SPE-195860-MS

Drilling Mechanics Analysis of Record Hybrid Drill Bit Runs in Gulf of

Mexico Salt Formation and its Correlation with Rock-Mechanical Properties
of Salt

Umesh Prasad and Ashabikash Roy Chowdhury, Baker Hughes, a GE Company; Mark Anderson, Chevron U.S.A.
Inc.

Copyright 2019, Society of Petroleum Engineers

This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition held in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 30 Sep - 2 October 2019.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
Operators face the continuing challenge to improve drilling efficiency for cost containment, especially
in deepwater drilling environments where drilling costs are significantly higher. Innovative drilling
technologies have been developed and implemented continuously to support the initiative. In many areas
of the world, including the Gulf of Mexico (GOM), hydrocarbon reservoirs exist below thick non-porous
and impermeable sequences of salt that are considered a perfect cap rock. However, salt poses varied levels
of drilling challenges due to its unique mechanical properties.
At ambient conditions, the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of salt varies between 3,000 to 5,000
psi; however, the strain at failure for salt can be an order of magnitude higher when compared to other rocks.
Consequently, during drilling salt's viscoelastic behavior requires that its must be broken with an inter-
crystalline or trans-crystalline grain boundary breakage. When compared to other rock types, the unique
isotropic nature of salt results in a level of strain that is much higher for the given elastic moduli. This strain
level makes salt failure mechanics different from other rock types that are prevalent in the GOM.
Hybrid bits combine roller-cone and polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) cutting elements to perform
a simultaneous on-bottom crushing / gouging and shearing action. Two divergent cutting mechanics pre-
stresses the rock and apply high strain for deformation and displacement, resulting in highly efficient cutting
mechanics. To meet the drilling objectives, different hybrid designs have been implemented to combine
stability and aggressiveness for improved drilling efficiency. An operator, while drilling salt sections at
record penetration rates, has successfully used this innovative process of rock failure utilizing the dual-
cutting mechanics of hybrid bits. This has resulted in significant value additions for the operator.
This paper analyzes field-drilling data from successful GOM wells and attempts to correlate salt failure
mechanics and provide insight into dual-cutting mechanics and its correlation with salt failure. The paper
also reviews the drilling mechanics of hybrid bits in salt and highlights importance of dual-cutting mechanics
for achieving higher penetration rates in salt through improved drilling efficiency.
2 SPE-195860-MS

Introduction
Wells routinely penetrate a thick sequence of salt in Walker Ridge, Keathley Canyon, Garden Banks and
Green Canyon areas of central GOM (Fig. 1). Salt is an ideal caprock due to its low permeability and
porosity that restrict migration of hydrocarbons. The predominantly homogeneous nature of salt, its lower
bulk density, solubility and divergent rock-mechanical properties differentiate it from other clastic rocks
and require special considerations for drilling. Due to its plastic nature, salt has a potential to creep.
Consequently, drilling through it quickly and rapidly installing casing can prevent any potential issues
related to wellbore instability (Dusseault 2004 et al.).

Figure 1—Location of the Blocks in Gulf of Mexico Represented Under Current Study

To drill and cover the section with suitable casing in shortest possible time, operators periodically review
and implement salt-specific drilling practices and depend on drill bit technology that offers higher drilling
efficiency and rate of penetration (ROP) (Roy Chowdhury 2016 et al.). However, most hole sections where
salt is penetrated also have other clastic rock types like shale, siltstone, sandstone, etc. with divergent rock
mechanical properties. This makes it challenging to select a single bit type that could drill efficiently through
divergent formation types. In addition, most deepwater wells drilled in this area of the GOM use concentric
reamers in the BHA to enable running of more casing strings. This adds an additional challenge of bit / BHA
stability due to the possibility of aggressiveness mis-match of bit and reamer with a potential to compromise
drilling efficiency and trigger drilling dynamics dysfunction (Roy Chowdhury 2019 et al.).
Hybrid bits, since their introduction in the GOM, have been successfully used for drilling salt, pre- and
sub-salt clastic rocks (Roy Chowdhury et al. 2016, 2017). The hybrid bit's ability to drill salt faster than
conventional PDC bits and its improved stability motivated the authors to use laboratory and field drilling
data to explore the potential correlation between the failure mechanics of salt and the drilling mechanics
of a hybrid bit.

