Relays

The function of protective relays:

The function of protective relaying is to detect any abnormal condition in the system
and to isolate the faulty section or element from the system as quick as possible. This helps to
limit the damage of the faulty section or element and to keep the rest of the system undisturbed.
The relaying equipment is aided in this task by circuit breaker that can capable of disconnecting
the faulty element when they are called to do so by relaying equipment.

Although the principal function of protective relaying is to avoid the damage caused by short
circuits, protective relaying should also take care of any abnormal operating conditions,
particularly in generators or motors.

A secondary function of protective relaying is to provide an indication of location of fault and

type of failure which is helpful for maintenance people.

For the protection of a part of a power system against short circuit, the protective relaying may
be classified into two groups:

1) Primary relaying: First line of defense

2) Backup relaying: This functions only when the primary relaying fails.

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What is the advantage of overlapping zone?

This can be explained by taking the following system of the system.

Let us consider the fault shows

just above breaker C which is
within zone A but outside zone B.
Hence zone A protection scheme
detects the fault and tips breakers
C and S. But fault current will
continue to feed through the link
K.

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Backup Relaying:

This type of relaying is used only for the protection of short circuits, because short circuits are
the predominant type of power system failure. Experience has shown that backup relaying for
other than short circuits is not economically justifiable.

A clear knowledge of the possible cause of primary relaying failure is essential in the design of
backup relaying. Primary relaying fails due to the failure of the following:

1) Current or voltage supply to the relays.

2) D-C tripping voltage supply.

3) Protective relays.

4) Tripping circuit or breakers mechanism.

5) Circuit breaker

In order to provide satisfactory backup protection the backup relaying should be completely
independent from primary relaying equipment i,e, nothing should be in common . So far as
possible, the practice is to locate the backup relays at different station.

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To give an example

A R1 B R2 C R3

M K
L

For fault at K, only R3 should operate to clear the fault, if however, R3 does not operate for any
reason, R2 should clear the fault. So R2 is backing up the R3, similarly R1 will back up R2 for
fault L.

Describe the necessity of having more protective zones for the protection of the power
system to achieve better service.

In order to service continuity to as many areas as possible under fault condition, the power
system should be divided as many zones as possible so that the protective scheme of only the
affected zone can isolate the fault. (This is called selectivity).

To give an example the following two causes can be considered:

Case-1: 䧐i

For fault at P1, A, B and C should be tripped to isolate the fault. On the other hand for fault at P2
the breakers A, B, C, D & E should be tripped to isolate the fault.

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Case-2:

If we increase the protective zone of case-1, we get the following:

In this case for fault at P1, only breakers A and F will be tripped to isolate the fault. And for fault
at P2 breakers C D E & G should be tripped to isolate the fault.

By comparing case-1 and case-2, we can see that less number of consumers will be affected i,e, a
batter service continuity can be achieved if more protective zones are used .

General requirements for protective relaying:

a) Selectivity or discrimination

b) Speed of operation

c) Sensitivity

d) Dependability

a) Selectivity or Discrimination:

It is the ability of the protection to isolate only the faulty section of the circuit after the
occurrence of a short circuit. It is an important requirement for providing a reliable supply to
consumers.

Example

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For fault at F3, the breakers A2 and B2 should be tripped

For fault at F2, the breakers C1 and D1 should be tripped

b) Speed of operation:

A short circuit must be cleared as quickly as possible to reduce the damage to the equipment.
High speed relaying is essential to reduce the voltage dropping time and to maintain system
stability.

The requirement of high speed in a number of cases is a decisive factor for providing the stability
of the operation of power station and power systems.

c) Sensitivity:

The sensitivity of a protection must be such that it can operate in the case of a short circuit under
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minimum operating condition of the system. Under these conditions the variation of the actuating
quantity (current) will be minimum. For example, if one generator is disconnected from station A
during any under loading condition, as shown in the following fig, the short circuit current at the
relay point near the fault will be decreased.

The sensitivity of the protection must be high enough to act under this minimum condition. The
sensitivity of a protection can be expressed by sensitivity factor Ks.

Ks=

Where, I short circuit minimum = Minimum short circuit current.

Iop = the smallest current at which the protection starts operating.

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d) Dependability:

Dependability implies that the protection must faultlessly operate in the case of a short circuit
within the prescribed zone and must not operate incorrectly under conditions which do not
include provision for its operation. The dependability is of primary importance. Missing or
unnecessary operating of a protective scheme already involves extra isolations.

Classification of Relays

1) Electro mechanical relays.

2) Static relays.

3) Microprocessor based relays.

Operating principle:

Electro mechanical relays can be classified into following two groups:

a) Electromagnetic attraction.
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b) Electromagnetic induction.

