ADITYA RAI 1826028 EXPERIMENT-1

Aim: Characteristics of a strain gauge sensor

Objective:
1. Plot the characteristics of the strain gauge.
2. Understand the effect of various parameters on strain gauge performance .
Theory:
Strain gauge transducer transforms mechanical elongation and compression into measurable value.
Gauge Factor:
The characteristics of the strain gauges are described in terms of its sensitivity (gauge
factor). Gauge factor is defined as a unit change in resistance for per unit change in
length of strain gauge wire given as
G.F. = (∆R/RG) /ε
Where,
ΔR = the change in resistance caused by strain,
RG = is the resistance of the unreformed gauge, and ε = is
strain.
Effect of temperature:
The resistive type strain gauges are sensitive to temperature variation;
therefore, it becomes necessary to account for variations in strain gauge
resistance due to temperature changes. Using a dummy gauge in the opposite
arm of the active gauge compensates for the temperature variation.
Arrangement:
In certain applications where equal and opposite strains exist, it is possible
to attach similar gauges in a way that one gauge experiences positive strain
and other negative strain. Depending on the number of gauges used the
bridge, the circuit configurations are :
1. Quarter Bridge :
ADITYA RAI 1826028

2. Half Bridge :

3. Full Bridge :
Effect of Lead-Wire:
Strain gauges are sometimes mounted at a distance from the measuring
equipment. This increases the possibility of errors because of
temperature variations, lead desensitization, and lead-wire resistance
changes.
Block Diagram:
Level 1 - Measurement

Level 2-Effect of position

Formulae:
dR = GF * dL/L * R
New resistance of strain Gauge: Rg = R+ dR
Output voltage in Quarter Bridge: e = 1/4 * (dR/R) * E
Output voltage in Half Bridge: e = 1/2 * (dR/R) * E
Output voltage in Full Bridge: e = (dR/R) * E
where, R = Resistance of Strain Gauge
E = Voltage applied
Strain dL/L = M/(Z*YM)
where, Z = 1/6 * b* h2
And M = WxL
where, M= Bending movement
W = applied weight (N)
L = distance from load point to sg center (in meters)
b = width of the cantilever (in meters)
h = thickness of cantilever (in meters)
For Temperature Effect:
dL/L = 𝛂/ GF + (𝛂LS- 𝛂LG)
𝛂 = Temperature coefficient of Resistance depends on material
𝛂LS= linear expansion coefficient of cantilever material
SS304 is selected for cantilever material for which 𝛂LS=0.0000117 / 0C
𝛂LG= linear expansion coefficient of strain gauge material
Reference temperature: 20 0C
Observation:
Material = Copper
Input Voltage = 5V
Resistance = 120Ω
Gauge Factor = 0.9
Configuration = Quarter Bridge

ADITYA RAI 1826028

Level 1 - Measurement

Weight (in Kg) RG (in Ω) Output Voltage (in mV)

0.5 120.0136 0.14
2 120.0542 0.56
Graphs:
Level 1:

Level 2:

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Level 3:

Conclusion:
The conclusion of the experiment was to understand the functionality of
different types of strain gauge. Also observed the various changes on strain
gauge by varying the weight, position of weight and temperature.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 EXPERIMENT-2

Aim: To characterise RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) sensor.

Objective:
1. Study static and dynamic characteristics of RTD
2. Study effect of various parameters on RTD performance
Theory:
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD):
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD), as the name implies, is a sensor
used to measure temperature by correlating the resistance with temperature.
Most RTD elements comprise a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around
a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually fragile, so it is often
placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made from a
pure metal as mentioned below. The material property, to have a
predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes, is used to
determine temperature.
Commonly used RTD Materials:
• Platinum (most popular and accurate)
• Nickel
• Copper
• Balco (rare)
• Tungsten (rare)
Temperature Measurement using RTD

For measurement of Temperature number of sensors are available. One of the

most linear, stable, and reproducible temperature sensors is the RTD,
Resistance Temperature Detector. In RTD, the output resistance changes
with temperature. RTD is a positive temperature coefficient device. The
resistance of the metal increases with temperature. The resistive property
of the metal is called its resistivity. The resistive property defines length
and cross-sectional area required to fabricate an RTD of a value. The
resistance is proportional to length and inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area and is given by the relationship