Background
Bit types and designs evolved over time from two to three cones, milled tooth to Tungsten Carbide Insert
(TCI) and diamond to PDC, for drilling rocks of varying properties at an optimized ROP to contain cost.
Each bit type uses specific cutting mechanics to destroy the rock, i.e., gouging or crushing for roller cone,
SPE-195860-MS 3

shearing or scraping for PDC, and grinding or pulverizing for diamond bits (Bourgoyne et al. 1986, Drilling
Manual 2007).
PDC bits are frequently used because of their durability and aggressiveness. Selection of a PDC bit is
based on several application-specific parameters, including run length, rock strength and abrasivity, balling
potential of formation, drive system / BHA and well trajectory requirements, stability, etc. These widespread
considerations enable selection of an application-specific bit that could deliver optimized performance. In
the GOM, a single-hole section penetrates thorough salt and other lithologies. The diverse rock-mechanical
property of salt and clastic lithologies makes it challenging to identify a single PDC bit that could efficiently
drill salt and other clastic rocks. Combining the two different cutting mechanics in a single bit frame, a
hybrid bit (Pessier et al. 2010) offers a wider capability of drilling rock of diverse mechanical properties
(Roy Chowdhury et al. 2016) compared to PDC bits.
Salt is relatively soft with a UCS of 2,200 to 3,335 psi (Willson et al. 2005, Liang et al. 2011), however
its plastic nature or excessively high strain at failure demands higher weight on bit (WOB) to drill it
efficiently. Often, a PDC bit when used for drilling salt at high WOB has a possibility of pushing bit /
bottom-hole assembly (BHA) system outside the dynamic stability window (Roy Chowdhury et al. 2017b),
triggering unsustainable vibrations with the potential for causing downhole tool failure and a consequent
BHA trip. Unlike a PDC bit, a hybrid bit, due to its rolling cones, has a wider dynamic stability window and
better torsional stability while drilling with higher WOB required for efficiently penetrating salt. Improved
stability and higher drilling efficiency of the hybrid bits has resulted in its frequent usage, extending the
performance benchmark.
During early deployments, hybrid bits targeted interbedded formations, because combined TCI and
PDC cutting structures were able to remain stable and withstand damage while drilling through interfaces
delivering higher ROP (Dolezal et al. 2011, Bradford et al. 2012, Okutucu et al. 2013). As the understanding
about cutting mechanics of hybrid bits improved, a wide variety of applications like drilling hard volcanic
basement (Wan et al. 2015), interbedded chert (Dolezal et al. 2011), hard and tight sandstone (Bone et al
2019, Miao et al. 2016) were successfully drilled using hybrid bits.

Salt in Gulf of Mexico

Salt is classified under the Evaporite group of sedimentary rocks, which includes limestone, dolomite halite,
anhydrite, sylvite, etc. Deposits of salt form by precipitation from concentrated solution or brine, and regular
recycling of the solution increases the concentration until the dissolved salts begin to crystallize (Pettijohn
1975, Selley 1988, Warren 2006) into a layered formation sequence.
Louann salt of the Jurassic period is an important sedimentary fill for the GOM (Willson 2005,
MacKenzie 2015). Later tectonic activity and sedimentation process resulted into deformation and
movement, resulting in the structural changes (Fig. 2). Commonly occurring salt in the GOM is halite, with
occasional sylvite.
4 SPE-195860-MS

Figure 2—Generic Cross-section of Gulf of Mexico Showing Basal Louann Salt (Berman, A.E., Rosenfeld, J.H., 2007)

Other common salt types like anhydrite, gypsum and carnalite are also present in minor quantities
(Willson et al. 2005). During the deposition phase, as the overburden pressure increases after a certain
state, salt, due to its lower density and differential loading, is driven through the structurally weak avenues
of the overlying sediments and creates shapes like domes, diapirs, etc. (Dusseault et al. 2004, Sanz et al.
2010, Nikolinakou et al. 2013). The tendency of salt to move to an isotropic stress condition can deform
the surrounding formations by applying local stress, creating in-situ pressure anomalies (Fredrich et al.
2003, Zoback 2008) that could cause wellbore instability issues. As low-density salt rises through the
overlying sediments due to buoyancy, it often overturns and captures the sediments within itself. These
clastic sediment features within salt are often over-pressured and pose well-control challenges. Within the
thick layers of salt, sutures are common and pose the risk of lost circulation, stuck-pipe, etc.
The domal salt found in the GOM is extensive and numerous salt domes have been identified, onshore
and offshore, in Texas, Louisiana and Mississippi. Shapes of the salt bodies vary from circular to broadly
elliptical, with thicknesses of tens of thousands of feet. Domes may have a mushroom shape at the top or
may get pinched or flown in side layers, termed "overhang" and can be under several thousand feet of water
depth (NBS1982).

