CHAPTER II

Background and
Literatur

1
 .2.1Basic principle of Photovoltaic panel
Silicon is a much known semiconductor having properties of both metals and non-metals. To make
a solar panel, this silicon is doped by a pentavalent impurity converting silicon into positive type
silicon also known as p-type silicon. And similarly other part is converted into negative or n-type
silicon.
As name suggest p-type have excess of holes (positive charge) in it and n- type has excessive
electrons. Then these two are combined together one over other up to the atomic level. Due to their
contact and having opposite charge electrons flow from n-type to p-type and holes travel from p-
type to n-type thus creating a thin potential barrier between them.
The current so generated from this movement of charges is named as diffusion current. But we need
to understand yet another thing that is due to this potential barrier, giving rise to electric field which
flows from the positive charge near n-type and negative charge near p-type junction (the area where
potential is generated or meeting area of p and n type). Due to this electric field electrons from p-
type starts flowing to wards n-type and holes from n-type towards p-type giving rise to a current
called drift current. Initially the diffusion current is more than the drift current but as potential
difference increases due to diffusion it simultaneously increases the drift current. Current stops
flowing when drift current becomes equal to diffusion current Sunlight travels to earth in the form
of small energy particles called photons. This photon strike the p- type region and transfer its
energy to hole and electron pair thus exciting the electron and it gets away from hole.
The electric field we have due to potential difference at p-n junction makes its electron to travel to
n-type region thus causing the current to flow But there a bit more to know, to make this electric
field strong enough so that it must travel to n-type region and not recombine with the hole it has
been separated from. To make this electric field strong the n-type and p-type regions are connected
to negative and positive terminals of battery, this process is known as reverse bias condition. Doing
this increases the probability of electron travelling all along the way to n-type region once separated
from a hole. Thus increasing the efficiency of a solar panel .
2.1.1Simple explanation of principle of Photovoltaic panel

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semi-conducting materials.

2
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms as they are excited. Due to
their special structure and the materials in solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a
single direction. The electronic structure of the materials is very important for the process to
work, and often silicon incorporating small amounts of boron or phosphorus is used in different
layers.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC)
electricity.

2.2 Solar PV Technology

This section gives a brief description of the solar PV technology and the common technical terms
used. A solar PV system is powered by many crystalline or thin film PV modules. Individual PV
cells are interconnected to form a PV module. This takes the form of a panel for easy installation.
PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use photons to dislodge electrons
to drive an electric current. The “family tree” in Figure (2-1) gives an overview of these
technologies available today and Figure (2-2) illustrates some of these technologies.

Figure(2.1). PV technology family tree

3
Mono-crystalline Poly-crystalline Flexible amorphous CIGS thin film
Silicon silicon thin film
Figure(2.2). Common PV module technologies
Equivalent circuit of a solar cell 2.3
To understand the electronic behavior of a solar cell, it is useful to create a model which is
electrically equivalent, and is based on discrete ideal electrical components whose behavior is well
defined. An ideal solar cell may be modeled by a current source in parallel with a diode; in practice
no solar cell is ideal, so an shunt resistance and a series resistance component are added to the
model.[1] the table show element define of circuit table(2-1)
I   output current (ampere)
IL Photo generated current (ampere)
ID diode current (ampere)

ISH shunt current (ampere).

Vj  voltage across both diode and resistor RSH (volt)

V voltage across the output terminals (volt)

RS series resistance (Ω)

I0 reverse saturation current (ampere)

n  diode ideality factor

q elementary charge

k  Boltzmann's constant
T absolute temperature

RSH   shunt resistance (Ω).

