20 9, = 0.

Therefore, the flow characteristics around the cylinder

for ^s = 53 deg are mainly discussed hereafter. (—C,,t) for 9^
= 53 deg depends on the Reynolds number. When R,, < 2.5 X
Re = 3.1«10^ • D type o lO'', (—Cpi,) decreases with increasing Re and is almost constant
u • I type U in the region R^ > 2.5 X i C . That is, there exists a critical
I
Reynolds number Rec of around Re = 2.5 X 10''. Our discussions
15 concern the range Re > Rec.
20
When the curvature of the shear flow from the normal surface
CD=1.20
to the uniform air flow, as shown in Fig. 1, equals that of the
1-8 for 0s = 0 circular cylinder, the shear layer separated from the normal
surface attaches to the circular surface and transitions to a turbu-
1-6 lent boundary layer along the circular surface. It was observed,
10 by means of the oil flow patterns, that when Re = 3.1 X lO''
1-A and 9,, = 53 deg, the laminar boundary layer separated at around
9 = 57 deg and reattached at around 9 = 69 deg, then the
o D type turbulent boundary layer was shed from the cylinder at about
1-2 0 = 110 deg. This was also confirmed from the profiles of
V I type
the velocity (measured using the hot-wire anemometer) in the
10 0-5 vicinity of the cylinder surface at xld = 0, when 6, = 53 deg.
The results for Co in the range 45 deg < 9„ < 57 deg and
for 9, = 0 deg are also shown in Fig. 2. It is obvious that the
08 (-Cpb) = M9 variations of Co at around 9, = 53 deg are nearly identical to
for 0s=0 those for (-Cpb) and that Co in the range 50 deg < 9„ < 53
0-6 deg take minimum values. These values are almost 50 percent
00 of Co for the circular cylinder.
20 30 40 50 60 70 80'^'^
9s Conclusions
Fig. 2 The variations of (-Cpt) and Co with 0, at R, = 3.1 x 10" (statisti-
(1) The flow characteristics are singular in the vicinity of 9^
cal uncertainties: ±8 and ±6 percent for the base pressure and the drag = 53 deg, and (-Cpi,) takes a minimum value of 0.5 ~ 0.55 in
fluctuations, respectively). both types of cylinder, when 9,, = 53 deg and R^ > 2.5 X lO''.
In the vicinity of 6,, = 53 deg, the value of Cp for each model is
minimum and about 50 percent of that for the circular cylinder.
U are the pressure at the rear face of the cylinder, density, and (2) The critical Reynolds number Ree is around Re = 2.5
velocity, respectively, and the subscript » denotes upstream. X 10* in the case of 5, = 53 deg.
The pressure difference (pi, — p«,) was determined from the Acknowledgments
static pressure of the pilot tube situated upstream of the test
cylinder and the pressure of the rear face of the cylinder. The The authors thank their former students, Messrs. K. Sasaki,
aspect ratios are 11.25 and 7.5 for d = 20 mm and 30 mm, K. Tezuka, M. Nara, and H. Hosino, for their assistance in the
respectively. These aspect ratios are not large enough to neglect experiments.
the end effects. Therefore, measurements are carried out at a References
location where the boundary layer along the wall of the tunnel Achenbach, E., 1971, "Influence of Surface Roughness on the Cross-Flow
has not developed significantly. The oil flow pattern method around a Circular Cylinder," Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 46, pp. 321-335.
was used for flow visualization. By this means, the influence Aiba, S., Ota, T. and Tsuchida, H., 1979, "Heat Transfer and Flow Around a
of the end effects was observed in the range of 10 mm to 20 Circular Cylinder with Tripping-Wires," Warme-und Stoffiibertragung, Vol. 12,
mm. For the drag tests, each model was attached to the wind pp. 221-231.
Bearman, P. W., 1980, "Bluff Body Flows Applicable to Vehicle Aerodynam-
tunnel balance with 0.2-mm-diameter piano wire. The drag co- ics-Review," ASME JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING, Vol. 102, pp. 265-274.
efficient Co is defined by drag/(0.5p[/oo5), where S is the cross- Goldstein, S,, ed., 1965, Modern Developments in Fluid Dynamics, Dover
sectional area of the model. Publications, New York.
Sovran, G., Morel, T., and Marson, Jr., W. T., ed., 1978, Aerodynamic Drag
The mean velocities in the cross section along the y axis were Mechanism of Bluff Bodies and Road Vehicles, Plenum Press, New York.
measured with a constant-temperature hot-wire anemometer Roshko, A., 1955, "On the Wake and Drag of Bluff Bodies," Journal of
with a linearizing circuit. The hot wire was a 0.005 mm tungsten Aeronautical Sciences Vol. 22, pp. 124-132.
wire of effective length 1 mm and was set parallel to the cylinder
axis and normal to the mean flow direction. In this study, it
was not necessary to consider the effect of the wall, because
the smallest distance between the hot wire and the wall was of A Design Method for Contractions
the order of 10"' mm in the vicinity of the cylinder wall surface. With Square End Sections
Results and Discussions
Fuh-Min Fang^
The results for the base pressure coefficient {-C,,b) and the
drag coefficient Cu are shown as a function of 9, for R^ = 3.1
X lO'' in Fig. 2. No correction for the tunnel wall effects was Introduction
made. The minimum of (—Cph) appears at around 6s = 53 deg A contraction is a major component of a wind or water tunnel.
for both types (in type I, eld = 0.6 when 6^ = 53 deg), and As the flow passes this transitional segment, it is accelerated so
takes a value of 0.5 ~ 0.55. These characteristics are obtained
in a very narrow range of 6, (50 deg < 9^ < 57 deg). In such ' Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, National Chung-JJaing
a Reynolds number regime, ( - Q , , ) takes the value 1.19 for a University, 250 Kuo-Kuang Road, Taichung, Taiwan.
circular cylinder (^, = 0 ) , as shown in the figure. For the Contributed by the Fluids Engineering Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS . Manuscript received by the Fluids Engineering Division
normal plate, (-C,,,,) is 1.28 (e.g., Roshko, 1955). It is found October 30, 1995; revised manuscript received January 8, 1997. Associate Techni-
that {-Cpb) for 9^ = 53 deg takes smaller values than that for cal Editor: H. Hashimoto.

