Mod.

8 TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
Inferential Statistics plays a very important role in decision-making about pop’ns on the basis of
sample data. Any research investigation progresses through repeated formulation and testing of
hypotheses regarding the phenomenon under consideration, in a cyclical manner. In order to reach an
objective decision as to whether a particular hypothesis is confirmed by a set of data, we must have an
objective procedure for either rejecting or accepting that hypothesis. Objectivity is emphasized because
one of the requirements of the scientific method is that one should arrive at scientific conclusions by
methods which are public and which may be repeated by other competent investigators. This objective
procedure would be based on the information we obtain in our research and on the risk we are willing to
take that our decision with respect to the hypothesis may be incorrect.

Much of the reason why studying statistics is not appreciated is due to not understanding the basic
objectives of statistical methods. We can boil these objectives down to two:
1. The estimation of population parameters (values that characterize a particular population).
2. The testing of hypotheses about these parameters.
A hypothesis is an assumption about the pop’ns involved w/c may be true or not be true. It must be
tested by application of an appropriate statistical test. It is the researcher who should formulate
meaningful hypotheses to be tested, not the statistician. The researcher should consult the statistician to
be sure that the hypothesis is put in a form that can be tested. Once the hypothesis is set, it is up to the
statistician to work out ways of testing it and to devise efficient procedures for obtaining the data.
Agriculturists, public and business determine the productivity or the efficiency of a new process,
agriculturists decide whether to produce a crop or not, to buy a new machine or not, a farmer
hypothesizes that pruning will affect the yield of rambutan or teachers test whether a new educational
procedure is better than another etc..., then an exp’t is set up to prove or disprove the hypothesis. If
hypotheses are found to be statistically true, they are accepted; if found to be false, they are rejected. A
hypothesis is a tentative assumption concerning the effects of the treatments that has to be tested or
verified through experimentation.
In order to reach an objective decision as to whether a particular hypothesis is confirmed by a set of
data, we must have an objective procedure for either rejecting or accepting that hypothesis. Objectivity
is emphasized because one of the requirements of the scientific method is that one should arrive at
scientific conclusions by methods which are public and which may be repeated by other competent
investigators. This objective procedure would be based on the information we obtain in our research and
on the risk we are willing to take that our decision with respect to the hypothesis may be incorrect.
 Theories in science start out as hypotheses.
The word theory in science means a single explanation is supported by lots of evidence collected over a
long period of time.
A hypothesis becomes a theory after a prolonged period of rigorous and repeated experimentation,
during which the hypothesis cannot be proved wrong. While these theories, such as those of evolution,
relativity, and gravity are accepted as "absolute truth" for convenience, the true scientist acknowledges
that there is no "absolute truth," and that any theory may be potentially disproved at some later point in
time.

Deductive reasoning employs analysis of specific data or sets of data upon which to base conclusions
and is used to test the validity of ideas or hypotheses. Inductive reasoning stems from careful
observation of specific phenomena, upon which certain conclusions are made. (Inductive conclusions
can then be tested deductively!) A hypothesis is a suggested explanation that accounts for observations
about a particular area of science.

Variables are elements of an experiment or observation that vary, such as temperature, exposure time,
amount of light, etc. In a controlled experiment, all variables except one are held constant through
several trials, thereby ensuring that any result seen in the experiment is a direct result of the single
variable being investigated. All legitimate scientific experiments have controls.

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A hypothesis is an educated guess based from experiences or research. It must be testable and will give
possible answers to our guesses. A test of hypothesis (TOH) type of inference is appropriate when the
goal of the research question is to verify an educated guess, compare groups, test relationships, or
explain/predict outcomes.

You have an idea that something happened - Your guess or hypothesis about what happened might be:
 Groups are different from each other.
 Some treatment has an effect on an outcome measure.
 One variable predicts another variable.
 Effects actually occurred
 Treatments have effects
 Groups differ from each other
 One variable predicts another
Other tentative assumptions are given below:
 Introduced species of corn will have better growth & yield than native species of corn.
 The age at w/c transplanting is applied will have an effect on yield of rice.
 Modular teaching method is better than other teaching methods,
 The yield, the growth or height at different stages and the number of panicles of newly
introduced rice variety is better than existing varieties
A hypothesis is an assumption about the populations involved. Such assumption may be true or not be
true. It must be testable by the application of an appropriate statistical test.
The general steps involved in testing hypotheses are the following.
(i) Stating the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis
(ii) Choosing a statistical test (with its associated statistical model) for testing the null hypothesis
(iii) Specifying the significance level
(iv) Defining the region of rejection
(v) Computing the value of test statistic using the data obtained from the sample(s) and making a
decision based on the value of the test statistic and the predefined region of rejection. An
understanding of the rationale for each of these steps is essential to an understanding of the
role of statistics in testing a research hypothesis which is discussed here with a real life
example.
Once a hypothesis has been formed, the next step is to choose the statistical test which formulates the
procedure for its verification. Procedure usually consists of:
1. Selecting the treatments to be tried
 Varietal Trial,
 Teaching Methods,
 Means of Motivation,
 Types of tractor engines, etc;

2. Specifying the traits or characters to be measured

When testing the hypothesis, there are two possibilities:

1. Nothing happened - We call this the Null Hypothesis - Ho
2. Something happened: we call this the Alternative Hypothesis, Ha
That's it! When you test a statistical hypothesis, you are trying to see if something happened and are
comparing against the possibility that nothing happened.