R = ρl/A

where 'R' is resistance of the metal, 'ρ' is the resistivity of the metal, 'l' is
the length of the metal and 'A' is the area of the cross section of the metal.
Block Diagram:
Level 1: Static Characteristics

Level 2: Dynamic Characteristics

ADITYA RAI 1826028

Formulae:
Rt = R0[1+ α(t-t0)]
where,
Rt = resistance at measurement temperature
(t°C) R0 = resistance at reference (0°C)
temperature
α = temperature coefficient of material

Observation:
Level 1: Static Characteristics:
1. Material = Platinum
R0 = 100Ω
α = 0.00385/°C

Temperature (t) (in °C) R t (in Ω)

550 311.75
815 413.725
170 165.45

2. Material = Nickel
R0 = 100Ω
α = 0.00672/°C

Temperature (t) (in °C) R t (in Ω)

-28 81.184
-88 40.864
102 168.544

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Level-2 Dynamic Characteristics:
Bare = Platinum Time Constant = 1.17sec
Filling Material = MgO Powder

With Sheath:
Material Thickness (in mm) Time Constant (in sec)
SS316 1 4.11
SS316 0.75 3.41

Thermowell:
Material Thickness (in mm) Time Constant (in sec)
SS316 2 14.11
SS316 1.5 12.01

Graphs:
Level 1: Static Characteristics:
1. Material = Platinum

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 2. Material = Nickel

Level-2 Dynamic
Characteristics: Bare = Platinum
Filling Material = MgO Powder

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Conclusion:
After performing the experiment I was able to understand the functionality
and
working of the RTD sensor. I also understood the various characteristics of
it i.e. static and dynamic by changing the temperature and the material.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 EXPERIMENT-3

Aim: To characterise the thermocouple sensor.

Objective:
1. Study static and dynamic characteristics of Thermocouple.
2. To obtain the plot between temperature and thermolytic emf.
Theory: Thermoelectric
effect:

The thermoelectric effect is the direct conversion of temperature differences

to electric voltage and vice versa. A thermoelectric device creates a voltage
when there is a difference in temperature on each side. Conversely, when
a voltage is applied to it, it creates a temperature difference.

There are three basic effects that explain the working principle of
a thermoelectric device.

1. Seebeck Effect: When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both
ends and one of the ends is heated, there is a continuous current which flows in the
thermoelectric circuit. German–Estonian physicist Thomas
Seebeck made this discovery in 1821. This is now known as the thermoelectric
effect or Seebeck effect.

2. Peltier Effect: Peltier found that the junctions of dissimilar metals get heated or
cooled, depending upon the direction in which an electrical current passed through
them. The heat generated by current flowing in one direction is absorbed if the current is
reversed. The effect always involves pairs of junctions.
The Peltier effect is found to be proportional to the first power of the current, not to its
square, as is the irreversible generation of heat caused by resistance throughout the
circuit. In effect, it transfers the heat from one side of a device to others.

Thermocouple:
A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a
voltage related to a temperature difference. When two wires composed of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated,
there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit (the
thermoelectric effect or Seebeck effect).
Need for reference junction( cold junction):
In thermocouples, voltage is developed due to the flow of electric current.
This current flow depends upon the difference in temperatures at the two
ends of conducting wire. That is thermocouples always measure the
difference in temperatures and not absolute temperature. To measure the
temperature of one junction, the other junction is kept at some reference
temperature. As this is done by using an ice bath, it is normally called at a
cold junction.
Using an ice bath for constant temperature is useful for laboratory calibration,
but is not convenient for most measurement and control applications.
Instead of an ice bath, an effect of the cold junction is added using a
thermally sensitive device such as a thermistor or diode.
This is also called an isothermal block. Special care is taken to minimize any
temperature gradient between terminals. Hence, the voltage from a known
cold junction can be simulated, and the appropriate correction is applied.
This is known as cold junction compensation.
Block Diagram:
Level 1: Static Characteristics:

Level-2 Dynamic Characteristics:

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Observation:
Level 1: Static Characteristics:
Reference Temperature = 0°C
1. Thermocouple Type = J
Useful Temperature Range: 95°C to 760°C

Temperature (in °C) Thermoelectric Voltage (in mV)

104 5.49
222 12.01
389 21.24
724 6.60
387 21.13
 2. Thermocouple Type = K
Useful Temperature Range: 95°C to 1260°C

Temperature (in °C) Thermoelectric Voltage (in mV)

137 5.67
106 4.40
275 10.68
277 10.68
258 10.12

3. Thermocouple Type = T
Useful Temperature Range: 0°C to 350°C

Temperature (in °C) Thermoelectric Voltage (in mV)

65 2.75
125 5.40
17 0.66
273 12.14
229 10.11

Level-2 Dynamic
Characteristics: Thermocouple
Type = T
Bare Time Constant = 2.20sec
Filling Material = MgO Powder

With Sheath:
Material Thickness (in mm) Time Constant (in sec)
SS304 0.5 3.75
SS304 0.75 3.66
Thermowell:
Material Thickness (in mm) Time Constant (in sec)
SS304 1 8.87
SS304 1.5 9.14

Graphs:
Level 1: Static Characteristics:
1. Thermocouple Type = J

2. Thermocouple Type = K

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 3. Thermocouple Type = T

Level-2 Dynamic Characteristics:

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 Conclusion:
The conclusion of the experiment was to understand the basic
functionality and working of thermocouple sensors. Also understood the
various characteristics of it i.e. static and dynamic by changing the
temperature and the material.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 EXPERIMENT- 4

Aim: To understand the working principle of LVDT.

Objective:
1. Study the relation between core displacement and output of LVDT.
2. Understand the effect of change in supply frequency on LVDT
performance.
3. Understand the effect of change in excitation supply voltage on LVDT
performance.
Theory:
LVDT is a linear Variable Differential Transformer. It is an electromechanical
transducer. It converts the rectilinear displacement of any object to which it
is coupled mechanically in electrical signal proportional to it.
Working:
An alternating current is connected to the primary. This current must be of
appropriate amplitude and frequency. It is also called Primary Excitation. The
frequency is usually in the range of 1 to 10 kHz. This current causes a voltage
to be induced in each secondary proportional to its mutual inductance with
the primary. While the frequency of induced voltage is the same as that of
excitation frequency, its amplitude varies with the position of the iron core. As
the core moves, the voltages induced in the secondary changes due to
change in mutual inductance. The coils are connected in series but in opposite
phases so that the output voltage is the difference between the two secondary
voltages. When the core is exactly at the central position, i.e at equal distance
from the two secondary's, equal but opposite voltages are induced in these
two coils, so the output voltage is zero. When the core is displaced in one
direction, the voltage in one coil increases with respect to the other, causing
the output voltage to increase from zero to a maximum value. This voltage is
in
phase with the primary voltage. When the core moves in the other
direction, the output voltage also increases from zero to a maximum value,
but the
phase is opposite to that of the primary. The magnitude of the output voltage
is proportional to the distance moved by the core. The phase of the voltage
indicates the direction of the displacement.
Case 1:
When no displacement is applied to the core and the core remains in the
null position without any movement then the voltage induced in both the
secondary windings is equal which results in net output is equal to zero
i.e., ES1 - ES2 = 0
Case 2:
When displacement is applied in such a way that the core moves in the
left direction then the voltage induced in that (left) secondary coil is
greater as compared to the emf induced in the other secondary coil.
Therefore the net output is ES1-ES2

Case 3:
When force is applied to the core such that it moves in the right-hand side
direction then the emf induced in the secondary coil 2 is greater compared
to the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1, therefore the net output
voltage is ES2- ES1.

