r 231

A study of highly turbocharged high-speed

diesel engines
S J Charlton, BSc, PhD, CEng, MIMechE
School of Engineering, University of Bath

The paper discusses the potential of a conventional high-speed diesel engine for operation at increased power output ( + 5 0 per cent),
using readily available components and ancillaries, whilst retaining the traditional virtues of good thermal efficiency, ruggedness and
low cost.
The baseline engine was turbocharged and intercooled having a maximum b.m.e.p. of 14 bar at 1500 rlmin. The research engine was
designed for, and operated at a b.m.e.p. of21 bar at the same speed. The results of a computer simulation and extensive experimental
programme using an 11 litre in-line six-cylinder engine are presented. The project demonstrates the contribution that computer
modelling may make to the design of turbocharged engines, making possible a considerable reduction of the costly development phase.
The effects of compression ratio, valve timing, fuel injection and turbocharger match on performance and mechanical and thermal
loading are discussed. Although extended durability testing was beyond the scope of the project, piston, cylinder head and valve
temperature measurements show that metal temperatures were within accepted limits. The thermal efficiency of the research unit was
consistently within the range 37-38.5 per cent at the target power output, which compares well with the baseline engine.

NOTATION 1 INTRODUCTION
AF air/fuel ratio The specific power output of high-speed diesel engines
b.m.e.p. brake mean effective pressure, bar has risen steadily since the introduction of turbocharg-
CR compression ratio ing. Engines developed for fighting vehicles (4, 5) have
D cylinder diameter, mm shown that very high specific power is achievable by
h heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K this method. Engines developed for the main battle tank
i.m.e.p. indicated mean effective pressure, bar produce up to four times the power available from a
i.s.f.c. indicated specific fuel consumption, kg/KW h naturally aspirated engine of the same swept volume.
L piston stroke, mm At the time of starting the work the maximum
m mass flowrate, kg/s b.m.e.p. of commercially available intercooled engines
N engine speed, rev/min was about 14 bar. This paper examines the feasibility of
n number of cylinders increasing the maximum b.m.e.p. by fifty per cent to 21
P power, kW bar, whilst retaining basic components common to less
P pressure, bar highly rated engines of the same series:
R specific gas constant, kJ/kg K
T temperature, K (a) crankcase,
ratio of specific heats (b) cylinder head,
Y (c) crankshaft,
E heat exchanger effectiveness
(d) connecting rods,
r efficiency

*
P mass density, kg/m3
maximum/compression pressure
and using readily available ancillaries :
(a) turbocharger,
(b) intercooler,
Subscripts
(c) fuel injection equipment.
0 condition at compressor entry
1 at exit from the compressor An important criterion in determining the design sol-
2 at exit from the intercooler utions investigated was that the traditional virtues of
a air, fresh charge good thermal efficiency, ruggedness, simple construction
C compressor and low production cost should be retained so far as
comp hypothetical top dead centre compression possible.
pressure The main benefits to arise from increasing the output
CYl cylinder of a given engine are reduced bulk volume, weight and
exh exhaust production cost, per unit power output. Specific cost
f fuel (&/kW)may be reduced by increasing b.m.e.p., since the
1 indicated power increase resulting from turbocharging and inter-
max maximum value cooling is usually proportionately greater than the cost
m mean value of the additional equipment. This trend is known to
occur for moderately turbocharged engines, which
The M S was received on 21 June 1983 and was accepted for publlcation on 6
explains the demise of naturally aspirated engines for
February 1984. industrial applications, but there is some uncertainty as
56/84 @ IMechE 1984 0263-7154184 $2.00 + .05 Proc lnstn Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9