The first one operates by virtue of a plunger being drawn into a solenoid or an armature being
attracted to the poles of an electromagnet. Such relays may be actuated by d.c or by a.c
quantities.

Electromagnetic induction type relay use the principle of an induction motor where torque is
developed by induction in the rotor. This operating principle applies only to actuate by
alternating current. They are better known as induction relays.

Mechanical movement of the operating mechanism is imported to a contact structure to close or

to open contacts.

a) N/O Contact b) N/C contact

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Pickup Value:

The smallest value of the actuating quantity that causes the contact "a" to just close and contact
"b" to just open is called pick up value.

Reset Value or Dropout:

The largest value of the actuating quantity at which the relay resets and comes back to its
original position.

Adjustment of Pickup or Reset:

Adjustment of pickup or reset is provided electrically by tapped current coils or by tapped

auxiliary potential transfers or rectors; or adjustment is provided mechanically by adjustable
spring tension or by varying the initial air gap of the operating element with respect to its
solenoid or electromagnet.

Instantaneous and Time Delay Relay:

In instantaneous or high speed relay there is no intentional time delay and then operating time
approximately .05 sec or less . Occasionally a supplementary auxiliary relay having fixed time
delay may be used when a certain delay is required that is entirely independent of the magnitude
of the actuating quantity in the protective relay.
Z

Time delay is obtained in induction type relays by a drag Magnet "Which is a permanent magnet
arranged so that the relay rotor cuts the flux between the poles of the magnet. This produces a
retarding effect on the motion of the rotor in either direction.

Single Quantity Relay:

Electromagnetic attraction type:

This is the simplest type of relay. This has an electromagnet energized by coil. The coil is
energized by the operating quantity which may be proportional circuit current or voltage.

There are two types of Electromagnetic attraction type relay:

a) Hinged attracted armature type

b) Plunger type attraction relay

Both these relays work on both ac and dc. The actuating quantity is a single current or voltage.

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 Hinged attracted armature type Plunger type

Operating Principle:

The electromagnetic force exerted on the moving element is proportional to the square of the
flux in air gap. If saturation is neglected then exerted force proportional to square of operating
current.

We get,
ȱ

F= k1I2-k2

Where, F=net force

k1=force conversion constant

I= Magnitude (r.m.s) of the actuating current

k2=the restraining force including friction

When the relay is on the verge of picking up, the attractive force becomes equal to the
restraining force. So, the force becomes zero, i.e. F=0

k1I2 = k2

Or I= = constant

The pick current of the relay should be just greater than I

Ratio of reset to pick up:

One characteristic that effect the application of these relays is the relatively large difference
between their pick up and reset values. This is due to the fact that once the relay has picked up.

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The air gap is shortened. This permits a smaller magnitude of coil current to keep the relay
picked up than was required to pick it up. This effect is less pronounced in ac than that in dc
relays. By special design the reset can be made as high as 90-95% of pick up in ac. relay and 60-
90% in dc relays.

Pick up value can be adjusted by adjusting the initial air gap. A higher pick up calibration will
have a lower ratio of reset to pick up.

Tendency towards vibration:

Unless the pole pieces of such relay have " shading rings" to split the air gap flux into two out
phase components, such relay are not suitable for continuous operation on alternating current in
the picked up position . This is because there would be excessive vibration that would produce
objectionable noise and cause excessive wear. This tendency to vibrate is related to the fact that
an ac relay without shading ring has a tendency to reset every half cycle when flux passes
through zero.

Special feature of attracted armature type relay:

1. Attracted armature type relays respond to both ac. and dc.

2. These are fast relays. They have fast operation and fast reset because of small length of travel
and light moving parts. 䧐i

3. They are described as instantaneous relays. But their operating time does vary with current.
Slow operating time and reset time can be obtained by delaying in field or delay of flux in the
magnetic circuit by fitting copper ring around the magnet and by means of bellows, dash pot etc.
Operating time as slow as .1 sec and resetting time as .5 sec can be obtained by such means.

4) These relays do not have any directional feature unless they are provided with additional
polarized coil.

5) As they are fast and operate on both ac and dc, they are affected by transients. The transients
contain dc component as well as other harmonies. Therefore, though the steady state current is
less than pick up value, the relay may pick up during transients state.

6) VA burden depends on its construction.

0.2 - 0.6 VA for current range 0.1-0.4 amp.

7) Modern attraction armature relays are compact, robust and reliable.

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Application of attracted armature type electromechanical relay:

-Over current protection:

The time lag is obtained using instantaneous attracted armature relays in conjunction with a
definite time lag relay or an inverse time lag relays.