The resulting equivalent circuit of a solar cell is shown

 

4
 Fig(2.3): Equivalent circuit of PV module showing the diode and ground leakage currents.

From the equivalent circuit it is evident that the current produced by the solar cell is equal to that
produced by the current source, minus that which flows through the diode, minus that which flows
through the shunt resistor:

I =I −ID−Ish[2]

The current through these elements is governed by the voltage across them:

Vj=V + IRs

By the Shockley diode equation, the current diverted through the diode is:

VJ
} [3]
−1
nVT
ID=Io {e

By Ohm's law, the current diverted through the shunt resistor is:
VJ
Ish=
Rsh
Substituting these into the first equation produces the characteristic equation of a solar cell, which
relates solar cell parameters to the output current and voltage:

An alternative derivation produces an equation similar in appearance, but with V on the left-hand
side. The two alternatives are identities; that is, they yield precisely the same results.
Since the parameters I0, n, RS, and RSH cannot be measured directly, the most common application of
the characteristic equation is nonlinear regression to extract the values of these parameters on the
basis of their combined effect on solar cell behavior.
When RS is not zero, the above equation does not give the current I directly, but it can then be
solved using the Lambert W function:

When an external load is used with the cell, its resistance can simply be added to RS and V set to
zero in order to find the current.

5
 When RSH is infinite there is a solution for V for any I less than(IL+IO)

Otherwise one can solve for V using the Lambert W function:

However, when RSH is large it's better to solve the original equation numerically.

Open-circuit voltage and short-circuit current 2.3.1

When the cell is operated at open circuit, I = 0 and the voltage across the output terminals is
defined as the open-circuit voltage. Assuming the shunt resistance is high enough to neglect the
final term of the characteristic equation, the open-circuit voltage VOC is:

TK
9520.0
tV ≈ tV =
the thermal voltage. At 25 °C
q
Similarly, when the cell is operated at short circuit, V = 0 and the current I through the terminals is
defined as the short-circuit current. It can be shown that for a high-quality solar cell (low RS and I0,
and high RSH) the short-circuit current ISC is:

Effect of temperature on solar cell 2.4

Temperature affects the characteristic equation in two ways: directly, via T in the exponential term,
and indirectly via its effect on I0 (strictly speaking, temperature affects all of the terms, but these
two far more significantly than the others). While increasing T reduces the magnitude of the
exponent in the characteristic equation, the value of I0 increases exponentially with T. The net effect
is to reduce VOC (the open-circuit voltage) linearly with increasing temperature. The magnitude of
this reduction is inversely proportional to VOC; that is, cells with higher values of VOC suffer smaller
reductions in voltage with increasing temperature. For most crystalline silicon solar cells the change
in VOC with temperature is about -0.50%/°C, though the rate for the highest-efficiency crystalline
silicon cells is around -0.35%/°C. By way of comparison, the rate for amorphous silicon solar cells
is -0.20%/°C to -0.30%/°C, depending on how the cell is made.

The amount of photo generated current IL increases slightly with increasing temperature because of
an increase in the number of thermally generated carriers in the cell. This effect is slight, however:
about 0.065%/°C for crystalline silicon cells and 0.09% for amorphous silicon cells.
The overall effect of temperature on cell efficiency can be computed using these factors in
combination with the characteristic equation. However, since the change in voltage is much
stronger than the change in current, the overall effect on efficiency tends to be similar to that on

6
voltage. Most crystalline silicon solar cells decline in efficiency by 0.50%/°C and most amorphous
cells decline by 0.15-0.25%/°C. The figure above shows I-V curves that might typically be seen for
a crystalline silicon solar cell at various temperatures.

Fig(2.4) show the effect of temperature on solar cell

2.5Topologies of DC-DC Converter

The topologies of DC-DC converter are designed to meet specific demand of DC loads. There are
several types of DC-DC converter that can be functioned as switching mode regulators that can
regulate the unregulated DC voltage with conversion to suitable utilization voltage through increase
or decrease the value of DC output voltage by using power switching devices for PWM switching at
a fixed frequency which are buck, boost, buck-boost, cuk , Single Ended Primary Inductor
Converter (SEPIC) and fly back–boost converter [4], [6], Each converter requires the power
switching devices for turn-on and turn-off when it is needed. The power switching devices such as
MOSFETs, IGBTs, BJTs and thyristors are used depending upon the applications and parameters of
designing the circuit. In order to trigger the power switching devices, appropriate gate drive signals
by using gate driver circuit should be considered [7]. The DC-DC converters are driven by Pulse
Width Modulation (PWM) switching to control the converter voltage, frequency and phase delay
[5], [8].

