Chapter 2: PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

Overview/Introduction

Thinking is usually considered to be the process of mentally representing some aspects of the
world (including ourselves) and transforming these representations so that new representations,
useful to our goals, are generated. Thinking is often regarded as a conscious process, in which
we are aware of the process of transforming mental representations and can reflect on thought
itself. Problem solving and reasoning are two key types of thinking. Problem solving
encompasses the set of cognitive procedures and thought processes that we apply to reach a
goal when we must overcome obstacles to reach that goal. Reasoning encompasses the
cognitive procedures we use to make inferences from knowledge and draw conclusions.
(Reasoning can be part of problem solving.)

Learning Outcome/Objective

At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:

1. Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts (K)
2. Write clear and logical proofs (K)
3. Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s four steps
(S)
4. Organize one’s method and approaches for proving and solving problems (V)

Learning Content/Topic

THE NATURE OF PROBLEM SOLVING

In the context of cognitive psychology, a problem is a situation in which there is no immediately
apparent, standard, or routine way of reaching a goal. The determination of the goal and the
degree of difficulty you face are both important: if you don’t care whether you get to the
psychology building in time for the exam (or at all), or if a satisfactory detour is obvious, no
problem faces you. Some problems, such as those that arise between parents and children as
they try to get along with one another, may have emotional content; others, such as
mathematical problems, are less emotional, but may involve emotions (e.g., anxiety) in certain
circumstances, such as when math problems appear on an exam). Research on problem
solving generally makes use of problems that are less emotional in nature, but it is thought that
the types of strategies we use are similar for both emotional and non-emotional problems.

Problem solving, then, is a process of surmounting obstacles to achieve a goal. Knowing how
to get the lights on in your apartment is not a problem when there is power, but it is a problem
when there is a power outage. So, routine situations with routine answers are not regarded as
problems. There must be novelty or nonstandard solutions that the problem solver must
discover. Because problem solving is such an ubiquitous part of our lives, it has become an
important area of research that is of both theoretical and practical importance.
One of the primary reasons people have trouble with problem solving is that there is no single
procedure that works all the time — each problem is slightly different. Also, problem solving
requires practical knowledge about the specific situation. If you misunderstand either the
problem or the underlying situation you may make mistakes or incorrect assumptions. One of
our main goals for this semester is to become better problem solvers. To begin this task, we
now discuss a framework for thinking about problem solving: Polya’s four-step approach to
problem solving.

Polya’s Four Steps to Problem Solving 1. PREPARATION: Understand the

Problem
• Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts
• Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
a. What sort of a problem is it?
b. What is being asked?
c. What do the terms mean?
d. Is there enough information or is more information needed?
e. What is known or unknown?
• Rephrase the problem in your own words.
• Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the problem.

2. THINKING TIME: Devise a Plan

• You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the problem?
• Possible strategies:
a. Draw pictures
b. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns
c. Be systematic
d. Solve a simpler version of the problem
e. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test
f. Look for a pattern or patterns
g. Make a list
• Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the problem
aside for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
• Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and creative
rather than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to solve the problem.

3. INSIGHT: Carry out the Plan

• Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down immediately. When you have
time, try it out and see if it leads to a solution.
• If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try another approach. Often
the first approach does not work. Do not worry, just because an approach does not work,
it does not mean you did it wrong. You actually accomplished something, knowing a way
does not work is part of the process of elimination.
• Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough times, you will often
have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new perspective on how to approach
solving the problem.
• The key is to keep trying until something works.
4. VERIFICATION: Look Back
• Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
a. Did you answer the question?
b. Is your result reasonable?
c. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the problem are
satisfied.
d. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
• If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple mistake. Try to
fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it. Remember what you tried—it is
likely that at least part of it will end up being useful.
• Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You need to become
flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
• Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future problems?

Some Basic Mathematical Principles to Keep in Mind When Problem Solving 1.

The Always Principle:
Unlike many other subjects, when we say a mathematical statement is true, we mean that it is
true 100 percent of the time. We are not dealing with the uncertainty of statements that are
―usually true or ―sometimes true.

2. The Counterexample Principle:

Since a mathematical statement is true only when it is true 100% of the time, we can prove that
is false by finding a single example where it is not true. Such an example is called a
counterexample. Of course, when we say a mathematical statement is false, this does not mean
that it is never true — it only means that it is not always true. It might be true some of the time.

3. The Order Principle:

In mathematics, order usually matters. In a multi-step mathematical process, if we carry the
steps out in a different order, we often get a different result. For example, putting your socks on
first and then your shoes is quite different from putting your shoes on first and then your socks.