1. NULL HYPOTHESIS (Ho) - starting point of the testing process. It serves as our working hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis can be tested statistically. So it is termed as statistical hypothesis. In statistics, we
always assume the null hypothesis is true. That is, the null hypothesis is always our initial assumption.
It always expresses the idea of nonsignificance of difference or there is no relationship between the
independent & dependent variable in the population under study.

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 For example, consider a person in court who is charged with murder. The jury needs to decide
whether the person in innocent (the null hypothesis) or guilty (the alternative hypothesis). As usual, we
assume the person is innocent unless the jury can provide sufficient evidence that the person is guilty.
Similarly, we assume that H0 is true unless we can provide sufficient evidence that it is false and
that Ha is true, in which case we reject H0 and accept Ha.

• Is the difference in two sample populations due to chance or a real statistical difference?
• The null hypothesis assumes that there will be no “difference” or no “change” or no “effect” of
the experimental treatment.
• If treatment A is no better than treatment B then the null hypothesis is supported.
• If there is a significant difference between A and B then the null hypothesis is rejected...

H0 is a statement of equality, sameness, likeness or similarity.

The Null Hypothesis (Ho) means Null, Nothing, Zero, Wala, Awan
 The null hypothesis always states that nothing is going on
 You didn't find an effect in your study
 Your variables are not related
 Your treatment doesn't seem to help anybody
 You didn't find the groups to be different
 You conclude that they are not different
 You did not find an effect in your study
 There is no difference, no relationship, no treatment effect, etc.
 In equation form, Ho : X = Y
 In conclusion, we conclude about the population under study, not only about the sample
which were used in the study.
 population parameter = hypothesized value. The null hypothesis says that the population
parameter is equal to the hypothesized value.
 The hypothesized value is the value of the educated guess.
 In statistics, we always make one of two decisions. We either "reject the null hypothesis" or
we "fail to reject the null hypothesis."
 If we reject the null hypothesis, we do not prove that the alternative hypothesis is true.
 If we do not reject the null hypothesis, we do not prove that the null hypothesis is true.
 We merely state that there is enough evidence to behave one way or the other. This is always
true in statistics! Because of this, whatever the decision, there is always a chance that we
made an error.
Typically, the investigator conducts the exp’t w/ the belief that the manipulation of independent
variable will influence the dependent variable. In other words, it is the rejection of the Ho w/c is
interpreted as significant finding.
Hypothesis formulation is a prerequisite to the application of statistical design and analysis. A null
hypothesis (H0) can never be proved correct, but it can be rejected with known risks of being wrong, i.e.
falsifiable. (Thus, a chemical can never be statistically proved as perfectly safe.)
Example: If H0 says that late maturing cultivars have the same yields as early maturing cultivars, then
you must reject H0 if an increased yield of late cultivars were observed in the experiment. You can’t
then say “come to think of it, these differences may be due to different environments where they were
grown, not really the cultivar differences.” If a result can be interpreted in that way, then the hypothesis
was unfalsifiable. This can result only from a poor experimental design.
A hypothesis can be expressed as a model. All models are abstractions and simplifications or
approximations of reality but not the reality itself. In biological or environmental studies, a model that
closely approximates a complex real system would need hundreds of simultaneous partial differential
equations with time lags and hundreds of parameters. Simplification is both legitimate and necessary.
Thus, all models may be considered as hypotheses that can be further improved or refined by
experimental work.

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 Initially, a proposed hypothesis can be considered as an assumption which can only be tested by
comparing the predicted results of the assumption with the experimental data. An initial hypothesis is
called a research hypothesis (RH), and the predicted result is called the test consequence (TC). Many
alternative TCs can be deducted from an RH, and each TC can be tested by a specifically designed
experiment. Therefore, it is important to select a TC so that the RH can be most efficiently and correctly
tested by experiment. The method of deriving TC from RH is called hypothetical-deductive (HD)
method. A poorly derived TC leads to inefficient experiments, or possibly nonfalsifiable RH. In general,
a TC is stated in a form of a statistical hypothesis so that statistically sound methods can be applied to
test the Tc. Since a TC dictates the objective, type, and scope of an experiment and potential errors of
conclusions of analysis, it is extremely important for experimenters to formulate well thought out and
the best possible TC from an RH.

2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESES (Ha) - It is one in which a difference between two or more variables
is anticipated by the researcher. It always express the idea that there is a significant difference or there is
a relationship between the independent & dependent variable in the pop’n under study. If the related
literature points to the findings that a certain technique of teaching for example, is effective, we have to
assume the same prediction.
If Ho is rejected, the alternative hypothesis Ha may be accepted. The alternative hypothesis is the
operational statement of the experimenter’s research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is the
prediction derived from the theory under test. When we want to make a decision about differences, we
test H0 against Ha. Ha constitutes the assertion that is accepted if H0 is rejected.

The Ha means Something happened, More than zero!

