Physics

Paper No. : 09 Electronics

Module: 4.1 Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED

Development Team
Prof. Vinay Gupta ,Department of Physics and Astrophysics,
Principal Investigator University of Delhi, Delhi

Dr. Monika Tomar ,Physics Department ,Miranda House

Paper Coordinator
University of Delhi, Delhi

Prof. Vinay Gupta, Department of Physics and Astrophysics, University of Delhi, Delhi
Content Writer
Dr. Ayushi Paliwal, Department of Physics, Deshbandhu College, University of Delhi, Delhi

Prof. R. P. Tondon,Department of Physics and Astrophysics,

Content Reviewer
University of Delhi, Delhi

Electronics
Physics
Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED
 Description of Module
Subject Name Physics
Paper Name Electronics
Module Name/Title Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED

Module Id 4.1

Electronics
Physics
Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED
 Contents of the unit
1. Introduction
2. RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS
3. OPTICAL ABSORPTION
4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
5. Summary

Learning Objectives
 Radiative transitions including EM spectra from UV to IR
 Basic transitions in semiconductor
 Stimulated and spontaneous emission rate
 Optical absorption in semiconductors
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

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1. Introduction
Photonic devices are those where photons play a major role. Photonic devices are divided into 3 groups:
1) Device that convert electrical energy into optical [LED and Diode Laser (Light amplification by
stimulated emission of radiation)].
2) Device that detects optical signals through electronic process (photo detectors).
3) Device that convert optical energy into electrical energy (Photovoltaic device or Solar cell).

2. RADIATIVE TRANSITIONS:

2.1 EM spectra from UV to IR:-

The regions corresponding to wavelength for ultraviolet, visible and infrared are shown in
figure 1 below.

|VOILET | BLUE | GREEN | YELLOW | ORANGE | RED |

0.39 0.455 0.492 0.577 0.597 0.622 0.77

ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE INFRARED

EXTREME | FAR |NEAR| |NEAR | MEDIUM | FAR | EXTREME

0.01 0.2 0.3 0.39 0.77 1 1.5 6 10 40 100 1000 λ (µm)

100 10 1.0 0.01 0.001 0.0001 Photon Energy

Figure 1: Optical EM spectrum

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Visual range of human eye is 0.4 µm to 0.7 µm [Violet to Red]. For conversion of λ to photon energy (hν),

(1)
c hc 1.24
λ= = hν = 𝑥 = hν (eV) µm
ν

where c is the velocity of light.

E.g.: Green light (λ = 0.5 µm ) => 2.48 eV photon energy (h ν)

2.2 Radiative transitions: Basically three process (basic transition) for interaction between a photon and
an electron in a solid; (1) absorption, (2) spontaneous emission, and (3) stimulated emission. Figure 2
shows these three possibilities of transition of an atom from the energy level E2 to E1. Any transition
between E1 and E2 involves the emission or absorption of photon with frequency ν12 such that ν12= E2 –
E1.
At RT, most atoms in a solid are at ground state. The situation is disturbed when a photon of
energy exactly equal to hν12 incident on the system. Atom in E1 state absorbs the photon
energy and goes to excited state E2 . This is absorption process.

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Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED
Figure 2: Radiative transitions
Spontaneous emission:
Excited state of atom is unstable and after a short time (without any external stimulus), it makes a
transition to the (Fig. b) ground state, giving off a photon of energy hν12. [Spontaneous emission].

Stimulated emission:
When a photon of energy hν12.is incident on atom having excited state (Fig. c), it stimulates to make a
transition to ground state and gives off a photon of energy hν12., which is in phase with the incident
radiation.
The radiation from stimulated emission is monochromatic since each photon has energy = hν12. and is
coherent since all photons emitted are in phase.

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Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED
2.3 Basic transitions in a semiconductor:
Note that all transitions are not radiative, and can occur in same material or under same conditions. An
efficient luminescent material is one which radiative transitions pre-dominate over non- radiative
transitions. The four ways a radiation transition can occur in a semiconductor are described below and
shown in figure 3.