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232
High output
.' Martin and Wright (3)
' Kamo (2)
Ib
" I
0 j 15
b.rn.e.u.
bar
Fig. 1 Relative production costs per kW, based on naturally
aspirated equivalent,for varying levels of turbocharge
to the level of b.m.e.p. at which the curve will reach a
minimum. The nature of the relationship between spe-
cific cost and b.m.e.p. is illustrated by Fig. 1.
2 PRELIMINARY STUDY
Consideration was given to alternative approaches
which have been adopted by others seeking to increase
the specific output of internal combustion (IC) engines
(2-9). These include variable compression ratio schemes,
the turbo-assisted (Hyperbar) scheme and the high com-
pression ratio/high strength configuration adopted by
Caterpillar in the 1960s. Variable compression ratio and
Hyperbar schemes were judged to involve excessive
complexities which are likely to involve cost and relia-
bility penalties. The third option, the so-called 'brute-
force' solution, involves complete redesign of the engine
structure and therefore did not meet the requirement of
having a large number of parts in common with less
highly rated variants of the same engine series.
The option selected for close study was a compromise
between the conflicting requirements of high b.m.e.p.,
mechanical load and startability. The engine would
have a fixed, reduced compression ratio of 10.5-12 : 1,
which would maintain the peak cycle pressure at the
same level as a conventional, moderately rated engine,
obviating the need for structural modifications. Under
naturally aspirated conditions a high-speed diesel
engine will not run satisfactorily with a compression
ratio of less than about 1 3 : 1. The low compression
temperature prevailing during injection would lead to
prolonged ignition delay, erratic and incomplete com-
bustion and the emission of white smoke. The problem
could be overcome by the adoption of an integrated
starting/low-load aid, such as a manifold heater. It was
considered that such a measure was a relatively small
operational and cost penalty compared with the benefits
of the system as a whole. This approach was identified
by Kamo (2) as the most likely configuration for high-
output truck applications. The conflict between the
leading design and performance parameters is shown in
Fig. 2, which was derived from the simple approach
developed in Appendix 1. Figure 2 links engine, turbo-
charger compressor and intercooler performance with
the attainable i.m.e.p., maximum cycle pressure and
compression ratio of the engine. The target i.m.e.p. was
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9
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S J CHARLTON
+ Intercooler effectiveness
20 25
i ~b
I
~b
"I
' 11.0
' ' 1'2 '
Compression ratio
' 16 Stateof theart
intercooling
4
Fig. 2 Graphical representation of the inter-relationships
between engine, compressor and intercooler par-
ameters, showing the design selected for the research
engine (arrowed)
approximately 23 bar within a peak pressure of 137 bar.
The diagram shows clearly the benefits of using a high
performance intercooler at this rating, especially if the
additional cost and complexity of two-stage turbocharg-
ing is to be avoided.
The values assumed for air/fuel ratio, the ratio of
maximum-to-compression pressure and other par-
ameters used to produce Fig. 2, although representative,
were chosen arbitrarily to allow the interrelationships
between the important design parameters to be shown.
3 FILLING AND EMPTYING SIMULATION
The filling and emptying method is a computer-based
simulation of the thermodynamics and fluid mechanics
of unsteady systems. It was developed in the 1960s (14)
and has gained increasing acceptance over the past ten
years as a powerful design aid. For a detailed treatment
of the theory of the filling and emptying method the
reader is referred to Zinner (10). The programs used
during this study were written by the author and by
Hallam and Cottam (15).
The method is particularly suited to predicting the
relative effects on performance of proposed design
changes, or for examining broad parametric trends. In
this case, the engine design had been in service for a
number of years, hence much basic data were available
to assist in setting up the model. This included valve
discharge coefficients, swirl and heat release data, albeit