Deformational Properties of Salt

Salt at ambient conditions of temperature and pressure appears as solid, weak rock. In reality, though, it flows
due to its inability to sustain differential stresses. To achieve an isostatic stress state, salt flows and changes
shape with slight variations in temperature and differential pressure. Because the three orthogonal principal
stresses defining the stress regime are perturbed easily, predicting the mud-weight window for drilling salt
or a wellbore failure while drilling becomes difficult. Therefore, to understand the complex deformational
behavior of salt and to use it for efficient drilling, an in-depth review of published data as well as in-house
experimental work was undertaken. The following sections summarize some of the experimental data on
salt mechanical, mineralogical, and microstructural properties measured in the laboratory and compared
with data obtained from literature, with an ambition to find a correlation between drilling mechanics and
associated salt properties.

Density, Porosity and Mineralogy

To evaluate mineralogy, density, porosity and deformational properties, core plugs of 1.5 × 3.0-in. were
drilled from a block of quarried salt acquired from a commercial provider. Because salt is highly soluble in
water, plugging was performed using isopar mineral oil. To preserve the moisture content, the plugs were
SPE-195860-MS 5

wrapped prior to testing. Bulk density was calculated using the geometric dimensions and the weight of the
plug. Porosity was measured using the helium porosimetry technique. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
indicated halite as the primary constituent; secondary minerals such as quartz, calcite, anhydrite, dolomite,
and illite were also detected, which matched with some existing publications (Dusseault et al. 2004, Willson
et al. 2005). Fig. 3 shows the bulk density and porosity of a few of the salt plug samples measured in the
laboratory with a maximum density of 2.15 g/cc and porosity ranging from 0.60% to 4.75%.

Figure 3—Bulk Density and Porosity of Core Plugs of Salt

Elastic and Failure Properties Under Compression

The core plugs were tested for compressive strength at atmospheric and different confining pressures up
to 15,000 psi to replicate downhole pressures. A tri-axial load frame was used for compressive testing.
The axial strain rate used for compression testing was varied from 0.1%/minute, 1%/minute to 10%/minute
matching faster penetration rates while drilling. A load frame of 135 k-lbf capacity was used for the tri-axial
testing. Two linear variable differential transformers (LVTD) located inside the pressure vessel were used
to measure the change in the length of the core, which defines axial strain. The radial strain was measured
using a circumferential extensometer wrapped around the sample. Confining pressure was applied using
hydraulic oil to pressurize the core plugs using the pressure intensifier of the load frame. The salt core plugs
were wrapped in a rubber sleeve to keep the oil and core sample separated. A standard stress path was used
for tri-axial testing (Jaeger et al. 2007), first ramping the confining pressure to the desired level and applying
axial load until failure, or load and displacement level beyond the machine limit. It is worth mentioning
that in most of the cases the axial and radial strain was excessive and reached beyond the limit of machine
set up, thereby stopping the test. The peak axial stress, if any, was the failure strength and the Young's
modulus was the slope of the linear axial-stress and axial-strain curve. The ratio between radial strains to
axial strain (with a negative sign) is termed as Poisson's ratio. The Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio are
typically computed at 50% of the peak stress, within the linear portion of loading. Fig. 4 shows the axial-
stress, axial-strain and radial-strains obtained during one of the tests. It also shows the calculated Young's
modulus of 0.534. It is evident that the failure strain is excessively high, approximately 2.7% as compared
to 0.3 to 0.5% in most of the conventional rock types. Even though the UCS and the Young's modulus are
very low as compared to conventional rocks, the failure energy (the area under the axial stress and strain
curve with X-axis) is large due to large strain at failure. The Poisson's ratio is large, indicating axial load is
easily transferred to radial direction. To understand the failure mechanism under tri-axial loading test, the
post-failure sample was used to make a thin section using blue-epoxy and resin.
6 SPE-195860-MS

Figure 4—Tri-axial Test Result Showing Axial, Radial and Volumetric Strain with Applied Stress

The thin section (Fig. 5) was examined under petrographic microscope for its microstructures
highlighting grain fabric and fracture pattern resulting from compression. Blue shows the void or open
hairline fractures, which traversed parallel to the loading axis. The well-known failure plane under tri-axial
tests was absent; failure took place at large number of grain boundaries and fractures distributed all along
the sample, indicating ductile behavior.