 There was an effect of your treatment.
 Your groups are different.
 One variable predicts another.
 In equation form, Ha : X ≠ Y (non directional)
 Or In equation form, Ha : X > Y or Ha: X < Y (directional)
 Ha: population parameter  hypothesized value
 The alternative hypothesis says that the population parameter is not equal to the hypothesized
value.

You conclude that they are different; you found an effect in your study! Your sample statistic & Null
Hypothesis values are not close.
How do we test hypotheses? This is the counterintuitive part. This is the logic that seems backward. We
try to disprove the Null Hypothesis. We try to disprove that nothing happened. If we disprove that
nothing happened, then that’s the time we conclude that SOMETHING HAPPENEd.
Ex.: The researcher wants to find out whether the treatment (T) (values clarification lessons –
independent variable) will improve the self-concept (dependent variable) of the exp’tal group. The same
T is not given to the control group.
Ho: Values clarification lessons have no significant effect of on the self-concept of the students.
Ha: Values clarification lessons have a significant effect on the self-concept of the students.
or Ho: The self-concept of the students is not related to the values clarification lessons they were
exposed.
Ha: The self-concept of the students is related to the values clarification lessons they were exposed
to.
These two-way decision problems called test of hypothesis is a procedure used to substantiate or
invalidate a claim.
If the related literature points to the findings that lessons on values will improve the self concept of
students, we have to assume the same prediction. This is our Ha.
To present another example, suppose a Farm Manager suspects a decline in the productivity of
Rambutan plantation in a management unit due to continued cropping with that species. This suspicion
would form the research hypothesis. Confirmation of that guess would add support to the theory that

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continued plantation activity with the species in an area would lead to site deterioration. To test this
research hypothesis, we state it in operational form as the alternative hypothesis, Ha. Ha would be that
the current productivity level for the species in the management unit (µ1) is less than that of the past
(µ0). Symbolically, µ1 < µ0. The H0 would be that µ1 = µ0. If the data permit us to reject H0, then Ha can
be accepted, and this would support the research hypothesis and its underlying theory. The nature of
the research hypothesis determines how Ha should be stated. If the farm manager is not sure of the
direction of change in the productivity level due to continued cropping, then Ha is that µ1 ≠ µ0.
The (Somewhat Twisted) Logic of Significance Testing
Rejection of Ho implies acceptance of Ha
Acceptance of Ho implies rejection of Ha
An Ho is rejected if the probability that it is a true statement is very low.
 Compute a probability value that tells how likely our data (or results) would occur just by
chance
 If the probability is “low” (e.g., p = .02), this means our data is inconsistent with the null
 There is evidence that there is a difference
 If the probability value is “high” (e.g., p = .30), this means our data is consistent with the null
 There does not seem to be evidence that there is a difference
More on the Logic
The confusing thing is that we are not directly testing whether or not there is a treatment effect, or
relationship. We are testing how consistent the data is with the hypothesis that there is no
treatment effect, relationship, etc.
Thus, a treatment effect is demonstrated indirectly if the data is inconsistent with the null hypothesis

How inconsistent with the null does the data have to be to demonstrate an effect?
p-values tell how likely it was that our sample was drawn from a hypothetical population where
“nothing was going on”. Thus, the term “statistical significance” simply means that the obtained results
are unlikely to represent a situation where there was no relationship between variables. The difference is
big enough to be unlikely to have happened simply due to chance
Rule of Thumb (p < .05). Conventional rules use a p < .05 cutoff
If the data yields a probability value less than .05 (p < .05), that means the data is inconsistent with the
null, which states no treatment effect or relationship exists
(H0 : X = Y)

Therefore, we reject the null.

If p < .05, our data is inconsistent with the null
We “reject the null” and declare our results “statistically significant”
If p > .05, our data is consistent with the null
We “fail to reject the null” and declare our results“ statistically non-significant”
Example 1. Suppose we were comparing how males and females differed with respect to their
satisfaction with an online course
The null hypothesis states that men (X) and women (Y) do not differ in their levels of satisfaction, (H0 :
X = Y).
On a 25-point satisfaction scale, men and women differed by about 5 points (means were 18.75 and
23.5, respectively)
They were not identical, but how likely is a 5 point difference to occur just by chance?
An analysis was conducted, and the p-value for the gender comparison was p = .11
Thus, there was about a 11% chance that this data (the 5 point difference) would occur by chance. The
p-value is greater than .05, so we would fail to reject the null (results are not significant). Thus, there is
no evidence that males and females differ in their satisfaction

Example 2. Suppose we were comparing how males and females differed with respect to how likely they
would be to recommend an online course (measured on a 5 point scale).

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The null hypothesis states that there is no difference between men and women in their recommendation
of an online course. (H0: X = Y)

On a 5-point satisfaction scale, men and women differed by about 1.2 points (means were 4.3 and 3.1,
respectively). They were not identical, but how likely is a 1.2 point difference to occur by chance?

