Main physical properties

absolute ρabs = m/V [  g 

ρ]=  3 
• Densiy bulk ρbulk = m/(V+Vp)  cm 

• Thermal conductivity K=
Qs
[K ] =  w 
A∆T  m × K 
• Thermal expansion
α=
∆l
[α ] =  1 
l 0 × ∆T K 
• Electrical conductivity 1 l
γ= × [γ ] = [Ω −1 × m −1 ] = [S × m −1 ]
R A
• Electrical resistivity A
ρ = R×
l
[ρ ] = [Ω × m]
• Thermal transitions Glass transition temperatureTG
Melting temperature TM
THERMAL TRANSITIONS
 MECHANICAL TESTS

USUALLY, IN MECHANICAL TESTS SIMPLE LOADS ARE APPLIED TO A SPECIMEN. THE FOLLOWING
TESTS ARE PERFORMED:
• QUASI-STATIC TESTS (THE LOAD IS GRADUALLY INCREASED AND THE STRESS-STRAIN CURVE IS
RECORDED)
1. TENSION (TENSILE) TESTS (DUCTILE MATERIALS)
2. COMPRESSION TESTS (BRITTLE MATERIALS)
3. FLEXURAL TESTS (RIGID MATERIALS)
4. TORSION TESTS (NOT COMMON)
• IMPACT (RESILIENCE) TESTS (A DYNAMIC TEST IN WHICH THE LOAD IS RAPIDLY INCREASED)
• FATIGUE TESTS (A CYCLIC TEST IN WICH THE PREVIOUS FOUR STRESSES ARE APPLIED
INDIVIDUALLY, OR COMBINED TOGETHER, OR COMBINED WITH NON-MECHANICAL STRESSES, SUCH
AS THERMAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES)
• CREEP TESTS (A CONSTANT LOAD IS APPLIED AND THE STRAIN IS RECORDED AS A FUNCTION OF
TIME)
• SURFACE TESTS (THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SURFACE LAYER ARE INVESTIGATED)
1. HARDNESS TESTS (FOR CHECKING THE RESISTANCE TO PLASTIC DEFORMATION BY INDENTATION)
2. WEAR TESTS (FOR CHEKING THE RESISTANCE TO ABRASION)
 Mechanical properties

a) Tension
b) Compression
F
c) Flexural σ=
A0

d) Shear
(b)
e) Torsion (a)

(c)

(d)
(e)
Kinds of tensile tests
Tensile tests: machine and specimens
Types of tensile stress/strain curves
 TYPES OF FRACTURE

DUCTILE

BRITTLE
True and engineering tensile stress/strain curves
 Elastic Deformation
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
 Tensile tests: elastic properties
F
Stress σ=
A0
Strain li − l 0 ∆ l
ε= =
l0 l0

σ
Pendenza: E =
ε

ε
 Elastic properties (tension)
Rapporto di Poisson
εx εy
ν =− =−
εz εz

∆l z
εz =
l0 z

∆l x
−εx =
l0 x
 Elastic properties (shear)
T δ
Stress τ= Strain γ = tgθ =
A0 l0

τ
δ

τ
Pendenza: G =
γ

γ
 Elastic properties values

Hooke’s law
Metalli E G
σ = Eε (GPa) (GPa) ν
τ = Gγ Alluminio 69 25 0.33
Ottone 97 37 0.34
Rame 110 46 0.34
Homogeneous and isotropic materials
Magnesio 45 17 0.29
E = 2G (1 + ν ) Nickel 207 76 0.31
Acciaio 210 83 0.30
Titanio 107 45 0.34
Tungsteno 407 160 0.28
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δplastic
 Tensile Strength, TS
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister 7e.
TS
F = fracture or
σy
ultimate
engineering

strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break.
 Ductility
L f − Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, σ larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 7e.

Engineering tensile strain, ε

• Another ductility measure: Ao - Af

%RA = x 100
Ao
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
Adapted from Fig. 6.13, very small toughness
Callister 7e. (unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, ε

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
 Elastic Strain Recovery

Adapted from Fig. 6.17,

Callister 7e.
Flexural tests
 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
 Hardness

Brinell Vickers
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5
Shore A and Shore D (Polymers)
 Other mechanical properties

• Impact strength

• Fatigue

• Creep

F=cost
 CHARPY

IZOD IMPACT TESTS

 IMPACT TESTS
TWO TYPES OF IMPACT TESTS ARE FOUND IN STANDARDS:
- CHARPY (SIMPLE BEAM)
- IZOD (CANTILEVER BEAM)
TESTS CAN BE PERFORMED ON:
- UNNOTCHED BARS
- NOTCHED BARS (U or V NOTCH)

IMPACT TESTS PROVIDE THE ENERGY REQUIRED TO BREAK

A STANDARDIZED BAR AND ARE PERFORMED FOR:
- DETERMINING THE DUCTILE-TO-BRITTLE TRANSITION
TEMPERATURE (DBTT), WHEN CONDUCTED OVER A
RANGE OF TEMPERATURES
- ESTIMATING THE RESISTANCE TO FRACTURE OF
STRUCTURES WHICH MAY CONTAIN DEFECTS

THE RESULTS (E.G., THE DBTT VALUE) ARE AFFECTED BY:

- TEST CONDITIONS (BAR SIZE, NOTCH GEOMETRY)
- MATERIAL PROPERTIES (STATE OF STRESS, CHANGES
IN COMPOSITION AND MICROSTRUCTURE)
 CREEP TESTS
FASE FASE FASE
PRIMARIA SECONDARIA TERZIARIA
ε
DILATAZIONE,

ALTA
TEMPERATURA

BASSA TEMPERATURA

TEMPO, ore
 HOMOLOGOUS TEMPERATURE T = 0.5 Tm (Kelvin)
FOR SOME METALS

Material Tm (K) Tm (°C) T (K) T (°C)

Lead 600 327 300 27
Steel 1640 1367 820 547
Iron 1783 1510 890 617
Tungsten 3680 3407 1840 1567

Tension, compression, flexural, shear or torsion stresses can be applied

in creep tests.
After the initial, instantaneous elastic deformation, creep occurs in
three stages: Primary (or Stage I); Secondary (or Stage II) and Tertiary
(or Stage III). Resistance to creep increases in Stage I, until Stage II is
reached. In Stage II, the rate of creep becomes roughly steady; this
stage is often referred to as steady-state creep. In Stage III, the creep
rate begins to accelerate, as several phenomena may take place
(necking, formation of cracks and internal voids, grain boundary
separation); if stage III is allowed to proceed, fracture will occur.

Creep tests are usually performed to determine:

1. the creep rate in Stage II
2. the time-to-failure and elongation at failure; in this case, higher
stresses are applied and the test is continued until failure
occurs; however, the applied constant stress is always lower
than the yield strength.
 Larson-Miller Parameter

Master plot for Larson–Miller parameter for S-590

alloy (an Fe-based alloy) (C = 17). (From R. M.
Goldhoff, Mater.Design Eng., 49 (1959) 93.)
Fatigue stress cycles: (a) reversed stress; (b) repeated
stress; (c) irregular or random stress cycle

σm=(σmax+σmin)/2; σa=(σmax-σmin)/2; R=σmin/σmax); σr=2σa

σm=mean stress; σa=stress amplitude; R=stress ratio; σr=stress range