Figure 5—Thin Section of Salt Core after Compression Testing

Because the salt is crystalline as evident from thin section analysis and has a very low level of porosity,
the UCS and Young's modulus obtained for salt is compared with other crystalline rocks like granite and
gabbro. The low porosity and crystalline nature in salt and igneous rocks make it nearly impermeable. The
density, UCS and Young's modulus obtained show salt to be very weak, it can deform to substantial strains
in compression without loss of mechanical integrity, indicating highly plastic deformation even at very low
confining stresses (Handin 1953). Further, it is well known that salt "creeps", i.e., it continues to deform
under a low level fixed load, or relaxes by reducing axial stress under fixed axial strain condition. The
creep is accelerated at higher temperatures and higher differential pressures. Figs. 6a and 6b compare salt
properties such as density, unconfined compressive strength and stiffness (Young's modulus of elasticity)
with other nearly impermeable crystalline rocks.
SPE-195860-MS 7

Figure 6a(left) & 6b (right)—Showing UCS against Density and Young's Modulus Compared to Crystalline Rocks

Mechanical Properties Under Downhole Conditions

Measuring mechanical properties of salt rock under in-situ conditions poses a challenge, including acquiring
a representative core sample until final sample preparation using isopar mineral oil. Salt plugs are preserved
under masking tape to prevent loss of moisture prior to testing. Because salt deforms extensively (Fig. 4),
it is important to select the appropriate sensor to capture deformational properties.
Fig. 7 shows the level of axial and radial strain obtained under various confining pressures up to 15,000
psi. During unconfined tests, there is no peak stress indicating a failure point was noted. For confining tests,
it was noted that there is an extensive amount of ‘strain-hardening,’ i.e., strain continues to increase with
increased loads. The axial or the lateral strain became so great that testing stopped due to the machine-set
limit. The plot below shows the level of ductility or plastic behavior. To visualize this extensive dilation
in the period of drilling, additional tests were carried out at 3,000 psi confining pressure but loading at
faster rates pf 0.1-1.0-10%/minute, matching the period of drilling. The axial and radial strain gauges were
removed for safe operation of the machine. The fastest loading was 0.5 minute, and the axial strain reached
46%.
8 SPE-195860-MS

Figure 7—Compressive Strength under Confining Conditions

Fig. 8 shows an example of visual evaluation after compression testing under UCS and tri-axial
compression testing using standard axial loading, at 3,000-psi confinement, and loading at a faster rate of
1.0% strains/minute. The load-frame loading actuator was used to estimate the axial strain about 25%, and
the duration of testing was only 0.8 minutes. The salt samples were removed from the machine set up and
examined visually. The deformation mechanism appeared to be inter-granular or trans-granular with no
clear shear failure plane; the "barreling" or ductile behavior was visible. This is explained by an extensive
amount of grain level deformation in the sample. The thin section obtained after compression testing (Fig.
5) shows one such photograph.

Figure 8—Visual Observation of Ductile Behavior due to Confining Condition

Ultrasonic tests were also performed on core plugs at confining pressures ranging from 0 psi to 5000
psi. The compressional (DTc) and shear (DTs) acoustic slowness were identified in the wave trains using
an oscilloscope and the travel time for the two waves was recorded. This, together with the length of the
sample, gave the velocity or slowness in microseconds per foot. Fig. 9 shows the results obtained; compliant
characteristics of salt at low confining pressure are due to the presence of micro-cracks. At higher hydrostatic
confining pressures, the incipient micro-cracks were closed and the slowness remained constant. The data
matched with published work as shown in dotted lines.
SPE-195860-MS 9

Figure 9—Acoustic Wave (DTC & DTS) Slowness with Confining Pressure

Hybrid Bits and Salt Drilling

Hybrid bits combine TCI and PDC cutting elements in the same bit frame, delivering the aggressiveness
of PDC bits and stability of roller-cone bits (Roy Chowdhury et al. 2017) (Fig. 10). TCI cutting elements
located at the gauge areas of the bit pre-stresses and fractures rock under compressive loads. The rock is then
sheared by the trailing PDC cutting elements (Fig. 11). PDC cutting elements located at gauge area of the
bit are generally exposed to the higher work rate and therefore are prone to higher wear. The combination
of PDC and TCI dual-cutting elements at the gauge area of a hybrid bit offers redundancy to ensure
cutting elements retain edge sharpness, ensuring durability. Roller-cone elements act as primary depth-of-cut
control (DOC) mechanism, enhancing torsional stability. Based on the application requirements, like hole
size, length of the run, footage of salt and sediment to be drilled, two-cone or three-cone design variations
are selected for the specific hole sizes and applications (Fig. 10).