at a lower b.m.e.p. This allowed the model to be vali-
dated against measured performance before being used
to predict performance at higher loads.
The model was used to produce a parametric survey
of the effects on performance of compression ratio, valve
timing including the duration of valve overlap, injection
timing and air/fuel ratio. Figure 3 shows the predicted
performance over a range of compression ratio, whilst
the maximum cycle pressure and air/fuel ratio were held
constant at 137 bar and 25 : 1. The b.m.e.p. attainable is
seen to increase significantly as the compression ratio is
reduced. The boost pressure required to maintain an
0 IMechE 1984
 A STUDY OF HIGHLY TURBOCHARGED HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
m
D
L
-
z (1) CR = 11.7 : 1 b.m.e.p. = 21 bar
N
E
$ 400-
Compression ratio
Fig. 3 Predicted performance for a range of compression
ratio, showing the attainable b.m.e.p. for a constant
maximum cycle pressure and air/fuel ratio; start of
heat release was optimized for maximum thermal eff-
ciency
acceptable air/fuel ratio follows the b.m.e.p. curve, the
cross-over from single-stage to two-stage turbocharging
coming at a b.m.e.p. of 23 bar. The indicated efficiency
decreases steadily with decreasing compression ratio, as
expected, but more importantly the brake thermal effi-
ciency has a flat characteristic down to a compression
ratio of about 10: 1. This is due to the apparent
increase of mechanical efficiency as i.m.e.p. is increased
whilst frictional losses remain substantially constant.
i.m.e.p. - f.m.e.p.
mechanical efficiency =
i.m.e.p.
f.m.e.p.
= 1 - 7
1.m.e.p.
The mean heat flux is largely determined by the pre-
dicted mean gas temperature and the mean heat transfer
coefficient, the latter being predicted by a semi-
empirical relation due to Woschni (11). Since air/fuel
ratio and engine speed were constant for this study, the
predicted mean temperature is largely constant. The
mean heat transfer coefficient between the gas and wall
increases sharply with b.m.e.p., due to the 'filling-out' of
the pressure diagram. For these reasons the mean heat
0 IMechE 1984
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233
-
,-r-----
- 38 5 g
E L
r
I a,
Y
2 36 ;
degrees BBDC
Fig. 4 Predicted effect of exhaust valve timing on engine and
turbocharger performance, showing the EVO selected
for the research engine
(2) CR = 9.3 : 1 b.m.e.p. = 21 bar
flux is shown to increase less than in direct proportion
to b.m.e.p., when compression ratio is reduced to main-
tain a constant peak pressure. For an increase of
b.m.e.p. from 10 to 32 bar the mean heat transfer coeff-
cient is seen to increase from 500 to 1100 W/m2 K.
Figure 4 shows the predicted effect of exhaust valve
opening event (EVO) on brake thermal efficiency. The
results for a compression ratio of 11.7 : 1 indicate the
optimum to be as early as 75" before bottom dead
centre (BBDC) whilst for a compression ratio of 9.3 : 1
the optimum is earlier still. This phenomenon was
observed by Grundy et a1 (5) during the development of
the Continental AVCR variable compression high-
output military engine. The optimum EVO is thought
to occur earlier for highly turbocharged engines with
reduced compression ratio because of the higher cylin-
der pressure towards the end of the power stroke, and
the need to complete blow-down early in the exhaust
stroke.
The gas exchange processes of a four-stroke engine
occupy a complete engine revolution, and an efficiently
turbocharged engine will develop a positive pressure dif-
ferential between inlet and exhaust manifolds which the
designer can use to advantage. If it can be arranged for
inlet and exhaust valves to be open simultaneously
linking these manifolds, a flow of fresh charge will be
induced, scavenging the clearance volume of spent
products from the previous cycle. The pressure differen-
tial across the cylinder is determined by the turbo-
charger efficiency and the temperature rise of the gas in
passing through the cylinder. Figure 5 shows a predic-
tion of scavenging for a range of valve overlap. The
significant trend is the rapid increase of scavenge flow
for overlap periods in excess of 70" crank angle (CA).
This is, in part, due to the near square law relationship
Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9
234 S J CHARLTON