2.5.1 types of DC-DC converter

1-dc-dc boost converter
2-dc-dc buck converter
3-dc-dc buck-boost converter

2.5.1.1 DC-DC Boost Converter

Figure shows basic circuit topology of a DC-DC boost converter circuit consists of power switch
(M), diode (D), inductor (L), capacitor (C), switching controller and load (R). This topology can be
used for interface connection between low PV array voltage to a high battery bank input voltage or
any DC load [11]. The DC-DC boost converter will boost up or step up the output voltage to be

7
greater than input voltage [5], [12]. Controller will control the switch for turn-on and turn-off to
boost the input voltage to the needed value of output voltage. When the switch is turn-on, the diode
will be in reversed bias and electrical energy will be stored in the inductor. Thus, the capacitor will
supply current to the load. When the switch is turn-off, the stored electrical energy in the inductor
will be transferred to the capacitor and load. The DC-DC boost converters have two type of
operation which is continuous-conduction mode (CCM) and discontinuous-conduction mode
(DCM). When the DC-DC boost converter operates in CCM, the inductor current will be greater
than zero at all-time whereas during DCM, the inductor current will drop to zero after each
switching cycle [4], [10], [13]. Current research trends for DC-DC boost converter with PV based
power quality management are reported for harmonic elimination, power factor correction, zero
voltage regulation and load balancing [14 -15].

Figure(2.5) . Circuit topology of DC boost converter [1],

2.5.1.2DC-DC Buck Converter

Similar to DC-DC boost converter, basic circuit topology of DC-DC buck converter also consists
of power switch (M), diode (D), inductor (L), capacitor (C), switching controller and load as
depicted in Figure 2. DC-DC buck converter operates as a step down system that will step down the
high input voltage to the low output voltage which the magnitude of output voltage is always lower
than the input voltage. The objective of this circuit is to produce a purely DC output by adding the
LC low pass filter to the basic circuit of this converter. This DC-DC buck converter can be
connected to low voltage DC load or battery bank from a high PV array voltage. DC-DC buck
converters are commonly used in very high range step down converters and low power range
regulators because of its simple topology with low control difficulty, less number of components
and no isolation. Most of the DC-DC buck converters are used in battery charging by modulating
the high input voltage through PWM to generate the low output voltage required by the batteries as
well as MPP tracking in order to maximize the output power obtained from the PV arrays [4], [11].
Several solar PV applications with DC-DC buck converter are standalone solar PV pumping system

8
for water supply in rural areas [18], solar battery charger [19, 20], MPPT tracking for grid-
connected [21] and off-grid PV system [22].

Figure (2,6). Circuit topology of DC-DC buck converter [16], [17]

2.5.1.3 DC-DC Buck-Boost Converter

The circuit topology for DC-DC buck-boost converter is very much similar to DC-DC boost
converter except for the placement of switching element before the inductor (L) as shown in Figure
3. The DC-DC buck-boost converter or namely as step-up/down and bidirectional converter can
generate either lower or higher output voltage from its input voltage by in order to connect with
suitable PV array voltage, DC load or battery input voltage [11]. DC-DC buck-boost converter is a
cascaded connection of two basic converters which are DC-DC buck and boost converters. The
output of this converter can be controlled by changing its duty cycle, D. If the duty cycle is lower
than 50%, the converter will be operated in buck mode and the output voltage will be less than the
input voltage. When the duty cycle is higher than 50%, the converter will be functioned in boost
mode and the output voltage will be greater than input voltage [4]. The design parameters that
should be considered in designing this converter are the operating frequency of the inductor, the
maximum current and voltage that the inductor can withstand as well as the gate driver circuit to
generate the PWM switching signals for triggering the power switch.