An analysis was conducted, and the p-value for the gender comparison was p = .03
Thus, there was only a 3% probability that this data would occur by chance
The p-value is less than .05, so we would reject the null (results are significant)
Thus, there is evidence that males and females differ in their recommendations

(ii) The choice of the statistical test : The field of statistics has developed to the extent that we now
have, for almost all research designs, alternative statistical tests which might be used in order to come
to a decision about a hypothesis. The nature of the data collected largely determines the test criterion
to be used. In the example considered here, let us assume that data on yield of timber on a unit area
basis at a specified age can be obtained from a few recently felled plantations or parts of plantations of
fairly similar size from the management unit. This topics will be discussed later in another modules.
(iii) The level of significance and the sample size : 
When the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis have been stated, and when the statistical test
appropriate to the problem has been selected, the next step is to specify a level of significance (a ) and
to select a sample size (n). In brief, the decision making procedure is to reject H0 in favour of H1 if the
statistical test yields a value whose associated probability of occurrence under H0 is equal to or less
than some small probability symbolized as α. . That small probability is called the level of significance.
To repeat, if the probability associated with the occurrence under H0, i.e., when the null hypothesis is
true, of the particular value yielded by a statistical test is equal to or less than a, we reject H0 and accept
Ha, the operational statement of the research hypothesis. It can be seen, then that α gives the probability
of mistakenly or falsely rejecting H0.

Level of Significance (α) Significance level is the probability that one rejects H0 when it is in fact true.
Of course, this is an incorrect decision that should be kept as small as possible. Conventionally, this is
kept less than 0.05 (alpha). Common values of α are 0.05 and 0.01.
– the probability level use to test which is set before gathering data. This represents the probability of
rejecting a Ho w/c in fact true. When an Ho is rejected, the findings is said to be statistically significant
at the specified LOS.
Since the value of α enters into the determination of whether H0 is or is not rejected, the requirement of
objectivity demands that α be set in advance of the collection of the data. The level at which the
researcher chooses to set α should be determined by his estimate of the importance or possible practical
significance of his findings. In the present example, the manager may well choose to set a rather
stringent level of significance, if the dangers of rejecting the null hypothesis improperly (and therefore
unjustifiably advocating or recommending a drastic change in management practices for the area) are
great. In reporting his findings, the manager should indicate the actual probability level associated with
his findings, so that the reader may use his own judgement in deciding whether or not the null
hypothesis should be rejected.
To prove every hypothesis involves the use of probability level called the level of significance (α) of a
test w/c is set before gathering data. The probability level use to test w/c is set before gathering data.
This represents the probability of rejecting a Ho w/c in fact true. When an Ho is rejected, the findings is
said to be statistically significant at the specified LOS. It is customary to use an α of 5% or 1%. If we
use α = 5%, then there is about 5% that we would reject the H0 when it should be accepted. A 5% LOS,
thus, implies that we are 95% confident that we have made the right decision.

There are two types of errors which may be made in arriving at a decision about H0. The first, the Type
I error, is to reject H0 when in fact it is true. The second, the Type II error, is to accept H0 when in fact it

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is false. The probability of committing a Type I error is given by α . The larger is α , the more likely it is
that H0 will be rejected falsely, i.e., the more likely it is that Type I error will be committed. The Type II
error is usually represented by β , i.e., P(Type I error) = α, P(Type II error) = β. Ideally, the values of
both α and β would be specified by the investigator before he began his investigations. These values
would determine the size of the sample (n) he would have to draw for computing the statistical test he
had chosen. Once α and n have been specified, b is determined. In as much as there is an inverse
relation between the likelihood of making the two types of errors, a decrease in a will increase b for any
given n. If we wish to reduce the possibility of both types of errors, we must increase n. The term 1 - β
is called the power of a test which is the probability of rejecting H0 when it is in fact false. For the
present example, guided by certain theoretical reasons, let us fix the sample size as 30 plantations or
parts of plantations of similar size drawn randomly from the possible set for gathering data on recently
realized yield levels from the management unit.

If H0 “i.e.. no yields reduction is caused by interventions made” is tested at  =0 .05 or 5%, then a
significant result means that on the evidence of the experiment, there is less than 1-in-20 chance that the
observed yield reduction would have occurred without the intervention done and that one out of 20 or
more times is an acceptable low risk of being wrong in the conclusion that intervention cause damage to
affect crop yield.
Sometimes a significant biological difference between treatments is not statistically significant, but this
may be due to inadequate design. On the other hand, statistical significance may not be biologically
significant. Sometimes too many measurements are made without real purpose, and the chance of a non-
real biological difference being declared significant statistically is greatly increased or some extraneous
variables were not controlled. Thus, it is important to define “statitiscal test significance;” then
experiments can be designed to detect this amount, no more and no less.
Ex 1. A plant breeder compares the yield potentials of a new rice variety (B), to a standard variety
(A) of known & tested properties.
Ho: There is no significant difference on the average yield of Variety A & B
Or, μA = μB
Ha: There is a significant difference on the average yield of Variety A & B
Or, μA ¿ μB
If the related literature points to the findings that a certain variety of rice for example, gets more yield,
we have to assume the same prediction. This is our Ha.
2. The researcher wants to find out whether treatment zinc improves the yield of Palay (dependent
variable). The same treatment is not given to the control group.
Ho: Zinc application has no significant effect on the yield of Palay.
Ha: Zinc application has a significant effect of on the yield of rice Ha: zinc application will improve
the yield of Rice.
If the related literature points to the findings that zinc application will improve the yield of rice, we have
to assume the same prediction. This is our Ha.
This probability represents the probability of rejecting a Ho w/c in fact true. When a Ho is rejected, the
findings is said to be statistically significant at the specified α.
(iv) The region of rejection : The sampling distribution includes all possible values a test statistic can
take under H0. The Region of Rejection is a proportion of the area in the theoretical sampling
distribution that is equal to the level of significance. The region of rejection consists of a subset of
these possible values, and is defined so that the probability under H0 of the occurrence of a test statistic
having a value which is in that subset is α. In other words, the region of rejection consists of a set of
possible values which are so extreme that when H0 is true, the probability is very small (i.e., the
probability is α) that the sample we actually observe will yield a value which is among them. The
probability associated with any value in the region of rejection is equal to or less than α .
The location of the region of rejection is affected by the nature of H1. If H1 indicates the predicted
direction of the difference, then a one-tailed test is called for. If H1 does not indicate the direction of the
predicted difference, then a two-tailed test is called for. One-tailed and two-tailed tests differ in the
location (but not in the size) of the region of rejection. That is, in one-tailed test, the region of rejection
is entirely at one end (one tail) of the sampling distribution. In a two-tailed test, the region of rejection is
located at both ends of the sampling distribution. In our example, if the manager feels that the