1.15 a reduction of manifold pressure may make possible a

/ marginal increase of compression ratio. Therefore the

0
.-
I

E 1.10 interaction between overlap scavenging and EVO is

00
e,
likely to be limited to a small reduction of pressure and
9 1.05
m /
/ temperature in the later part of the expansion stroke,
v, which should retard the optimum slightly. This is,
1 .oo however, thought to be a second-order effect.

4 RESEARCH ENGINE
The research engine was based on a conventional direct
injection, in-line six-cylinder industrial/marine engine of
11 litres displacement. When modified for operation at
high output the engine had a fixed 'low' compression
K 900

800 I Research engine

overlap of' 128"
-
ratio which could be varied between 10.5 : 1 and 12 : 1
by changing the pistons. A high performance intercooler
was used, having an effectiveness of approximately 0.9,
this being necessary to limit the boost pressure and
permit single-stage turbocharging. As a direct result of
the computer study a camshaft designed to give an
earlier EVO and greatly increased overlap was incorpo-
rated.
Original camshaft:
EVO AVO Overlap EVC AVC
134 346 23 369 581
degrees relative to top dead centre firing

---A/-- Trapped
Camshaft for the research engine:
EVO
105
AVO
296
Overlap
128
EVC
424
AVC
584
In order to deliver the increased fuel quantity at an
acceptable rate to avoid prolonged inefficient com-
r , , , , , , bustion and high exhaust temperatures, a commercially
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
available high rate jerk pump system was fitted. A pre-
Duration of valve overlap period
diction of component temperatures, not reported here,
degrees CA
indicated the need for some means of direct piston
Fig. 5 Predicted effect of valve overlap duration on the gas cooling, hence an undercrown oil jet system was built
exchange processes, showing the improvement of into the research engine.
scavenging between 70 and 100" CA; pressure drop The research engine was instrumented for evaluation
across the cylinder held constant at 0.4 bar
of the normal performance indicators, b.s.f.c., volumetric
efficiency etc. Additional, more specialized, instrumen-
between equivalent flow area and overlap. Trapped tation for example cylinder, manifold and fuel line
volumetric efficiency is seen to rise between 70" and pressure and needle lift transducers were used for more
100" of valve overlap as the scavenging of products is detailed studies.
increasingly effective. Beyond 100" there is little further
increase, indicating almost complete scavenge. The
program used assumes perfect mixing of products and 5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
fresh charge during the overlap period. In practice the
scavenge process would almost certainly be by a com- Test-bed work consisted of building the engine in a
bination of mixing and displacement. given configuration and putting it through a series of
The timing of exhaust valve opening and the duration steady state loads at constant speed. The variable design
of valve overlap were not found to be strongly inter- elements were :
active during the computer study. Whilst EVO greatly (a) compression ratio
influences the cylinder pressure decay during blow- 10.5-12.0 : 1
down and the early part of the exhaust stroke, towards (b) fuel injection nozzle
the end of exhaust stroke the pressure and temperature 4 x 0.39 4 x 0.40 4 x 0.42 mm
were found to be insensitive to EVO, thus having little (c) fuel pump element
effect on scavenging. 12 and 13 mm diameter
Although the extent of overlap scavenging modifies (d) turbocharger turbine and compressor trim
the cycle as a whole, in this context where the need to
achieve high b.m.e.p. is dominant, any gain in volu- The maximum b.m.e.p. that the research engine could
metric efficiency is best used to reduce the demand sustain was increased to the target level over a period of
made on the compressor for high boost pressure, rather time as the camshaft and other major components
than to allow an increase of air/fuel ratio. Additionally, became available. During the build-up to full power it
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 A STUDY OF HIGHLY TURBOCHARGED HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 235

4.0

3.6

3.2

2.8

2.4
b.m.e.u.
bar
Fig. 7 Experimental results showing the speed dependence of
2-0 overall volumetric eficiency, hence scavenging, when
wide value overlap (128" CA) is used

The available turbine energy may be controlled by

1.6 the effective area of the nozzles, or nozzleless space, of
the turbine housing. In practice this is achieved by
producing a range of interchangeable turbine housings
for each rotor making possible a wide variation of per-
1.2
formance. The characteristics of the turbines used
during this study are shown in Fig. 8a. Turbine 1 gave
1.0 I

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Mass flowrate
kls
Fig. 6 Performance maps of two turbocharger compressors
used during the experimental programme; original
trim shown in full, respecified trim shown dashed

was necessary to respecify only one component. The

original compressor trim was encountering surge at part
load.
. ti1 <(T,/288 K)
m ' = (PJ1.014 bar)
5.1 Turbocharging and gas exchange
The greatest discrepancy between the computer simula-
tion and actual performance was an overestimation by
the program of the overall volumetric efficiency. This
had the effect of reducing an already small surge
margin, necessitating a change of compressor trim to
give a lower mass-flow range. Ultimately the engine was
rematched with a smaller frame size turbocharger. The
compressor map is shown in Fig. 6. The program over- 5 0.75
estimated the volumetric efficiency by about 7 per cent,
.-SW
which was almost certainly due to a combination of U
i-
t:
assumptions : 0.70
.-C
1. Perfect mixing assumption during scavenging. 2
2. Shielding effects of the valve recesses on gas flow. -2 0.65
3. Heat pick-up by the fresh charge in the inlet port. 2
4. Neglecting wave action effects in the manifolds. P

The volumetric efficiency, hence air consumption, is 2 0.600 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