9
 Figure(2.7). Circuit topology of DC-DC buck-boost converter [1]

2.6 Comparison between DC-DC Buck, Boost and Buck-Boost Converter

The similarities amongst DC-DC buck, boost and buck-boost converter are using the same
components in their circuits but different in individual characteristics and operational purposes.
Several parameters such as inductors, capacitors and power switches with gate drivers can be
considered in comparing the performances between buck and boost converter. The DC-DC boost
converter needs higher inductance than DC-DC buck converter whereas the DC-DC buck converter
requires larger and costlier capacitor to smooth the discontinuous PV module input current than the
DC-DC boost converter. Furthermore, the DC-DC boost converter has lower current rating for
power switches and gate drivers but the DC-DC buck converter requires high-side power switches
driver which is more difficult and expensive than the DC-DC boost converter. Besides, the existing
free-wheeling diode of the DC-DC boost converter can avoid reverse current which the DC-DC
buck converter requires extra blocking diode in DC-DC buck converter to conduct PV maximum
current. Thus, the DC-DC boost converter has more advantages due to its better dynamic
performance and inexpensive implementation [25], [38].
However, the DC-DC boost converter also has some limitations which may lead to less efficiency
and losses due to too high output power, excessive input current and large voltage drop across the
diode during voltage collapse point. For low voltage application, the efficiency of the DC-DC boost
converter can be improved by replacing the diode with a power switch device which creates a
synchronous DC-DC boost converter topology as shown in Figure 4 [24]. Besides, the DC-DC
boost converter also suffers power losses due to conduction loss and switching loss under different
load conditions as well as high switching noise that will reduce the quality of the output voltage [1].
On the other hand, the DC-DC buck-boost converter is reported to be the most effective solution in

10
 tracking maximum power point (MPP) of the PV array irrespective of ambient temperature, solar
irradiance, and load condition. Its integration with solar PV sytem is the best practice to improve
solar PV system performance. However, the drawbacks of this topology are less efficient and
costlier than other topologies [21], [39].
2.7 Chose type of converter to use.
I will chose in this project the buck-boost converter because it has some benefit on other types of
converter because it can work to increase or decrease the input voltage by independent on the value
of the duty cycle
And the voltage generated on the photo voltaic have range of change dependent on the temperature
and irradiation .

Principle of operation of the inverting topology 2.8

The basic principle of the inverting buck–boost converter is fairly simple (see figure 2):
 while in the On-state, the input voltage source is directly connected to the inductor (L). This
results in accumulating energy in L. In this stage, the capacitor supplies energy to the output
load.
 while in the Off-state, the inductor is connected to the output load and capacitor, so energy is
transferred from L to C and R.
Compared to the buck and boost converters, the characteristics of the inverting buck–boost converter
are mainly:
 polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of the input;
 the output voltage can vary continuously from 0 to −∞−∞ (for an ideal converter). The output
voltage ranges for a buck and a boost converter are respectively  Vito 0 and Vi to∞ .

Figure(2.8). buck-boost converter Equivalent circuit for the switch closed

11
 Figure(2.9). buck boost converter Equivalent circuit for the switch open
The two operating states of a buck–boost converter: When the switch is turned on, the input voltage source supplies
current to the inductor, and the capacitor supplies current to the resistor (output load). When the switch is opened, the
inductor supplies current to the load via the diode D.

2.9 Mathematical equation for buck-boost converter

There is two type of operation in the converter is:
1-Continuous mode
2-Discontinuous mode
The basic element of circuit are define in the table

12
IL inductor current
D duty cycle

T Time period of operation

Vi or Vs Input voltage or source voltage

Vo Output voltage

L inductor

Imax Maximum value of current

I av Average value

I min Minimum value

ID Diode current

Is Switch current

VD Diode voltage

∆ IL Change in inductor current for period of operation

E Energy across inductor

2.9.1
Io Output current
R resistance
C capacitance
VL Inductor voltage

Vc Capacitor voltage

Fs Switch frequency

∆ Vc∨r Ripple voltage across capacitor

∆ Is Ripple current across inductor
Lc Critical value of inductor

Cc Critical value of capacitor

Table(2-2)

Continuous mode

13
If the current through the inductor L never falls to zero during a commutation cycle, the converter is
said to operate in continuous mode. The current and voltage waveforms in an ideal converter can be
seen in Figure.(2.10)

Fig (2.10): Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in continuous mode.