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productivity of the plantations will either be stable or only decline over time, then the test he would carry
out will be one-tailed. If the manager is uncertain about the direction of change, it will be the case for a
two-tailed test.
The size of the region is expressed by α, the level of significance. If α = 0.05, then the size of the
region of rejection is 5 per cent of the entire space included under the curve in the sampling distribution.
One-tailed and two-tailed regions of rejection for α = 0.05 are illustrated in Figures below. The regions
differ in location but not in total size.
It is located in one or both tails of the sampling distribution.
Directional & Non-Directional Tests of the Hypothesis
Two tailed test or Non-Directional: Ha is a statement of non-equality represented by the sign “ ≠ ”. A
research hypothesis which does not specify the direction of expected difference or relationships is a non
directional research hypothesis. It makes use of the 2 tails or 2 sides of the statistical model or
distribution. This indicates that no assertion is made as to whether the difference falls w/in the positive
end or negative end of the distribution. In this case the difference can be in any direction. Example;
There will be a difference in adaptability of fathers and mothers towards rearing of their children.
When z score or t tabular value is located on both sides of the mean or both “tails” of the dist’n, the test
is called a 2-tailed test.
2 TAILED TEST
• The critical value is the number that separates the “gray zone” from the middle (± 1.96 this
example)
• In a t-test, in order to be statistically significant the t score needs to be in the “blue zone”
• If α = .05, then 2.5% of the area is in each tail

The left area The right area

shaded gray is shaded gray is
0.025 for 5% α , & 0.025 for 5% α , &
0.005 for 1% α. 0.005 for 1% α.
2 Critical Regions
at 0.05 LOS 2 Critical Regions at
0.01 LOS

In operational form, Ho can be stated as Ho: μ1 - μ2 = 0, or Ho: μ1 = μ2.

This can be put to test against Ha; μ1 - μ2 ¿ 0.
This can be put to test against Ha; μ1 - μ2 ¿ 0.
- Ha is a statement of non-equality represented by the sign ≠.
It makes use of the 2 tails or 2 sides of the statistical dist’n.
It is customary to use an α of 5% or 1%.
If we use α = 5%, then there is about 5% that we would reject the H0 when it should be accepted. A 5%
LOS, thus, implies that we are 95% confident that we have made the right decision.
It makes use of the 2 tails or 2 sides of the statistical distribution. This indicates that no assertion is
made as to whether the difference falls w/in the positive end or negative end of the distribution.
No statement is made whether as to w/c group in the example above will have a better self-concept.
If z score is located on both sides of the mean or both “tails” of the distribution, the test is called 2-
tailed test
To test the Ho that the mean tensile strength of a rope is 300 lbs. (Ho: μ = 300 lbs.) versus an Ha that
ropes taken from a sample have mean tensile strength not equal to 300 lbs.(Ha: μ ≠ 300 lbs.), is a two-
tailed test, because “not equal to” could mean “greater than or less than.” Thus, we have the following
notations.
Ho: μ = 300 lbs.
Ha:μ ¿ 300 lbs.,w/c could mean μ >300 lbs. Or μ <300 lbs
Ex. Supervisor of a production line that assembles computer keyboards has been experiencing
problems since a new process was instituted. There has been an increase in defective units & occasional

8
backlogs when one stations’ productivity is not matched by other stations The scientist who developed
prod’n process assumed that the mean assembly time takes a mean of 130 sec. & a st’d dev’n of 15
seconds. He is satisfied that the process time has an sd of 15 seconds but he is unsure about the mean
time. He measures the times for 100 assemblies & got a mean of 126.8. Can he conclude that the mean
assembly time of 130 seconds is incorrect?
Ho: mean assembly time is 130 seconds, or μ = 130 sec.
Ha:mean assembly time is not 130 seconds or μ ¿ 130 sec
One tailed test or Directional Tests
1-tailed Test
• The critical value is either + or -, but not both.
• In this case, you would have statistical significance (p < .05) if t ≥ 1.645.