Figure 10—Application Specific Hybrid Bit Designs used in the GOM for Drilling Salt
10 SPE-195860-MS

Figure 11—TCI and PDC Cutting Element Buried in Rock Highlighting Pre-stressed Area

A simulation model using distinct element modeling shows a typical load level, extent of damage and
level of fracture underneath the TCI cutting elements (Fig. 11). The spheres in orange indicate virgin rock
and the blue spheres represent stressed rock. The red lines represent the level of stress acting upon adjacent
spheres and blue lines represent the stress levels, causing chips or cuttings. The black spheres on the top
show the rocks are under the confined conditions of compressive loading. These broken bonds or chips
are subsequently scraped or sheared by the PDC cutting elements. Unlike PDC cutters that use shearing to
break the rock, TCI cutters, due to their deeper indentation and gauging action, create larger stress areas of
weakened rock in front of the cutters, which is easily sheared by the following PDC cutting elements.
In an earlier study by Roy Chowdhury et al. 2016, torque response and mechanical specific energy (MSE)
(Pessier et al. 1992, Dupriest et al. 2005) of hybrid and PDC bits were compared, and it was highlighted
that the torque fluctuation with a hybrid bit is lower, enhancing the torsional stability of the bit / BHA
system. It was also demonstrated that hybrid bits have higher drilling efficiency when compared to its PDC
counterparts. This enables hybrid bits to deliver higher penetration rates. Higher drilling efficiency of hybrid
bits in tandem with its lower torque output provide rigs with low-power top-drive systems to drill salt at
a higher ROP (Dykstra et al. 2018).

Hybrid Bit Runs in Salt

Based on the well design in the GOM, salt is drilled with hybrid bits of 26-in., 18⅛-in. and 16½-in. For
simultaneous hole opening, 21-in. and 19-in. concentric reamers were used with 18⅛-in. and 16½-in. bits.
Fig. 12 and Table 1 capture the details of a few important hybrid bit runs, highlighting hole-sizes, salt-
footage drilled average-ROP, hybrid design variation and comments about drilling benchmarks. Since the
introduction of hybrid bits in GOM, several performance benchmarks have been established that were
extended repeatedly by optimization of drilling parameters and improvements in bit design.
SPE-195860-MS 11

Figure 12—Footage drilled in Salt and ROP

Table 1—Benchmark Hybrid Bit Runs Through Salt Used for Drilling Mechanics Review

For drilling mechanics calculation and analysis, depth-based, real-time drilling data from these runs were
used, which are reviewed in the subsequent section. Approximately 32,200 ft. of salt formation drilling data
from six bit/BHA runs was reviewed in this study. For runs that involved drilling through salt and other
rocks, data from salt sections was extracted and used for review.

Drilling Mechanics of Hybrid Bits

Roy Chowdhury et al. (2016, 2017a, 2019) demonstrated that hybrid bits have a higher drilling efficiency
when compared to PDC bits due to their dual-cutting mechanics. The study also highlighted that torque
fluctuation in hybrid bits was significantly lower when compared to its PDC counterparts. Fig. 13 is a
cross-plot of MSE and ROP highlights drilling efficiency whereby a lower MSE values demonstrates higher
drilling efficiency. The MSE of a 26-in. salt section remained lower than 37,000 psi for most of the run,
compared to PDC runs included in an earlier study (Roy Chowdhury et al. 2017). Run# 2 was close to
the same MSE, highlighting the consistency and repeatability of the drilling efficiency of the hybrid bit.
Similarly, for the 18⅛-in. hybrid run, which used a 21-in. concentric reamer, the average MSE for run# 4
was 30,000 to 35,000 psi. In Run# 3, MSE values were higher, as conservative drilling parameters were
applied to preserve the cutting structures to allow a 14,039-ft. section to be drilled with a single bit/BHA
run. Higher efficiency of hybrid bits was also demonstrated in the 16½-in. run, which showed MSE values
close to 18⅛-in., even though sections were deeper.
12 SPE-195860-MS

Figure 13—Drilling Efficiency and ROP

The axial load and torque cross-plots (Fig. 14) for 26-in. runs demonstrate consistency and linearity due
to rolling depth of cut of hybrid bit. In the 18⅛-in. and 16½-in. runs, both of which had reamers in the BHA,
its linearity was not as evident as in the 26-in. In Run# 4, 5 and 6, the top-drive limit setup is visible at about
60 kft-lb, which helped to avoid over-torqued connections.

