along the upper line of your gums. This nodular growth bleeds easily and sometimes
crusts over. While these growths are not dangerous, they can be uncomfortable and affect
the way you speak and eat. Pregnancy granulomas usually occur in the second trimester
and affect 2 to 10 percent of pregnant women. They usually go away after the baby is
born.
 Dry mouth. Many pregnant women experience dryness in their mouth caused by a
decrease in saliva, which can be brought on by hormonal changes. Dry mouth can
increase the risk of many dental problems. Chewing sugarless gum can help.
 Erosion of tooth enamel. Vomiting due to morning sickness can lead to erosion of the
enamel on the back of your front teeth. This is more likely to occur with frequent
vomiting over a long period of time.

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Dental Care During Pregnancy

Since changes in oral health are common during pregnancy, you should pay special attention
to dental care while you're pregnant. To maintain good dental care during pregnancy, follow
these guidelines:

 Eat a healthful diet. Eating plenty of foods rich in protein, calcium, and vitamins to help
support the health of your baby, as well as protect your teeth.
 Brush regularly. You should brush your teeth with fluoride toothpaste at least two times
a day, making sure you brush for at least two minutes.
 Don't forget to floss. Flossing at least one time every day can help prevent or minimize
pregnancy gingivitis.
 Use mouthwash. Rinsing with an antimicrobial mouthwash can help control the bacteria
that contribute to gingivitis.
 Visit your dentist. See your dentist for regular dental care while you're pregnant.

Special Dental Considerations for Pregnant Women

It is important to continue going to the dentist while you're pregnant and to follow your regular
dental care schedule; and there are certain things you need to do to protect the health of your
unborn baby:

 Tell your dentist you're pregnant. No matter how far along you are, make sure that
your dentist knows you're pregnant. That way, if X-rays, sedatives, or other medications
are being considered, your dentist can weigh their risks to your unborn baby.
 Avoid major procedures when possible. If you need to have major work performed on
your teeth or mouth, it's best to wait until your baby is born to have these procedures
done, if possible. However, if you have periodontal disease, you may benefit from a
special kind of cleaning called scaling and root planning, which cleans the infected areas
beneath the gums and around the roots of your teeth.
 Plan your dental visit carefully. It's ideal to see your dentist during your second
trimester, since your baby is more vulnerable during the first and third trimesters, when
major development is occurring (first trimester) and the risk of premature delivery
increases (late third trimester).
 Ask questions. If you have any concerns or questions about the safety of a dental
procedure, share them with your dentist. Also, discuss your concerns with your
obstetrician-gynecologist or pregnancy health care provider. They can offer reassurance
to you that what is being done is safe for your baby.

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Answer the following questions

1. What is the main idea of the first paragraph?

2. What is the effect of dental health to pregnancy?

3. How to care dental health during pregnancy?

4. Mention some special dental considerations for pregnant women?

5. what is priodontal diseases?

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 SOLUTIONS FOR TEETH SENSITIVITY
Is a sensitivity too hot and cold making it hard to enjoy favorite foods? These tips will
help you dial down the discomfort. "You can notice tooth sensitivity while eating hot or cold
foods, drinking cold or hot beverages, or breathing cold air," says Craig Valentine, DMD, a
spokesman for the Academy of General Dentistry.

What's Behind Teeth Sensitivity

Each tooth is made up of dentin, a tissue at its core, which is covered by a protective
coating of enamel. If the enamel wears away or decays and exposes the dentin, the tooth (or
teeth) can experience sensations including pain. Gum recession caused by brushing too hard or
with an incorrect technique can lead to dentin exposure, as can having cracked or chipped teeth
or grinding and clenching the teeth. A medical condition, like bulimia or acid reflux, can also be
a cause. Even diet may play a role - acidic foods like tomatoes and lemons and beverages like
sports and energy drinks can dissolve enamel.

Preventing Enamel Loss and Teeth Sensitivity

"Damage to enamel is irreversible," says Dr. Valentine. "Once enamel is worn away, there is no
way to ‘grow' it back." The trick is preventing or stopping the damage.

First and foremost, Valentine recommends good oral hygiene:

 Use a soft-bristled toothbrush and avoid brushing the teeth too hard. Employ a proper
technique, including holding the toothbrush at a 45-degree angle to the teeth and moving
it in a circular motion. Consider investing in an electric toothbrush, most of which use a
circular cleaning pattern.
 Reduce or eliminate acidic foods and beverages from your diet. When that's not possible,
rinse your mouth with water after eating or drinking these items and then wait at least a
half-hour before brushing your teeth.
 Be on the alert for clenching and grinding. Valentine says that both can cause tooth
sensitivity. "This is best treated by wearing a mouth guard while sleeping and avoiding
clenching or chewing gum during the day," he says.
 Don't forget to see a dentist for cleanings and an examination every six months.

After Damage Is Done

Sometimes no matter how hard you try, one or more teeth will become sensitive. If your
sensitivity is on the upper or lower cupids (also known as the "canine teeth") or premolars, the
likely cause is receding gums. Decay or enamel erosion can affect any tooth.

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The first step is to see a dentist who can develop an appropriate treatment plan. Depending on
your situation, options include:

 Using special toothpaste. After being applied several times, certain kinds of toothpaste
can help block the sensation of sensitivity from the nerve.
 Applying fluoride gel. Used in the dental office, fluoride gel can help make tooth enamel
stronger and lessen the feeling of sensitivity.
 Looking into serious dental treatments. When sensitivity is the result of decay or
another tooth problem, a crown may help. If gum tissue receding from the tooth's root is
the cause, a surgical gum graft may correct the problem. In severe cases, a root canal may
be the best option to help treat teeth sensitivity.