454 / Vol. 119, JUNE 1997 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright © 1997 by ASME
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 that a low-turbulence, uniform flow condition can be achieved in
the test section. Generally, the contraction ratio (CR) is the most
dominant factor which affects the extent of flow uniformity, the
possibility of flow separation, and downstream turbulence level.
Once it is determined, the nozzle contour and length, which Malehed Point
also control the flow uniformity and the boundary layer growth,
become the second design choices.
In principle, the problem of contraction design is to search
for the optimum shape with minimum nozzle length for a desir-
able flow quality requirement at the nozzle end. When the length
is reduced, the contraction costs less and fits into a smaller
space. In addition, the boundary layer will generally be thinner
due to the combined effects of decreased length of boundary
layer development and increased favorable pressure gradients Fig. 2 Schematic of the contraction (half plane)
in the contraction. On the other hand, it leads to an increase of
the possibility of flow separation, which results in undesirable
flow patterns and flow unsteadiness. lyzed based on numerical results to check for the possibilities
Due to wall curvature, the local velocity profile in a contrac- of separation. Similar to what was done by Morel, the present
tion is essentially not uniform. The potential flow velocity along study does not suggest a close-form solution to the nozzle design
the wall can increase monotonically only for a contraction with but a trial-and-error procedure to search for an optimum one
infinite length. When a contraction is finite, however, there exist by using numerical simulations on a one-parameter family.
two adverse pressure gradient regions along the wall (Fig. 1),
where the flow might separate. Design Criteria
By far, the most direct way for engineering contraction design The proposed design method considers a level to avoid flow
is that suggested by Morel (1975 and 1977), who proposed the separation, an acceptable flow uniformity at the exit and the
use of a combination of two matched cubics as the basic shape minimum nozzle length as the most important factors. Although
of 2-D and axisymmetric contractions. Morel's design proce- the turbulence intensity at the contraction exit is also important,
dure starts by prescribing a level of velocity nonuniformity at it is not considered in the proposed design, since it depends on
the contraction exit, which leads to a corresponding minimum the turbulence level at the nozzle entrance and the contraction
wall pressure near the exit. Based on design charts resulting ratio (Prandtl, 1933; Ramjee and Hussain, 1976), which are
from potential flow calculations, the contraction length is deter- usually prescribed at the beginning of the design stage.
mined to avoid the occurrence of separation. As the avoidance of separation is considered, two pressure
coefficients are used here, defined as
Present Design Approach Ml
Cp, = 1 -
The present work attempts to extend the goal of Morel's to
three-dimensional cases. Particularly, a set of design plots are
u.
and
presented for square-to-square contractions. The contraction
shape under consideration is a combination of two matched Mi
cubics, described as (Fig. 2): Cp, = 1 (2)

where U^ and U, are the velocities corresponding to the locations

(/!l -h2)- J^ ^^ -^tii
of the minimum and the maximum corner pressures; U, and U2
y, z = * are the velocities at far upstream and downstream. These two
(1)
coefficients are so defined that can be directly applied into the
X > x,„ Stratford criterion (Stratford, 1959) to check for the possibility
(1 -Xf \ LJ of flow separation.
where x,„ denotes the location of the matched point and Another important parameter is the exit nonuniformity, M2,
X = xJL. To attain a more extensive design than any other
available method, the flow characteristics along corners are ana- Af/„
U2 = (3)
U2
where AU„-,ax is the largest velocity variation in the exit section.
Hx.1- To examine the possibility of boundary layer relaminariza-
U, - tion, a third parameter, «', is used and defined as
1 d(Uf/U2)
(4)
{Uf/U2f d{x/H,)

U where Uf is the local free-stream velocity at the corner;

