Stability systems

Designing for lateral stability primarily concerns lateral forces. However, vertical
forces must not be ignored as their magnitude will regularly have impact. These may
act to either the benefit or detriment of the system, and it may be appropriate to
consider the envelope of maximum and minimum values for a given characteristic
action.The principal function of a structure is to transfer all the loads on it to
ground. Loads come from a variety of sources (Figure 1) and are usually split into:-

• gravity loads - dead weights and imposed

• lateral loads - wind, crane surges, out-of-balance

Figure 1 - Example potential loads on the CCTV building, Beijing

Some structures can also be subject to the accelerations due to earthquakes which act
principally in horizontal directions and therefore can cause horizontal inertial forces
on the building. The building structure must have sufficient strength to resist these
loads without excessive movement and deflection. Checking stability entails looking at
buildings as three-dimensional structures in which the instability may occur in any
direction. ‘Load paths’ are required for all actions (vertical and horizontal) and must be
continuous through elements and connections.
Planned load paths should be communicated in the design calculations, clearly
illustrating the primary systems of resistance (e.g. Figure 2). At least one load path is
needed to resist each action, though many actions will share common load paths or
parts of load paths.

Figure 2 - Example horizontal load paths from facade to ground

Horizontal stability systems are those systems that are in a horizontal, or near
horizontal plane (typically associated with floor and roof planes). They are needed to
transfer lateral forces to the vertical stability elements. There are two types of
horizontal system: diaphragms and triangulated bracing (the latter being sometimes
referred to as a wind girder).
Concrete floor slabs are often sufficient to act as diaphragms. However there are
scenarios where their shear capacity may be inadequate. For example the presence of
voids, or because of the interaction between precast units. Profiled metal liner trays or
plywood sheathing can each provide diaphragm action but only when appropriately
specified. This is provided fixings are adequate to transmit the required forces (often
necessitating thicker sheets and many more fixings than are needed to resist out-of-
plane actions alone).
Horizontal bracing can be provided in the absence of an adequate diaphragm. It is
commonly used for lightweight (non-concrete) roofs, especially in steel framed
buildings. Bracing is usually arranged in either modified Warren or modified Fink truss
formats.
Vertical stability systems are those in a vertical or near vertical plane. They are the
only parts of the structure that intentionally transfer lateral forces acting on or within
the suspended floors and roof down through the structure. The primary systems will
comprise one or more vertical cantilevers, with individual elements pinned or fixed at
the foundations.
As systems they must always:

• Provide linear resistance in two orthogonal horizontal axes.

• Provide torsional resistance about a vertical axis.
• Provide said resistance to all parts of the structure.

Vertical stability structures of one, or a compatible combination of forms must provide

stability throughout the height of a building to the uppermost extents of the structure
including spires, chimneys, pitched roofs and plant screens. Although lateral forces
accumulate down through the height of a building and peak at foundations, failure
mechanisms can occur at any level.
While not always possible, it is generally most efficient to have all primary stability
structures continuous to the foundations. Although this concentrates forces into
particular columns, walls and foundations, it eliminates the need to transfer
accumulated shear forces from the base of one system, through a horizontal system, to
further vertical systems continuing below.

Frames
Frame action - A frame structure may be regarded as the simplest system for giving
stiffness and strength to a building, whilst allowing the enclosure and partitioning to be
treated as non-load bearing elements. For structural design these are split into several
independent planar frames, which work principally in bending (like beams). Like beams
they also take shear and axial forces but the bending moment usually has the most
significant effect on the sizing of the members. Structural action depends on structural
continuity between the linear elements. In this respect they are similar to continuous
beams, e.g. a 3-span beam is similar in action to a single one-bay frame that has been
flattened out.
Practical structures are undetermined but may be modelled for analysis by computer
methods or by hand, by inserting pin joints near points of inflexion which are known to
occur in the real structure under load. Practical frames can be divided into braced and
unbraced frames.
Unbraced - frame required to resist vertical gravity and horizontal loads by frame
action i.e. by bending action of column and beam elements - moment connections.
Braced - lateral stability, i.e. resistance to horizontal forces by vertical stiffening
systems e.g. shear wall or core structures, vertical bracing. Beam and column elements
then only required to carry vertical loads.
Beams - bending, shear, as simply supported or continuous beams
Columns - axial from gravity (and at bracing systems axial from wind) plus nominal
bending moment due to eccentricity / out of balance, notional loads.