not only a function of the overlap duration and pressure b.m.e.p.
differential across the cylinder, but is also dependent bar
upon engine speed since this determines the time avail- Fig. 8b Apparent turbine efficiency, calculated using time-
able for mass flow. This is shown clearly by the experi- mean measurements from the manifold, versus
mental results presented in Fig. 7. b.m.e.p.
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236
inadequate power to meet air supply requirements and
was rejected early in the programme. Turbine 2 allowed
a higher boost pressure but was short of power at full
load. Turbines 3 and 4 are of a smaller frame size
machine and both were capable of operation at the
target b.m.e.p. of 21 bar. The research engine was oper-
ated on the pulse system throughout the work. The
pulse system allows the pressure wave, set up when the
exhaust valve first opens, to travel at sonic velocity to
the turbine.
This has the advantage of improving energy transfer
but leads to a wide variation of instantaneous expan-
sion ratio as each successive pulse is consumed by the
turbine. It is a well known disadvantage of the pulse
system that the highly unsteady flow through the
turbine results in reduced efficiency as the magnitude of
the pulses increase at high b.m.e.p. Figure 8b tends to
confirm this, showing the apparent turbine efficiency
deteriorating above a b.m.e.p. of 14 bar, from 73 to 70
per cent. The loss of efficiency, combined with slowly
deteriorating compressor efficiency, adversely affects
engine performance as might be expected. In Fig. 9 the
performance of the engine, with a compression ratio of
11.6, shows a marked increase of fuel consumption and
exhaust temperature allied with a reduced air/fuel ratio.
This is symptomatic of deteriorating turbocharger effi-
ciency.
Figure 10 shows a comparison of predicted and
experimental gas exchange diagrams at a b.m.e.p. of 21
200'1
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
b.m.e.p.
bar
Fig. 9 Engine performance with compression ratios of 10.7
(shown dashed) and 11.6 at an engine speed of 1500
r/min
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S J CHARLTON
I
I . Cylinder / Experimental
2. Air manifold Prediction
__-'
3. Exhaust manifold
1
Exhaust pulse (cyl. 6)
n I /
/f
Exhaust ( 5 ) Inlet,(s).-V
.., Exhaust (6)
\
\
....,,I
'
2
200 240 280 320 1 400 440 480 5201 560 600
TDC BDC
Crank angle
degrees
Fig. 10 A comparison of measured and predicted gas
exchange diagrams
bar. Although the program fails to predict some of the
detail (notably due to wave action effects) it demon-
strates adequate accuracy for design purposes.
5.2 Fuel injection and combustion
r4 The use of significant valve overlap makes it necessary
to provide deep recesses in the piston crown to accom-
modate the valve heads during scavenging. These
recesses may be detrimental to combustion in two ways.
Firstly, by breaking up the charge rotation, affecting
mixing of fuel and air. Secondly, by holding air which is
inaccessible for combustion until the piston has
descended appreciably. For the deep toroidal bowl
combustion chamber used in this engine the volume of
the recesses amounted to 7-9 per cent of the total clear-
ance volume. If this were unavailable for combustion,
the full load trapped air/fuel ratio would effectively be
reduced from 24 to less than 22 : 1. The research engine
exhibited a relatively high 'background' smoke emission
which remained at about 1 Bosch unit even for air/fuel
ratios in excess of 40: 1. At full load the smoke level
was generally between 2 and 3 Bosch units, which is
above the ievels accepted by the industry (1-2 Bosch),
but could probably be reduced by greater attention to
r 40 the fuel injection match.
The duration of fuel injection at full load approached
30" CA. It is not possible to judge whether or not this
rate of injection is optimum since only limited operation
with other configurations was possible. The symptoms
of low rate of injection are poor fuel consumption and
high exhaust temperature, whilst an excessively high
rate will be indicated by high rates of pressure rise and
rough running. Since the engine had a good thermal
22 efficiency (37-38.5 per cent) at full load and, judged sub-
jectively, ran surprisingly smoothly it is probable that
the rate of injection was near-optimum. Under full load
conditions with a static spill timing of 24" before top
dead centre (BTDC) injection commenced at 14" BTDC
and ended at 15" after top dead centre (ATDC). At full
0 IMechE 1984