(1) Intrinsic band-to-band transition involving recombination of e-h pair is radiative, and has a high
probability of occurrence only in a direct band gap semiconductor , and emitted photon energy
hν=Eg..
(2) Extrinsic recombination between a hole bound to a neutral acceptor and a free electron in
conduction band.
(3) Excitation recombination involving acceptor- type trap levels very close to conduction band edge
which becomes negatively charged after capturing an electron from conduction band [due to N
doping P site in GaP]. A hole from Valence band gets bound to trap level due to coulombic
attraction and electron- hole pair (bound exciton) remains in excited state until recombines by
emitting a photon.
(4) Extrinsic process of donor- acceptor pair recombination electron from conduction band is captured
by ionized donor, and a hole from valence band captured by ionized acceptor. Subsequent
transition of electron from ED to EA emits photon [ED - EA].

Ec
. ED
E1
(4) Eg
(R) (1) (2) (3)
(R)
Deep
level

EA EA (NR)
Ev

Inter-bond transition Chemical/ physical defects

[Intrinsic emission ~ Eg, transitions. Interband transition involving
Photons and excitions are [C.B.  Acceptor, Donar  V.B., energetic carriers.
involved Donor Acceptor (Pair emission),
Deep levels, etc.

Figure 3: Radiative transitions in a semiconductor

Band to Band Auger recombination, trap assisted Auger recombination, recombination process via
deep levels are non- radiative.

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Radiative transition, optical absorption, LED
2.4 Stimulated- emission and spontaneous emission rate

Let us assume that the instantaneous populations of E1 and E2 are n1 and n2 respectively. Under a thermal
equilibrium condition and for (E2-E1)> 3KT, the population is given by Boltzmann distribution:

𝑛2
= 𝑒 −(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )/𝐾𝑇 = 𝑒 −ℎν12 /𝐾𝑇  eq. (2)
𝑛1

In steady state, the stimulated- emission rate (number of stimulated emission transitions per unit time)
and sponataneous emission rate must be balanced by the rate of absorption to maintain the populations
n1 and n2 ( in E1 and E2 ) constant.

The stimulated- emission rate is proportional to population of upper level ( n2) , and further
proportional to photon field energy density ρ(ℎν12 ) (which is the total energy in the radiation field per
unit volume per unit frequency)
Therefore, stimulated emission rate= B21n2 ρ(ℎν12 )  eq. (A)

where B21  proportionality constant, n2 number of electrons in E2 (upper level).

Spontaneous emission rate is proportional to only population of upper level (n2)

Therefore, spontaneous emission rate = A21n2  eq. (B)

where A21  proportionality constant.

The absorption rate is proportional to the population of electrons at lower level (n1) , and

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 α photon field energy density ρ(ℎν12 )

therefore , Absorption rate= B12 n1 ρ(ℎν12 ) - eq. (C )

where B12  proportionality constant.

Therefore, At steady state,

Stimulated- emission rate + Spontaneous- emission rate= absorption rate.

 B21n2 ρ(ℎν12 ) + A21n2 = B12n1 ρ(ℎν12 ) (3) (from eq. A,B, C)

Also,

𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵21

= ρ(ℎν12 )  (4) (from eq. A and B)
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴21

Therefore, to enhance stimulated emission over spontaneous emission, ρ(ℎν12 ) must be large,
[For this, a optical resonant cavity is used to increase ρ(ℎν12 )].

Also,
𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵21 𝑛2
= [ ]  (5) [from A and C]
𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴21 𝑛1

If stimulated emission of photons is to dominate over absorption of photons, we must have n2

> n1. => Population Inversion, since under an equilibrium condition the reverse is true.

The dominant operating process for:

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 LED  Spontaneous emission,
LASER  Stimulated emission
Photodetector/ Solar cell  Absoption

3. OPTICAL ABSORPTION:

1.

Ec
Et
hν Eg
(a) (b) (c)
Ev

(a) hν = Eg ;
(b) hν > Eg;
(c) hν < Eg
Figure 4: Optical absorption process

Basic transitions in a semiconductor

(1) hν = Eg, photons are absorbed to create electron- hole pairs [Fig a].
(2) hν > Eg, electron- hole pairs generated + excess energy (hν - Eg) dissipates as heat. [Fig. b]. Both (1)
and (2) are intrinsic or band to band transitions.

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(3) For hν < Eg, photon will absorbed on if energy states are available in the forbidden gap due to
chemical / physical defects (Fig c). This is extrinsic transition.
The discussion is valid for reverse situation.