The right area

shaded gray is
0.05 for 5% α , &
0.01 for 1% α.
Critical Region at 0.05 LOS Critical Region at 0.01 LOS

The left area

shaded blue is
0.05 for 5% α , &
0.01 for 1% α.
Directional hypothesis or a 1-Tailed test – It is the
hypothesis which stipulates the direction of the expected differences or
relationship. Directional hypothesis is a statement of conjuncture where the two variables of the study
are expressed as having some relationship in a certain direction. If the direction of the difference is
stated, i.e.,
the self-concept of one group is more positive than that of the other group, the test becomes directional.
Example; There will be a positive relationship between extra coaching and academic achievement.
Ha may be stated as Ha: μ1 > μ2 or Ha: μ1 < μ2. The first uses only the positive end of the distribution
while the latter uses the negative end of the distribution.
Directional hypothesis – determined based on the manner Ha is formulated. – Ex, “the yield is >,” “the
mean breaking strength is <,” etc. – indicate the use of a one-tailed test. Other examples of Directional
Ha or One tailed test:
Ha; the self-concept of the group exposed to values clarification lessons will have better self-concept
than the other group not exposed to the same lessons.
Ha; Values clarification lessons will have a positive effect on the self-concept of the students.
Ha; There is a positive relationship between the self-concept of the students & the values clarification
lessons they are exposed to
Ha: The average yield of Mr. X is greater than 100 cavans per hectare, we are using a one-tailed test.
Ho: μ = 100 cavans
Ha: μ > 100 cavans.
Thus if Ha is stated as : a) μ > 100 cav. - one tailed test
b) μ < 100 cav. - one tailed test, but if
c) μ ¿ 100 cav - a two tailed test
Ex. 1. A company wanted to know whether the average life of its tire is not equal to its advertised value
of 50,000 km, the company would specify Ho as Ho: μ = ¿ 50,000 km.

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a. To know whether the average life of its tire exceeds its adver-tized value of 50,000 km, company
would specify Ha as μ >50,000
b. To know whether the average life of its tire is < its advertised value of 50,000 km, the company
would specify Ha as μ < 50,000
c. A company wanted to know whether the average life of its tire is not equal to its advertised value of
50,000 km, the company would specify Ha as Ha: μ ¿ 50,000 km.

Ex. 2. Effect of New Pesticide

Two-tailed test
Ho: New Drug = Azodrin or the new drug is not better than or just equally effective
than azodrin
Ha: New Drug > Azdrin or the new drug is really more effective than the existing
azodrin.
3. Content of canned juice labeled 12 oz. Ho: μ = 12 0z.
Ha: μ ¿ 12 0z.
4. Tensile strength of a new developed rope Ho: = 15 kg Ts
Ha: > 15 kg. Ts

7. Amount of Aflatoxin in New Peanut Butter; Ho: μ = 100 ppm

Ha: μ < 100 ppm
8. Quality Control for Machine Shop making 3” nails
Ho: μ = 3 “
Ha: μ ¿ 3” Two-tailed test
100 ppm
(vi) The decision : If the statistical test yields a value which is in the region of rejection, we reject H0.
The reasoning behind this decision process is very simple. If the probability associated with the
occurrence under the null hypothesis of a particular value in the sampling distribution is very small, we
may explain the actual occurrence of that value in two ways: first, we may explain it by deciding that the
null hypothesis is false, or second, we may explain it by deciding that a rare and unlikely event has
occurred. In the decision process, we choose the first of these explanations. Occasionally, of course,
the second may be the correct one. In fact, the probability that the second explanation is the correct
one is given by α , for rejecting H0 when in fact it is true is the Type I error.

Figure 8.9. Sampling distribution under H0 and regions of rejection for one-tailed and two-tailed tests.
When the probability associated with an observed value of a statistical test is equal to or less than the
previously determined value of α, we conclude that H0 is false. Such an observed value is
called significant. H0 , the hypothesis under test, is rejected whenever a significant result occurs. A
significant value is one whose associated probability of occurrence under H0 is equal to or less than α.
This 2-way decision problem called test of hypothesis is a procedure used to substantiate or invalidate a
claim.
Rejection of Ho implies acceptance of Ha
Acceptance of Ho implies rejection of Ha

A hypothesis is rejected if the probability that it is a true statement is very low – lower than some
predetermined probability, say, 5 chances in a 100.

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Ex. 3. Content of canned juice labeled 12 oz. Ho: μ = 12 0z.
Ha: μ ¿ 12 0z.
Ex. 4. Tensile strength of a new developed rope. Ho: μ = 15 kg Ts
Ha: μ > 15 kg. Ts
Ex 5. Amount of Aflatoxin in New Peanut
Butter; Ho: μ = 100 ppm
Ha: μ < 100 ppm
Errors types
In the previous examples, we defined the value 0.05 as the significance level of the test as the
probability of incorrectly rejecting Ho when it is actually true, a Type I error. The other possible error, a
Type II error, is to incorrectly accept Ho when it is false. The probability of this event is denoted  and
is not unique; it depends on the true value of . The relationships between hypotheses and decisions can
be summarized as follows:

The power of a test (=1- ) is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false and the
alternative hypothesis is correct. Or in other words a measure of the ability of the test to detect (one
sample test) or to detect differences between treatments (two sample test) when these differences are
real!
2.3.1. Power of a test for a single sample. For this discussion, the null hypothesis is H0: 1=0 (i.e. the
parametric mean of the sampled population is equal to some value ). The magnitude of  depends not
only on the chosen  but also on how far the alternative parametric mean is from the parametric mean of
the null hypothesis. An important concept in connection with hypothesis testing is the power of a test.