4. The Splitting Hairs Principle:

In mathematics, details matter. Two terms or symbols that look and sound similar may have
mathematical meanings that are significantly different. For example, in English, we use the term
equal and equivalent interchangeably, but in mathematics, these terms do not mean the same
thing. For this reason, learning and remembering the precise meaning of mathematical terms is
essential.

5. The Analogies Principle:

Often the formal terminology used in mathematics has been drawn from words and concepts
used in everyday life. This is not a coincidence. Associating a mathematical concept with its
―real world‖ counterpart can help you remember both the formal (precise) and intuitive
meanings of a mathematical concept.

6. The Three Way Principle:

When approaching a mathematical concept, it often helps to use three complimentary
approaches:
 • Verbal – make analogies, put the problem in your own words, and compare the situation
to things you may have seen in other areas of mathematics.
• Graphical – draw a graph or a diagram.
• Examples – use specific examples to illustrate the situation.
By combining one or more of these approaches, one can often get a better idea of how to think
about and how to solve a given problem.

Examples:
1. Twice the difference of a number and 1 is 4 more than that number. Find the number.
a. Looking for a “number” Let X = number
b. 2(X-1) = 4+X
c. Solve
d. Answer: 6

Solution
2(x-1) = 4+x
2x-2 = 4+x
2x-x-2-4=0
X-6=0
X=6

2. A math class has 30 students. Approximately 70% passed their last math test. How many
students passed the last math test?
a. Let x is the number of students who passed the exam
b. x = 70% x 30
c. solve
d. Answer: 21

Solution
X = 0.70 x 30
X = 21

3. In a blueprint of a rectangular room, the length is 1 inch more than 3 times the width. Find the
dimensions if the perimeter is to be 26 inches.
a. Dimensions: let L=length, W=width; but L=3W+1
b. P=2L+2W
P=2(3W+1) + 2W
c. Solve
d. W=3, L=10

4. Find the measure of each angle in the figure below. Note that since the angles make up a
straight line, they are supplementary to each other.
a. Let x and 5x the angles
b. 180deg = x + 5x
c. Solve
d. Answer: 30 degrees
5. The sum of 3 consecutive integers is 258. Find the integers.
a. Let X the first integer
X+1 second
X=2 third
b. (x)+(X+1)+(x+2)=258
c. Solve
d. Answer: 85

Teaching and Learning Activities

Exercise: Using the Polya’s 4 steps, solve the following problems:

1. Out of 230 racers who started the marathon, 212 completed the race, 14 gave up, and 4
were disqualified. What percentage did not complete the marathon?

2. A project on Kickstarter.com was aiming to raise $15,000 for a precision coffee press. They
ended up with 714 supporters, raising 557% of their goal. How much did they raise?

Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

Google Classroom, Module, Exercises

Assessment Task

Problem Set: Solve the following problems applying the Polya’s 4 steps.
1. A father tells his son, “I was your age now when you were born.” If the father is now 38 years
old, how old was his son 2 years ago.

2. Paula is now 18 years old and her colleague Monica is 14 years old. How many years ago
was Paula twice as old as Monica?

3. At present, the sum of the parents’ ages is twice the sum of the children’s ages. Five years
ago, the sum of the parents’ was 4 times the sum of the children’s ages. Fifteen years hence,
the sum of the parents’ ages will be equal to the sum of the children’s ages. How many
children are there?

4. Pedro can paint a fence 50% faster than Juan and 20% faster than Pilar, and together they
can paint a given fence in 4 hours. How long will it take Pedro to paint the same fence if he
had to work alone?

5. It takes Butch twice as long as it takes Dan to do a certain piece of work. Working together,
they can do the work in 6 days. How long would it take Dan to do it alone?

6. The sum of two numbers is 21 and one number is twice the other. Find the numbers.
7. A man rows downstream to a place 4.8 miles with the stream and back in 14 hours, but finds
that he can row 14 miles with the stream in the same time as 3 miles against the stream. Find
the rate of the stream.

8. A farmer can plow the field in 8 days. After working for 3 days, his son joins him and together
they plow the field in 3 more days. How many days will it require for the son to plow the field
alone?

9. Six years ago, Nilda was five times as old as Riza. In five years, Nilda will be three times as
old as Riza. What is the present age of Riza?

10. The sum of Kim’s and Kevin’s ages is 18. In 3 years, Kim will be twice as old as Kevin.
What are their ages now?

Reference/s:

Tiong, J. R. and Rojas Jr., R. A. 1001 Solved Problems in Engineering Mathematics. JRT
Publishers. Cebu City. ISBN 971 806 000 6.

https://faculty.atu.edu/mfinan/2033/section1.pdf
https://calculate.org.au/2016/04/13/problem-with-problem-solving/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/polyas-four-step-problem-solving-process.html