3.1 Photon flux in semiconductors

Let photons of energy hν > Eg be incident on a semiconductor and flux φ0 [ units of photons per cm2 per
second] as shown in figure 5.

φ0 φ(x) φ(x+Δx))
Δx

φ0

Photon φ0𝑒 −𝛼𝑥

flux

x

x W

Figure 5: Photon flux travelling through semiconductor

As photon flux travels through semiconductor, fraction of photons absorbed which is α

intensity of flux. Therefore, number of photons absorbed within an incremented distance (Δx)
is α φ(x) Δx

= α φ(x) Δx.

Where α  proportionality constant defines as absorption coefficient.

From continuity of photon flux (fig), we have ,

𝑑φ(x)
φ(x+ Δx) - φ(x) = . ∆𝑥 = - α φ(x) Δx
𝑑𝑥

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 𝑑φ(x)
 𝑑𝑥 =- α φ(x)  (6)
Negative sign indicates decreasing intensity of photon flux due to absorption . The solution of eq. (6)
with boundary condition φ(x) = φ0 at x=0 is φ(x) = φ0 at x=0 is
φ(x) = φ0𝑒 −𝛼𝑥  (7)

At x= W (other end ), the fraction of photon flux that exits from semiconductor is
φ(W) = φ0𝑒 −𝛼𝑊  (8)

The α is a function of hν. The α decreases rapidly with λ increasing at the cut-off wavelength (λc) i.e.
1.24
λc = µ𝑚  (9)
𝐸𝑔

Since optical band to band absorption becomes negligible for hν < Eg or λ > λc.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED) :

p-n junctions that can emit spontaneous emission in UV, visible or IR are termed as Light Emitting
Diodes (LEDs). Applications of LED in Infra Red range comprises of opto-isolator/ optical fiber
communication, whereas in UV and visible range, it can be used in making instruments.Light emission
from semiconductor involves basically three processes.

1) Excitation process (electron- hole pair produced)

2) Recombination process (excited carriers release energy via radiative or non- radiative process).
3) Extraction of passage of emitted photons from the active region of semiconductor to observer.

Efficiency of LED can be assigned to each processes and overall efficiency of LED is a combination of
these three efficiencies.

1) Excitation: injection of minority carriers through a forward- biased junction (in mostly LEDs).
Other methods of excitation are Avalanche excitation and tunneling.
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 Avalanche excitation: excess carriers are produced by impact ionization process that causes
avalanche breakdown in semiconductor.

Consider carrier injection via forward biased p-n junction. In mostly LED, dominant radiative
recombination occurs only on one side of junction ( by proper choice of Na and Nd).

Eg.: if excess carriers are to recombine on n side , then holes from p side must be injected into
n side making Ip > In. This is made using p+ - n junction with Na >> Nd.

Recombination of electron- hole pairs in depletion region causes recombination current Irec .
The overall injection efficiency in a p+- n LED is
𝐼𝑝
ni =
𝐼𝑝 + I𝑛 + 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐

where 𝐼𝑝 + I𝑛 + 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑐 is the total current in the diode.

ni increases with decrease in In and Irec.

2) Recombination of Excess carriers:

Efficiency of radiative recombination is given by:
𝑈𝑟
nr = 𝑈
𝑟 + 𝑈𝑛𝑟

𝑇𝑛𝑟
=𝑇
𝑛𝑟 + 𝑇𝑟

where Ur  radiative recombination rate.

Unr  non radiative recombination rate

Tr  lifetime of radiative

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 Tnr  lifetime of non- radiative

1
Ur 𝛼 𝑇 and
𝑟

1
Unr 𝛼 𝑇
𝑛𝑟

Therefore, nr increases by increase in Tnr or decrease in Tr.

In direct Eg GaAs, Tr ~ 10-9 seconds (which is low).

In indirect Eg GaP, Tnr increases by doping N.