Figure 14—Axial Load and Torque

The aggressiveness (Mu) values, which are a measure of torque generated per unit WOB (Pessier et al.
1992), have also been used as an indicator of bit's dull condition. A consistent Mu value in most of the runs
beside Run# 3 demonstrates hybrid bit's ability to provide very stable downhole drilling conditions (Fig. 15)
promoting higher drilling efficiency and stability. The average aggressiveness of 18⅛-in. and 16½-in. bit
were close to 1.0 and 1.25. Higher aggressiveness of 16½-in. was due to a two-cone hybrid configuration,
which is expected when compared to a three-cone configuration. The mechanical power (Fig. 16), which is
product of torque generated by the system and the RPM, highlights the effort needed to drill the formation.
Though the power profile of the offset PDC bits used for drilling salt were not available, the authors plan
to use the current data as a benchmark and comparisons for future studies.
SPE-195860-MS 13

Figure 15—Axial Load and Aggressiveness

Figure 16—Mechanical Power and ROP

Conclusion
The present work tries to understand the mineral, mechanical, and microstructural behavior of salt and
compares it with published work to correlate a hybrid bit's ability to drill salt at high ROP. The deformation
and failure mechanism of salt is further examined under simulated downhole conditions to establish a
correlation with the dual-cutting mechanics of the hybrid bit. The low porosity, nearly fixed value of bulk
density, and crystalline nature of salt observed are consistent with knowledge in the public domain.
The ductile behavior with excessively high strain at failure and continuous strain hardening was also
observed during laboratory testing. In the field environment, the three principal stresses in salt are nearly
equal, which together with very low pore pressure results in high effective stresses. Furthermore, the high
effective stress, together with ductile behavior, necessitates high WOB or energy needed for drilling salt.
The hybrid bit with the combination of TCI and PDC cutting elements helps to pre-stress the crystalline
structure of salt rocks. Subsequently, PDC cutting elements are able to shear the pre-stressed salt, easily
delivering a faster penetration rate.
The following can be concluded based on the present work described in this paper:

• Laboratory tests reconfirm the low-density, low UCS and low Young's modulus of salt, which
behaves like a weak rock.
• The thin sections indicate the crystalline nature of salt with low porosity, which points to high
effective stress.
• The unconfined and confined tri-axial testing confirms high strain at failure, requiring high energy
for deformation.
• High WOB needed to drill salt is due to high strain at failure and a continual strain hardening.
14 SPE-195860-MS

• In hybrid bits, TCI cutters provide deeper indentation and create larger stress area of weakened
rock, which allows easier shearing for PDC cutters.
• Due to lower aggressiveness, hybrid bits are able to drill with higher WOB, needed to fail the
crystalline structure of salt at higher penetration rates.
• Consistent aggressiveness of the hybrid bits promotes on-bottom bit stability resulting in higher
drilling efficiency.

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Chevron U.S.A. Inc. (Chevron) and Baker Hughes, a GE Company for supporting
the work and for permission to publish this paper. We also thank colleagues who provided insightful
suggestions during review. Special thanks to the technical publication teams of Chevron and Baker Hughes
for their valuable editorial insight. Acknowledgement is also due to field drilling teams of Chevron for their
diligent work towards achieving record performances during the drilling campaigns.

Acronyms and Nomenclature

BHA Bottom Hole Assembly
DOC Depth of Cut Control
DTC Compressional Acoustic Slowness
DTs Shear Acoustic Slowness
ECD Equivalent Circulating Density
GOM Gulf of Mexico
LVTD Linear Variable Differential Transformer
MSE Mechanical Specific Energy
PDC Polycrystalline Diamond Compact
ROP Rate of Penetration
TCI Tungsten Carbide Insert
UCS Unconfined Compressive Strength
WOB Weight on Bit
XRD X-ray Diffraction

Formula

MSE - pound/inch2
WOB - pound
Torque - foot-pound
SPE-195860-MS 15

Area - inch2
ROP - feet / hour
Vp - ft/sec
Vs - ft/sec

Conversion Factors

ft. × 0.3048 =m
ft-lb × 1.3558 = N-m
in. × 2.54 = cm
in.2 × 0.0006451 = m2
lbf × 4.448222 =N
lbm × 0.4535924 = kg
psi × 6.894757 = kPa

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