 A STUDY OF HIGHLY TURBOCHARGED HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES
A B
‘Hot
Cylinder head Exhaust
Fig. 11 Combustion chamber component temperatures measured at a
b.m.e.p. of 21 bar at 1500 r/min
load the maximum fuel line pressure approached 700
bar, measured at the injector.
Ignition delay was deduced from needle lift and cylin-
der pressure diagrams. As might be expected ignition
delay was significantly prolonged as a result of the low
compression ratios adopted (12, 13). With a compres-
sion ratio of 11.6, at 1500 r/min and no load, the delay
was well in excess of 20” CA and the resulting com-
bustion was very severe. Under the same conditions at
full load the delay was about 10” CA. The audible
roughness of combustion ceased above a b.m.e.p. of 4-6
bar despite prolonged ignition delay.
5.3 Thermal load
Of the total energy supplied to a conventional diesel
engine, only about 40 per cent is transformed into useful
work; the remainder is largely rejected as heat. The
fraction rejected to the coolant is of considerable inter-
est since this determines the size and cost of the cooling
provisions.
Many researchers have found that the heat rejected to
the coolant per unit output decreases as the specific
output is increased, hence a naturally aspirated engine
will require a larger heat exchanger than a highly rated
turbocharged engine developing the same power. The
heat transferred to the coolant from the chamber and
cylinder head decreased, as a proportion of the total
heat input, as the b.m.e.p. was increased. However this
effect was offset by the increase of heat transferred to
the intercooler, as shown below:
b.m.e.p. percentage of heat input total percentage
bar coolant intercooler cooling load
14 18 7 25
21 15 10 25
The operating temperature of the piston, cylinder head
flame face, inlet and exhaust valves were measured at
full load, using a combination of thermocouple, Shell
Templugs and hardness relaxation. These data are pre-
sented in Fig. 11. The absolute temperatures recorded
were within accepted limits with the exception of an
area of the flame face of the cylinder head between the
@ IMechE 1984
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231
C
< 2w
,258
.2c5
< 300°C 770: ”
Inlet Piston and liner
injector boss and the exhaust port. Here the surface
temperature was well in excess of 400°C, which would
probably lead to thermal fatigue failure unless measures
were taken to improve the local coolant flow. Although
absolute temperatures have not markedly increased, the
temperature gradients have, for example in the piston
crown as a result of higher heat flow and undercrown
cooling. This will cause higher thermal stresses which
could lead to component failure after a number of oper-
ating cycles. The only reliable method of establishing
whether or not a thermal fatigue problem exists is to
subject the engine to controlled endurance testing.
6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
The project has demonstrated the feasibility of increas-
ing the specific power output of a conventional high-
speed diesel engine, using readily available ancillaries
and a high proportion of components common to less
highly-rated engines of the same series. By reducing
compression ratio to between 10.5 and 1 2 : 1 and
increasing the degree of turbocharging to give a boost
pressure of between 3 and 3.4: 1 with effective inter-
cooling, a b.m.e.p. of 21 bar was attained without
increasing the maximum mechanical load. The adoption
of a ‘low’ compression ratio did not reduce thermal
efficiency. Throughout the experimental work thermal
efficiency at full load was in the range 37-38.5 per cent,
which compares well with current normally rated
engines. Significant valve overlap was used on the
research engine which allowed scavenging of the clear-
ance volume, and an increase of trapped volumetric effi-
ciency.
Although the maximum cylinder pressure of the high
output engine was arranged to be no higher than that of
the normally rated version, by definition the mean
cylinder pressure will have risen. In the long-term this
could affect bearing life, since a higher average pressure
will reduce the minimum oil film thickness.
The increased pressure in the inlet and exhaust mani-
folds could lead to deterioration of valve stem lubrica-
tion because of the adverse pressure gradient existing.
The scope of the project did not extend to prolonged
endurance evaluation at high output, hence no firm
Proc lnstn Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9
238 S J CHARLTON