3) Extraction of light from semiconductor:

In a typical LED, photons are generated within a few µm of junction and emitted photons
must pass through semiconductor to reach the surface. Three loss mechanisms (reduce the
number of photons emitted ):

(i) Due to absorption within semiconductor (photon quantity increases with x from junction
as 𝑒 −𝛼𝑥 , where 𝛼  Absorption coefficient.
(ii) Reflection Loss: when light passes from semiconductor to air, due to difference in
refractive index n2 (semiconductor) to n1 (air) known as Fresnel loss.
𝑛 −𝑛 2
Reflection coefficient, R= [ 𝑛2 + 𝑛 1 ] = 0 if n2= n1.
2 1

(iii) Due to Total internal reflection of light which reaches semiconductor surface at an angle
> θc (critical angle). Using Snell’s Law,
𝑛
Sin θc= 𝑛1
2

where n2  refractive index of semiconductor (GaAs) ~ 3.66 at λ= 0.8 µm.

n1  refractive index of air = 1.

For GaAs, θc = 16 ˚ and

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 for GaP (n2= 3.45 at at λ= 0.8 µm), , θc ~ 17˚.

Total efficiency = n= n0.ni.nr

In order to obtain a high extraction efficiency n0, these losses must be minimized.

4.1 VISIBLE LED:

Eye is sensitive to light with hν ≥ 1.8 eV (≤ 0.7 µm). Therefore, semiconductor for LED
must have Eg > 1.8 eV.

The important material is GaAs1-yPy (III- V). [Ternary].

Or AxB1-xCyD1-y [Quaternary].

[RED] GaAs : Eg ~ 1.4 eV  Direct

[Orange, Yellow, Green]  GaP; Eg ~ 2.2 eV  Indirect.

GaAs1-yPy :

0<y<0.45 (Direct Eg ; 1.42 to 1.98 eV).

0.45<y<1.0 (Indirect Eg ; 1.98 to 2.2 eV).

Therefore, y< 0.45 => Probability of radiative transition is high (momentum is conserved)

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 y> 0.45 => Probability of radiative transition is low (since lattice interaction must
involve in . . process to conserve momentum).

In y>0.45, special recombination centres are incorporated to enhance radiative process [or
Tnr increases] by introducing nitrogen.

Quantum Efficiency: (number of photons generated per electron- hole pair) decreases
sharply ( with increase in y) at y=0.45 because of change in Eg from direct to indirect.

However, with N doping, efficiency increases to much higher value for y > 0.45.

DIRECT Eg LED (emit RED light) are made on GaAs substrate and INDIRECT Eg LED
(orange, yellow and green) are made on GaP substrate.

4.2 IV characteristics of LED

Forward I-V for LED is similar to p-n junction. In general, experimental results are
represented empirically by :

IF ∝ exp [𝑞𝑉/𝜂𝑘𝑇]

Where 𝜂 Ideality factor

[𝜂 = 1 for diffusion current and 𝜂 = 2 for recombination current .

𝜂 𝑖𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 when both currents are comparable].

At higher current levels, experimentalists notice that I departs from ideal 𝜂 = 1 and increase
more gradually with forward bias. This is due to two effects:

(1) Series resistance and (2) high injection

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 (1) Series resistance effect: At low or medium current levels, the IR drop across neutral
𝐾𝑇
regions is usually small compared to 𝑞 (26 mV at Room Temperature (300K)), I 
forward current and R series resistance.
E.g.: Si diode with R= 1.5 Ω, IR = 1.5 mV at I= 1mA. However, IR= 150 mV at I= 100
𝐾𝑇
mA which is six time more than . Therefore, this drop (IR) reduces the bias across
𝑞
𝑞(𝑉−𝐼𝑅)
depletion region and current becomes I ~ Isexp 𝐾𝑇
𝑞(𝐼𝑅)
Therefore, diffusion current is reduced by factor exp .
𝐾𝑇

(2) High injection current : At high current levels, injected minority carrier density ~ majority
charge carrier concentration (E.g.: at n- side of junction, pn (x=xn)~ nn).
Under this condition,

I ∝ exp [𝑞𝑉/2𝑘𝑇]

 I increases at slower rate under high injection condition.

 Therefore, total current in LED is :
𝑞(𝑉−𝐼𝑅) 𝑞(𝑉−𝐼𝑅)
I= Idexp [ 𝐾𝑇 ] + Ir 2𝐾𝑇

Where Id saturation current due to diffusion

Ir  saturation current due to recombination.

To increase the power output of LED, one can decrease both the Ir and Rs.

5. Summary

 Radiative transitions including EM spectra from UV to IR

 Basic transitions in semiconductor
 Stimulated and spontaneous emission rate
 Optical absorption in semiconductors
 Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

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