-Definite time lag o/c and earth fault protection:

The attracted armature relay is used in conjunction with definite time lag relay for o/c and both
earth fault protection.

-Differential protection:

The instantaneous attracted armature type relay is useful for different protection.

Balanced beam relay:

(Electromagnetic attraction principle)

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This type of relay consists of a horizontal beam pivoted centrally. With one armature attracted to
either side. There are two coils, one on each side. So long as the operating force is equal to the
restraining force, the beam remains in horizontal position. The current is one coil gives the
operating force. The current in the other coil produces restraining force. The beam is given slight
mechanical bias by means of spring or weight adjustment such that under normal operating
condition the contacts are open. When the operating torque becomes more than the restraining
torque, the contact closes.

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Operating principle:

Neglecting the spring effect, the net torque is given by

T= k1I12 - k2I22

Where, T=net torque

I1=current in operating coil.

I2=current in restraining coil

k1, k2=constant

On the verge of operation, the net torque is zero

k1I12 = k2I22

or = = Constant

If one of the coil is energized by voltage say V and the other by current I, the equation is V/I=k.
this principle is used in impedance relay which will be discussed later on.
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Special feature of this relay:

• Difficult to design over wide range of current because the operating force is proportional
to I2
• Fast and instantaneous operating time is on this order of 1 cycle
• A high reset pick up ratio can be obtained
• These relays are largely superseded by permanent magnet moving coil relay having better
accuracy and low VA burden.

Electromagnetic induction type relay:

It is the most widely used for protective relaying purpose involving a-c quantity. They are not
useable with dc quantities. Basically it is like a split phase induction motor. Actuating force is
developed in a moveable element (either a disc or other form of rotor of nonmagnetic current
conducting material) by the interaction of electromagnetic fluxes with eddy current that are
induced in the rotor by these fluxes.

The two alternating fluxes φ1 and φ2 displaced in space and time induce voltage on the rotor and
in turn generate eddy current iφ1 and iφ2 respectively. The current iφ1 produced by the flux φ1
react with other flux φ2 and vice versa.

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To produce forces act on the rotor

Let

Φ1 = φ1sinωt

Φ2 = φ2sin (ωt+θ), where θ is the angle between Φ1 & Φ2 ȱ

We assume the rotor material has negligible self-inductance then the rotor current is in phase
with this induced voltage in the rotor.

∝ ∝

" !
! ∝ ∝ ! % &'(
"#$
In this type of relay a metal disk is allowed to rotate between two electromagnetics. The
electromagnets are energized by alternating current the field produced by the two magnets
displaced in. As we discussed before there are two types or forces, F1 and F2 acting on the rotor
which are in opposition

) ∝ !

)! ∝ !

Net force, ) ∝ %) * )! ( ∝ % ! * !(

)∝+ ! ,sin%#$ 0 1( cos #$ * sin #$ cos%#$ 0 1(45

)∝ ! sin%#$ 0 1 * #$( ∝ ! sin 1

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Since the fluxes were assumed as sinusoidal, the r.m.s. value of these fluxes can be used for
average value of force.

The significant point is that the net force is the same at every instant of time i.e. independent of
time

The actuating quantity is produced in the presence of out of phase fluxes, one alone would
produce no net force and the maximum force is produced when the two fluxes are 90 degree out
of phase. The direction of force and hence the direction of motion of the relays moveable
element depends on which flux is leading the other

The torque equation of single quantity inductance relay

T= k1I2-k2

Where I is the current in the relay coil

There are different types of construction:

-Shaded pole

-Wattmeter type

-Induction cup type ©

Shaded pole - already discussed

Wattmeter type:

Phase angle θ between φ1 and φ2 is

adjusted by a reactance of the two
winding

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Induction cup type:

They most closely resemble an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is stationary. Only the
rotor conductor portion being free to rotate the cup structure employs a hollow cylindrical rotor.
The relay has two four or more electromagnets in the stator. The figure shows the construction
having four electromagnets. In this type of relay the eddy current are produced in the cup. These
currents interact with the flux produced by other electromagnet and torque is produced, the
theory is similar to that the disc induction relay.

How to protective relay operate?

All relays used for short circuit protection and many other types also operate by virtue of the
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current and / or voltage supplied to them by CT and PT connected in various combination to the
system element to be protected changes in current and voltage can be used to detect the presence
of abnormalities ( fault or abnormal operation ). Types fault and location of fault in the
protective relays for every type and location of failure, there is more distinctive difference in
these quantities. There are various types of protective relaying equipment of which is designed to
recognize a particular difference to operate in response to it.

The possible actuating quantities for relaying schemes

- Magnitude

- Frequency

-Phase angle

-Duration

-Rate of change

-Direction or order of change

-Harmonics or wave shape

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