As seen, the voltage undergoes 180 degrees phase shift while going through
null. The output E is out of phase with the excitation.
Usually, this AC output voltage is converted by suitable electronic circuitry
to high-level DC voltage or current that is more convenient to use.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

Block diagram:

Formulae:
2

Where,
f = supply frequency (user selectable)
IP= primary current = Vin/R

Where Vin (Vrms) is user selectable and R is the coil resistance (10kΩ)
NP= number of primary turns (user selectable)
NS= number of secondary turns (half of primary turns)
r0/ri = Ratio of outer and inner radii of the coil system (= 2)
x = displacement of the core form null (from actual core position)
µ0= permeability of space (4�10-7h/m)

b = length of primary winding (= 20mm)

m = length of secondary winding (= 10mm)

Observation:

Case 1: Supply Voltage (VRMS) = 5V

No. of turns = 1000
 a) Supply Frequency = 1000Hz

Displacement (x) (in mm) Output Voltage (in V)

-10 -0.099
-5 -0.045
5 0.045
10 0.099

b. Supply Frequency = 3000Hz

Displacement (x) (in mm) Output Voltage (in V)

-10 -0.2997
-5 -0135
5 0.135
10 0.2997

Case 2: Supply Voltage = 7V

Supply Frequency = 1000Hz
No. of turns = 1000

Displacement (x) (in mm) Output Voltage (in V)

-10 -0.4196
-5 -0.189
5 0.189
10 0.4196
ADITYA RAI 1826028
Case 3: Supply Voltage = 5V
Supply Frequency = 1000Hz
No. of turns = 1500

Displacement (x) (in mm) Output Voltage (in V)

-10 -0.944
-5 -0.426
5 0.426
10 0.944

Graphs:
Case 1: Supply Voltage (VRMS) = 5V
No. of turns = 1000
a. Supply Frequency = 1000Hz
b. Supply Frequency = 3000Hz
Conclusion:
The conclusion of the experiment was to understand the functionality and
working of the LVDT. Also understood the effect of change on supply
frequency and change in excitation supply on LVDT performance which can be
seen in the graph above.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 EXPERIMENT- 5

Aim: Measurement of level in a tank using capacitive type level probe.

Objective: Measurement of capacitance by changing the liquid level.
Theory:
Capacitive level transducer is an example of indirect measurement of level

Capacitance level sensors are used for a wide variety of solids, aqueous and
organic liquids, and slurries. The technique is frequently referred asRF as
radio frequency signals applied to the capacitance circuit. The sensors can be
designed to sense material with dielectric constants as low as 1.1 (coke and fly
ash) and as high as 88 (water) or more. Sludges and slurries such as
dehydrated cake and sewage slurry (dielectric constant approx. 50) and liquid
chemicals such as quicklime (dielectric constant approx. 90) can also be
sensed. Dual-probe capacitance level sensors can also be used to sense the
interface between two immiscible liquids with substantially different
dielectric constants.
Since capacitance level sensors are electronic devices, phase modulation and
the use of higher frequencies makes the sensor suitable for applications
in which dielectric constants are similar.

Working Principle:
The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on change
of capacitance. An insulated electrode acts as one plate of capacitor and the
tank wall (or reference electrode in a non-metallic vessel) acts as the other
 plate. The capacitance depends on the fluid level. An empty tank has a
lower capacitance while a filled tank has a higher capacitance.
A simple capacitor consists of two electrode plates separated by a small
thickness of an insulator such as solid, liquid, gas, or vacuum. This insulator is
also called as dielectric. Value of C depends on dielectric used, area of
the
plate and also distance between the plates.
C = ε0 (K A/d)

where,

C = capacitance in picofarads (pF)

ε0 = a constant known as the absolute permittivity of free space

K = relative dielectric constant of the insulating material

A = effective area of the conductors

d = distance between the conductors

This change in capacitance can be measured using an AC bridge.

Measurement:

Measurement is made by applying an RF signal between the conductive probe

and the vessel wall. The RF signal results in a very low current flow through
the dielectric process material in the tank from the probe to the vessel
wall. When the level in the tank drops, the dielectric constant drops causing a
drop in the capacitance reading and a minute drop in current flow. This change
is detected by the level switch's internal circuitry and translated into a change
in the relay state of the level switch in case of point level detection. In the case
of continuous level detectors, the output is not a relay state, but a scaled analog
signal.
Level Measurement can be divided into three categories:
a. Measurement of non-conductive
material b. Measurement of conductive
material
c. Non-contact measurement
Block Diagram:

Formulae:

C = [2εrµ0(µ1h1 + µ2h2)]/ ln (r2/r1)

where,
C = Capacitance in µF
r1 = radius of inner cylinder
r2 = radius of outer
cylinder
µ0 = permittivity of the space = 8.85 x 10 -12
µ1 = permittivity of air =1
µ2= Dielectric constant of the process fluid/selected service
h1 = Height (Level) of air column = span - liquid column height
h2 = Height (Level) of liquid column
span = (Tank height * 0.9) - 5
Observation:
Height of tank = 2500cm
Outer radius (r2) = 2.5cm
Span Value = 2245
Service = Coffee Beans
1. Inner radius (r1) = 0.3cm

Level (in cm) Output Capacitance (in µF)

450 0.0648
675 0.0648
900 0.0707
1125 0.0736
1350 0.0766

2. Inner radius (r1) = 1.2cm

Level (in cm) Output Capacitance (in µF)

450 0.1871
675 0.1957
900 0.2042
1125 0.2127
1350 0.2212

ADITYA RAI 1826028

Graphs:

1. Inner radius (r1) = 0.3cm

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 2. Inner radius (r1) = 1.2cm

Conclusion:
The conclusion of the experiment was to understand the functionality and
working of the capacitive type level probe. Also able to measure successfully
the capacitance by changing the liquid level. The various characteristics are
shown in the above graphs.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

 EXPERIMENT- 6

Aim: To design an orifice plate for a typical application

Objective:
1. To study the measurement of differential pressure due to change in flow.
2. To study the effect of service change on the measurement of
differential pressure.
3. To study the effect of service change on changing the tapping of flow
measurement.
Theory:
Orifice meter is a type of variable head meter. In this meter the obstruction to
the flow consists of an engineering constriction in the metered fluid which
causes a reduction in the flow pressure. An orifice meter is a conduit
and a restriction to create a pressure drop. It uses the same principle as a
Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle which states that there is a
relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity of the fluid.
When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa. An orifice
plate is a thin plate with a hole in the center of the plate. It is usually placed in
a pipe in such a way that fluid passed through the hole. When the fluid
reaches the orifice plate, with the hole in the middle, the fluid is forced to
converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum convergence
actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called
vena contracta . Vena contracta is a point where the velocity and the
pressure changes. Beyond the vena contracta, the fluid expands and the
velocity and pressure change once again. By measuring the difference in fluid
pressure between the normal pipe section and at the vena contracta, the
volumetric and mass flow rates can be obtained from Bernoulli's
equation.There are different types of orifice plate that are namely
Concentric, Segmental, Eccentric and Quadrant Edge and Conic Edge.

ADITYA RAI 1826028

In order to use any of these devices for measurement it is necessary to
empirically calibrate them. That is, pass a known volume through the
meter and note the reading in order to provide a standard for measuring
other quantities. Due to the ease of duplicating and the simple construction, the
thin sharp edged orifice has been adopted as a standard and extensive
calibration work has been done so that it is widely accepted as a standard
means of measuring fluids. Provided the standard mechanics of
construction are followed no further calibration is required. An orifice in
a pipeline with a manometer for measuring the drop in pressure (differential)
as the fluid passes through the orifice. The minimum cross sectional area of
the jet is known as the “vena contracta'' where the velocity is maximum
and static pressure is minimum. It is observed at some distance from
orifice because of inertia effects persisting in flow direction. Materials
used for orifice plates are mild steel, stainless steel, phosphor bronze and
gunmetal.
Block Diagram:
Level 1: Measurement of differential pressure due to change in flow.
Level 2: Effect of service change on the measurement of differential pressure.

Level 3: Effect of service change on changing the tapping flow measurement.

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ADITYA RAI 1826028
Graphs:
Level 1: Measurement of differential pressure due to change in flow.

Level 2: Effect of service change on the measurement of differential

pressure.
Level 3: Effect of service change on changing the tapping flow measurement.

Conclusion:
The conclusion of the experiment was to understand the functionality and
working of an orifice.Also able to understand the various effects on it by
changing the service and effect of service on changing the tapping of
flow measurement. I also measured the differential pressure due to change in
flow successfully.

ADITYA RAI 1826028