What type of statistical test do I want to do?

Appropriate statistical test for a particular exp’t are as follows:
1. t – test for testing the difference between 2 groups (i.e., treatment vs control). The t-test is a test to
see if there is a statistical significant difference between the mean scores of 2 groups, say, an
experimental group & a control group.
2. Correlation to test the degree of association between two continuous variables or on variables w/c
result to measurements. Correlated variables are those, w/c tend to vary together when one is larger,
the other tends to be systematically larger or smaller.
Example of a research topic: Is there a relationship between marital status and health insurance coverage?

3.Chi-square (called a test of frequency) to test the degree of correspondence of relationship between two
qualitative categorical, or enumerative variables or to test the discrepancies between observed & expected
theoretical frequencies. These variables are the results of counting. (i.e., individuals are classified according to
sex, opinions on a certain issue may be divided into classes such as strongly agree, agree, undecided, disagree,
strongly disagree).
An example of a research topic: Do negative ads change how people vote?
4.Regression – if trying to predict an outcome
5. CRD-ANOVA for comparison for more than two groups ANOVA used to test whether three or more
samples or groups are significantly different from each other.
6. RCBD –ANOVA
7. Split – plot design

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In reviewing hypothesis tests, we start first with the general idea. Then, we keep returning to the basic
procedures of hypothesis testing, each time adding a little more detail.
Procedure in hypothesis testing is summarized in the ff steps.
Step 1. Making an initial assumption. Formulate the Ho that there is no significant difference between
items being compared. State Ha w/c is used in case Ho is rejected.
State Ha
Step 2. Set the level of significance, .
Step 3. Determine the statistical test to be used.
Step 4. Determine the tabular value. (z test, t test, Chi-square, Correlation & ANOVA has each
corresponding tables at varying df.
Step 5. (This is after collection of evidence/data.) Compute the value of the statistical test. Some
statistical tests have different formulas appropriate for certain conditions. You should be able to identify
w/c formula you will use for your data.
Step 6. Based on the available evidence (data), deciding whether to reject or not reject the initial
assumption.
Compare the computed value w/ the critical or tabular value & then state your conclusions based on the
ff guidelines.
Hypothesis testing is one of the most important concepts in Statistics. This is how we decide if:
a. Reject Ho if the absolute computed value is > absolute tabular value
b. Accept Ho if the absolute computed value is < absolute tabular value.
If they are found to be statistically true, they are accepted; if they are found to be false, they are rejected.

Every hypothesis test — regardless of the population parameter involved — requires the above six steps.

RCBD, Latin Square Design, CRD Two Factorial, RCBD Two Factorial
Exercises:

POST TEST: at the space provided for, write T if the statement is true and F if the statement if false

___ 1. The placebo effect can create biased research conclusion when the researcher is aware of the
expected results or has ideas about the expected results of his/her thesis.
___ 2. A Theory is a testable form of a hypothesis.
___ 3. “does not equal” refers to an alternative hypothesis
___ 4. A prediction is a statement about the expected relationship between variables.
___ 5. The method section of a research report includes a description of exactly how the study was
designed and conducted.
___ 6.
When the results of a study are consistent with a theory, our confidence in the theory increases.
___ 7. A problem statement is an expression of dilemma or disturbing situation that needs investigation.
___ 8. Hypothesis testing starts with an assumption that a researcher makes about a sample
statistic. This assumption is called a hypothesis.
___ 9. Null hypothesis is always expressed in an equation form, which makes a claim regarding the
specific value of the population.
___ 10. When the null hypothesis is found to be true, the alternative hypothesis must also be true.
___ 11. Level of significance is also known as size of the rejection region or size of the critical
region.
___ 12. For making a decision regarding acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis, a researcher
has to determine a logical value that separates the rejection region from the acceptance region.
___ 13. In the 6th step of hypothesis testing, researchers draw a statistical conclusion. Statistical
conclusion is a decision to accept or reject a null hypothesis.
___ 14. In case of a left-tailed test, a researcher rejects the null hypothesis if the computed sample
statistics are significantly lower than the hypothesized population parameter.
___ 15. In case of a right-tailed test, a researcher rejects the null hypothesis if the computed
sample statistics are significantly higher than the hypothesized population parameter.