From t=0 TTT  t=0to t=D T, the converter is in On-State, so the switch S is closed. The rate of
change in the inductor current (IL) is therefore given by

At the end of the On-state, the increase of IL is therefore:

D is the duty cycle. It represents the fraction of the commutation period T during which the switch
is On. Therefore D ranges between 0 (S is never on) and 1 (S is always on).
During the Off-state, the switch S is open, so the inductor current flows through the load. If we
assume zero voltage drop in the diode, and a capacitor large enough for its voltage to remain
constant, the evolution of IL is:

14
Therefore, the variation of IL during the Off-period is

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount of energy stored in
each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the end of a commutation cycle.
As the energy in an inductor is given by:

it is obvious that the value of IL at the end of the Off state must be the same with the value of IL at
the beginning of the On-state, i.e. the sum of the variations of IL during the on and the off states
must be zero:

Substituting ∆ Ilon and ∆ Iloff  by their expressions yields:

This can be written as:

This in return yields that:

……………………….(2.1)
From the above expression it can be seen that the polarity of the output
voltage is always negative (because the duty cycle goes from 0 to 1), and that its absolute value
increases with D, theoretically up to minus infinity when D approaches 1. Apart from the polarity,
this converter is either step-up (a boost converter) or step-down (a buck converter). Thus it is named
a buck–boost converter
2.9.2Discontinuous mode

15
In some cases, the amount of energy required by the load is small enough to be transferred in a time
smaller than the whole commutation period. In this case, the current through the inductor falls to
zero during part of the period. The only difference in the principle described above is that the
inductor is completely discharged at the end of the commutation cycle (see waveforms in figure
(2.11)). Although slight, the difference has a strong effect on the output voltage equation. It can be
calculated as follows:

Fig (2.11): Waveforms of current and voltage in a buck–boost converter operating in discontinuous mode

Because the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value Ilmax (at
t=DT )is:

During the off-period, IL falls to zero after δ .T:

Using the two previous equations, δ is:

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current (ID iii). As can be seen on figure 4, the
diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore, the output current can
be written as:
16
Replacing I Ilmaxand δ by their respective expressions yields:

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as:

2.9.3Parameter equation of buck-boost converter

the fig(2.12) are shown the parameter of circuit.

Fig(2.12) buck-boost converter

To put equation to the parameter of circuit
First when switch is ON the periodic of time from (0-DT)

VL=VS

IC(ON)=IO
At the second state when the switch is off the period of time from (DT-T)
VL(OFF)-V0=0
VL(OFF)=VO
IC(OFF)=-(IL+IO)
The ampere at sec balance will equal
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-IODT-(IL+IC)(1-D)T=0
−IO
IL= …………..(2.2)
(1−D)
The ripple current of the inductor equal:
VL(ON)=VS
DVs
∆Is= ………………(2.3)
fL

Ripple in capacitor voltage:

∆Vc during on period

Ic(on)=-Io
dVc
c =−Io
dt
Vmin DT
Io
∫ dVc=∫ dt
Vmax 0 c
DIo
∆ Vc=
fC
D
Ripple (r)= ……………(2.4)
RCf

The critical value of inductor can calculate:

Icmin=0
∆ Il
Il− =0
2
−Vo −Io 1 DVs DVs
= = ( )=
R (1−D) 1−D 2 FLc R(1−D)2
R (1−D)
Lc= …………………(2.5)
2F

The critical value of capacitor can calculate

Vcmin=0
∆ Vc
Vo− =o
2

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 ∆ Vc
Vo=
2
1 DIo
Vo= ( ) by subtract the value of Io
2 FC
1 DVo
Vo= ( )
2 FCR
D
C= ………….(2.6)
2 FR
The value of the time period is:
1
T = ………(2.7)
fs

Fig(2.13) shown the operation of the circuit

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