conclusions can be drawn about the effects of increased and

average mechanical load and thermal loading. The
thermal survey presented in Fig. 11 indicates a satisfac- mf= i.s.f.c. Pi (2)
tory situation in the critical areas of the piston bowl for four-stroke engines:
edge and top ring. The notable 'hot spot' in the heavy
section of the cylinder head, between the exhaust valve N n
seat and the injector, could be eliminated by improving Pi = i.m.e.p. D ~ -
L n- (3)
2 4
the coolant flow locally.
It is not possible to predict with any certainty the hence combining (l), (2) and (3):
production cost of a high output engine of this type
N n
before the final detail design has been established. It is ha= AF(i.s.f.c.)(i.m.e.p.)D'L- n - (4)
likely, however, that such an engine could share a high 2 4
proportion of components with less highly rated
2. Air availability based on volumetric efficiency and
variants of the same series, thereby offering the prospect manifold conditions:
of acceptable production cost.
N n
ma = q v p z D2L - n -
2 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
and manifold density is given by :
The author would like to acknowledge the support of
GEC Dorman Diesels Limited, Mr D. C. Hickson, Uni- P2
versity of Aston and North Staffordshire Polytechnic. Pz =-
R T2
Assuming adiabatic compression in the turbocharger
REFERENCES compressor, intercooler coolant temperature of To and
negligible pressure loss through the intercooler:
1 Janota, M. S. Turbocharging and turbochargers, Opening Address,
IMechE Conference, April 1978.
2 Kamo, R. Higher b.m.e.p. prospects for vehicular diesels. Turbo-
charging and turbochargers, IMechE Conference, April 1978,
Paper C62/78.
T, = T o { ( ( 2 y - 1) + 1)
3 Martin, R. and Wright, G. High output diesel engine design phil- where IC = (y - l)/y.
osophy. SAE Report No. 770755,1977, Combining (9,(6) and (7) and letting Po = 1 bar:
4 Mansfield, W. P. Transport engines of exceptionally high specific
output. Proc. Instn Mech. Engrs, 1968-69,183, Pt. 3B. qc qv rnD2LNn
5 Grundy, J. R. et al. AVCR 1360-2 high specific output variable ma =
compression ratio diesel engine. SAE Report No. 760051, 1976. 8RTo{(rK- 1)(1 - E ) + q,>
6 Moon, J. Volvo engine design projects include low compression
diesels. Diesel and gas turbine progress, Sept. 1970. where r = P,/Po, the compressor pressure ratio.
7 Tholen, P. and Killman, I. Investigations on highly turbocharged Equating air supply and demand, equations (4) and
air-cooled diesel engines. CIMAC Conference, Tokyo, 1977. (8), arranging for the maximum attainable i.m.e.p. and
8 Watson, N. et al. An evaluation of two-stage turbocharging for
efficient high-output diesel engines. ASME Conference, Nov. 1978.
including a numerical constant to allow compatibility of
9 Wallace, F. J. et al. Variable geometry versus two-stage turbo- units :
charging for high-output diesel engines. Turbocharging and turbo-
chargers, IMechE Conference, April 1978, Paper C63/78. 'I, 'Iv 7- 3600
i.m.e.p. < (9)
10 Zinner, K. Supercharging the internal combustion engine, Springer-
Verlag, 1978.
AF i.s.f.c. RT,((r" - 1)(1 - E ) + qc>
11 Woschni, G A universally applicable equation for the instantane- 3. Mechanical limitations may be accounted for by con-
ous heat transfer coefficient in the internal combustion engine.
SAE Report No. 670931, 1967. sidering the maximum cylinder pressure:
12 Charlton, S. J. The technical and commercial feasibility of a high-
speed diesel engine of high specific output. PhD Thesis, the Uni- Pmax = P c o m p dJ
versity of Aston, 1981.
13 Charlton, S. J. Diesel engine performance at high levels of turbo- where dJ is the ratio of maximum cylinder pressure to
charging. 2nd Polytechnic Symposium on Thermodynamics and hypothetical compression pressure. This ratio is effec-
Heat Transfer, Leicester, 1982. tively determined by the injection timing and for most
14 Borman, G. L. Mathematical simulation of internal combustion high-speed diesel engines has a value between 1.4 and
engine processes. PhD Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1964.
15 Hallam, A. J. and Cottam, S. A computer program to predict the 2.0.
gas exchange process of a diesel engine. Computer Aided Design, Also assuming that pbdc= p 2 then:
Apr. 1975, 7, No. 2.
pcomp= p z CR" = r CR"
and
APPENDIX 1
Pmax = tClr CR"
Development of the relationship between turbocharger
compressor, intercooler and engine parameters used to Data used to produce Fig. 2:
produce Fig. 2 qc = 0.75 i.s.f.c. = 0.198 kg/kW h
1. Minimum air consumption to produce a given power: qv = 0.90 To = 298 K
AF = 25 dJ = 1.6
ha= A F m j (1) n = 1.35
Proc Insin Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9 0 IMechE 1984

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 A STUDY OF HIGHLY TURBOCHARGED HIGH-SPEED DIESEL ENGINES 239

APPENDIX 2

Engine specification
Manufacturer GEC Dorman Diesels Limited, Displacement 11.3 litres
Stafford Firing order 15 3 624
Engine Series LE Intercooler DAW air to water
Configuration in-line six, DI, four-stroke, Turbocharger Garrett Airesearch
water-cooled TV71 and TV61
Bore 127 mm Fuel pump CAV Maximec
Stroke 149 mm

@ IMechE 1984 Proc Instn Mech Engrs Vol 198A No 9

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