Answer the following questions

1. What do you know about teeth sensitivity?

2. When does the person feel when his teeth get sensitively?

3. How to prevent teeth sensitivity?

4. What does Valentine recommend about teeth sensitivity?

5. What is meant premolars?

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 DENTAL PULP DISEASES: THE BASICS
Poor dental hygiene is the main reason for tooth decay, tooth pain, and other oral health
conditions. If you don't maintain good oral health habits, including brushing and flossing
regularly, plaque can develop and lead to cavities. Left untreated, a cavity can eventually affect
the soft center (or pulp) of your tooth, which contains sensitive nerves and delicate blood vessels.
And if pulp diseases aren't properly managed, you can lose your teeth.

Symptoms of Pulp Diseases

Depending on the type of pulp disease, symptoms may vary in intensity and can include:

 Pain in a tooth or teeth when you eat something very sweet, hot, or cold
 Sudden, intense pain in the mouth
 Infection in the mouth

Types of Pulp Diseases

There are several different pulp diseases, including:

 Reversible pulpitis, or mild inflammation of the pulp. Symptoms typically include pain
upon eating or drinking something very sweet, hot, or cold. Without treatment, the
inflammation can progress to a dental abscess, a collection of bacteria and pus. Good oral
health habits can help offset reversible pulpitis, but in many cases, a filling is eventually
needed. Pulpitis can also occur if you crack or break a tooth.
 Irreversible pulpitis, or severe inflammation of the pulp that can't be cured. Symptoms
include sudden intense pain. Left untreated, it can result in a widespread gum and
connective tissue infection. Irreversible pulpitis is generally treated with a root canal
procedure. If that doesn't work, your dentist may have to remove the tooth.
 Dental pulp calcification (also known as dental pulp stones). This is a condition in
which hardening, or calcification, of pulp tissue results in hypersensitivity and extreme
pain because the dental nerves become compressed. A root canal is usually necessary to
clear away hardened tissue.
 Dental pulp exposure. This condition comes on when damage to the external covering
of a tooth, such as a cavity or crack in the tooth, exposes the normally protected pulp to
bacteria and irritating food particles. Pain is the most frequent symptom and without
proper dental care, a mild infection can progress into a serious abscess. Depending on the
degree of pulp exposure, a filling, root-canal procedure, or even tooth extraction may be
required.

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Pulp Diseases Treatment: Root Canal Therapy

If damaged pulp in your tooth isn't taken out, a severe infection can spread to surrounding tissue,
including your jaw bone. A root canal procedure to remove the pulp tissue is usually performed
over several visits by a regular dentist or a pulp specialist, called an endodontist. The root canal
therapy may spare you from having to get the infected tooth removed.

Here's what you can expect from root canal therapy:

 First visit. The diseased pulp is removed and the empty space, the root canal, is cleaned
out and enlarged. Special medications may be placed in the canal to disinfect the area. A
temporary filling may be placed as well, or your dentist may choose to leave the canal
open and let the tooth drain for a few days. An oral antibiotic may also be recommended
to treat infection in the tissues surrounding your tooth.
 Second visit. The temporary filling is removed and a permanent filling is placed.
 Final visit. A crown is placed over the tooth to reinforce the tooth and make it stronger.

Some pulp diseases may be caused by an injury that broke a tooth. But many other pulp diseases
are simply caused by poor oral health habits. If you brush and floss regularly and seek out
regular dental care, you are less likely to develop pulp diseases.

Answer the following questions

1. What do you know about dental pulp diseases?

2. What are the symptoms of pulp diseases?

3. What are the types of pulp diseases?

4. What do you do for pulp diseases treatment?

5. What is the main idea of the last paragraph?

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 AVOIDING MEDICAL MISTAKES

Health care experts say a number of reforms have yet to take place. But they say
hospitals have made improvements. Some involve easy steps to avoid
misunderstandings. If a patient needs an operation on the left leg, for example, the
word "yes" might be written on that leg. The word "no" might be written on the other
leg. Last month a hospital inspection group ordered that simple safety measures like
these be required before all operations.

Another effort to reduce mistakes involves information sharing among hospitals

to improve the treatment of newborn babies. Each hospital can search the collected
information for the best way to perform an operation or treat different problems.

The Institute of Medicine report five years ago said most mistakes are caused by
communication failures. These include mistakes with medicines. New medicines with
similar names are part of the problem. Also, handwritten orders from doctors are often
difficult to read.

There are efforts to increase the use of computers in hospitals to avoid such
mistakes. The goal is to make sure patients get the correct medicines and in the correct
amounts. A computer can also help avoid other problems. For example, it can warn if a
medicine will react dangerously with other drugs taken by the patient.

The flight industry has done a lot of work to reduce mistakes. This includes
training pilots about the importance of teamwork. But safety experts say teamwork is
not the only solution. Efforts are also made to change systems where
misunderstandings and mistakes can easily happen.

Find the meaning of following words!

Reform : Safety :

Improvement : Effort :

Inspection : Warn :

Measure : Treat :

Mistake : Failure :

Avoid :

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Answer the following questions!

1. How to avoid the medical mistake?

2. What are the medical mistakes that usually happen in the hospital?
3. How to know that a medicine react dangerously?
4. What has the flight industry done to reduce mistakes?
5. What can you suggest about avoiding medical mistakes?

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