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___ 16. Hypothesis testing procedure uses sample statistics (based on the sample) to reach a
conclusion about the population parameter.
___ 17. A type I error is committed by rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true.
___ 18.A type II error is committed by accepting a null hypothesis when it is true.
___ 19. A researcher cannot commit type I and type II errors at the same time, on the same
hypothesis test.
___ 20. A hypothesis has to be developed at the upfront of every research.
___ 21. In conclusive research designs, hypothesis emerges at the research findings’ stage.
___ 22. The null hypothesis is the statement originally proposed by the researcher as the suggested answer
to the research question.
___ 23. The smaller the p-value, the more likely that Ha is false, providing stronger support for refuting it
and enhancing the probability of accepting Hₒ as correct.
___ 24. Analyzing the data collected from the selected sample using appropriate statistical methods to
determine the sample mean is NOT the last key step in hypothesis testing.
___ 25. There are mainly two possible decision scenarios in hypothesis testing.
___ 26. The smaller the p-value, the more likely that Hₒ is false, providing stronger support for refuting it and
enhancing the probability of accepting H₁ as correct.
___ 27. The probability value equates the level of significance for which the researcher would only just reject
Ha.
___ 28. In conducting research, it is often possible to collect data about the whole population of interest.
___ 29. In hypothesis formulation, the default is the null hypothesis where any statistical significance is
assumed to happen merely due to chance.
___ 30. Three possible decision scenarios can take place in making hypothesis testing decisions.

Multiple choice
31. The null hypothesis represents w/c of the following statements?
a. No relationship between the variables under study
b. A positive relationship between the independent & dependent variables
c. A negative relationship between the independent & dependent variables
d. A difference between the variables under study

32. Our job as researchers is to eliminate ____ as a factor contributing to differences between groups.
a. Chance b. Change c. The hypothesis d. An average score

33. What does a good research question usually pursue?

a. A small part of a broad topic b. A topic unrelated to any other topics
c. The same thing as the null hypothesis d. A broad topic

34. The interpretation of “differences are significant” means that the differences found are_______.
a. probably not due to chance b. due to chance c. creative outcomes d. not dictated by hypothesis

35. The significance level reported in a research study can be explained by w/c of the following?
a. Importance of the results to the benefit of society b. a statistical method.
c. Risk associated with not being 100% confident the difference is due to the treatment

36. Identify & select the correct order of steps in scientific inquiry (note:  these are not ALL the steps in
the process)
a. Formulating a hypothesis, collecting relevant information, testing the hypothesis, working with the
hypothesis
b. Reconsidering the theory, asking new questions, identifying the important factors, collecting
relevant information
c. Asking the question, identifying the important factors, asking new questions, testing the hypothesis
d. Asking new questions, reconsidering the theory, working w/ the hypothesis, testing the hypothesis

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37. A type I error is always made when:
a. The null hypothesis is rejected when it is true.  b. The Ho is not rejected when it is true. 
c. The research hypothesis (Ha) is rejected when it is true d. The Ha is is not rejected when it is false. 

37. A Type II error is

a. rejecting Ha when it is false. b. accepting a false H0. c. reject H0 when it is true. d. not rejecting a false Ha.

38. W/c of the following best describes a hypothesis?

a. Statement that you set out to prove b. Proposed before a good research question can be developed
b. Tested by collecting only the data that support it d. Posits a clear relationship between diff’t factors

40. If our sample value is close to the null/population value, we conclude that
a. something happened in the study; there is a significant effect.
b. nothing happened in the study; there is no effect.
c. we can neither accept or reject the null.
d. something happened in the study, but the effect is very small.

41. Many people describe hypothesis testing as counterintuitive because.

a. we test whether something happened in order to conclude that nothing happened.
b. we can only conclude that nothing happened when we are 100% sure that something did not happen.
c. we test whether something happened but can still conclude that nothing happened.
d. we test whether nothing happened in order to conclude that something happened/.

42. If a researcher wishes to determine whether there is evidence that the monthly mean family income in
the Philippines is greater than ₱30,000, then
a. a one-sided test should be utilized. b. a two-sided test should be utilized.
c. either a one-sided or two-sided test can be utilized. d. Cannot be determined from the information.

43. After conducting a statistical test, you conclude that the mean score of males differs significantly
from the mean score of females. You have:
a. accepted the null hypothesis b. rejected the null hypothesis c. made a Type 1 error

44. Population generalizability refers to

a. Conclusions researchers make about a random sample. 
b. Conclusions researchers make about information uncovered in a research study. 
c. The degree to w/c a sample represents the population of interest. 
d. The degree to w/c results of a study can be extended to other settings or conditions. 

45. To increase the likelihood of obtaining a significant result, you should have a:
a. large difference between groups. b. small variabilility within groups. c. both of these are true. 1. A

46. The hypothesis “The mean pulse of men over fifty years of age is different from 90 beats per minute” is
stated in what form?
a. Ho b. Ha one tailed b. Ha two tailed

47. The hypothesis “The mean salary of college presidents is more than ₱100,000 per month” is stated in what
form?
a. Ho b. Ha one tailed b. Ha two tailed

48. The hypothesis “The mean IQ score of 20 year olds is more than 100” is stated in what form?

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 a. Ho b. Ha one tailed b. Ha two tailed

49. The hypothesis “The mean annual income of sales associates is less than ₱35,000 is stated in what form?
a. Ho b. Ha one tailed b. Ha two tailed

50. The hypothesis “The different rates of fertilizer application has no effect on the growth of Aloe Vera” is
stated in what form?
a. Ho b. Ha one tailed b. Ha two tailed

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