Hi(=2hi) is the width of the upstream section. When the kine-
matic viscosity of the flow is known, K' can be used to predict
the occurrence of relaminarization according to the criterion
suggested by Back et al. (1970), as
Ui V dU,f U2-Hi
K= = 2 X 10 Re„ (5)
Uf dx Re,,

Numerical Results
Fig. 1 Schematic of wall and average velocity distribution within a The numerical computations adopt a finite-volume Euler
contraction solver to obtain potential-flow results within a contraction. The

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 X,/H,
0.6
CR • 2
0.4 CR - 4 ,
CR • 16, 26
0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
m 1

Fig. 5 Normalized distance from nozzle beginning to corner pressure

maximum

Fig. 3 Typical computational mesh (80 x 20 x 20) x./H

assumption is that in the absence of separation, a low-turbulence

flow in a majority portion of the domain stays as a potential
one. Since the boundary layer in a contraction is generally very
thin in comparison with the size of the local cross-section, the
error of the result is considered to be acceptable in most engi-
neering applications. In all calculations, the contraction is pre-
ceded and followed by a straight duct with a length of one-half
the width of the contraction end section. Figure 3 illustrates a
typical computation mesh system. Further investigations reveal
that the relative error produced by this mesh is no more than 3
percent.
The calculations are performed at discrete values of three Fig. 6 Normalized distance from nozzle exit to corner pressure
geometrical parameters, contraction ratio (CR), LI Hi, and minimum
xJL, selected within ranges of general engineering applica-
tions. Figure 4 shows the variations of the pressure coefficients
{Cpi and Cpc) with respect to x,„IL and LIH^ for two typical matched point is away from one of the ends, the location of the
contraction ratios. As x,JL increases, Cp, tends to decrease with extremes tends to move toward the same direction.
a trade of an increase of Cpe value. Physically, as the matched As the adverse pressure gradients in the streamwise direction
point moves toward downstream, the extent of the velocity over- are approximated over a range from 0.5 Cp to 0.9 Cp (Morel,
shoot near the inlet becomes less significant. On the other hand, 1975), the resulting adverse pressure gradients near the location
it will magnify the overshoot near the downstream section be- of possible separation appear to be strong functions of the mag-
cause of an increase of the wall curvature near the exit. nitudes of the pressure extremes, LIHx and CR, and depends
To apply the Stratford criterion for turbulent separation, the mildly on XiJL. Figures 7 and 8 show that the longitudinal
locations of the pressure extremes and the longitudinal pressure pressure gradients increase as the magnitudes of the correspond-
gradients are needed. Numerical results reveal that the normal- ing pressure coefficients increase.
ized forms of X; and x^ (the distances between the extremes and The resulting K' values, which relates to the occurrence of
the neighboring end) depend mildly on L///,. For different relaminarization, are plotted in Fig. 9. They show that as CR
contraction ratios, the relationships are plotted in Fig. 5 and 6 increases, the maximum of K' increases. This implies that relam-
with respect to the location of the matched point. When the inarization is prone to occur when the contraction ratio is large.

Cpi Cpe Cpi Cpe

1 _ . f> 0.6 1 0.6
L/H1 • 0.78 a ^ cpi — /V Cpi ^=:5»;^
Cpe— ^"^C;^^
0.6 • 1.00V., • 0.4 0.8 0.4
1.25„
v ^^ L/H1 • 0.78
0.6 • " 0.3 0.6 - ^^^^'^ 0.S6 0.3
^*NJ3 '^^^'S»C /*^-A
1.00
0.4 .O'
.- ><s^^^^ - 0.2 0.4 .,-0" 0.2
0.7» o- --A'" .+ ••''"^~->l.,^
0.78 O"' ,^-'' . * •

0.86^'' 1.28
,.--f' - 0.1
0.2 1.00 *-^ ^ • ' " ^
0.2 1.00 1 " ^ , 0.1
1.28 X- 1.28 » "^
CR-4 CR- 9
1 1 1
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Xm/L ^m/L
Fig. 4 Corner pressure coefficients

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 dCPi /d(x/L) dCp|/d{x/L)

CR • 4 x/L • 1.25 CR - 9 x/L • 1.25

1.00

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

Cpi Cpi
Fig. 7 Normalized adverse pressure gradient versus Cpi near the location of possible separation

dCpe/d(x/L) dCPe/d(x/L)
1.4
CR • 9 X/L • 1.25 1.00 0-86 0.75
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.5

Fig. 8 Normalized adverse pressure gradient versus Cp, near the location of possible separation

Moreover, when CR is fixed, the more the matched point ap-
proaches the upstream end, the more possibly the boundary
layer becomes relaminarized.
Finally, the downstream nonuniformity (ui), are plotted in
relation to x,„ and CR in Fig. 10. Generally, MJ decreases as CR
increases. In addition, when the matched point moves down-
stream or the nozzle length is reduced, the exit flow becomes
less uniform.
Approach of the Suggested Design Method
Stratford (1959) estimated that the pressure rise at separation
of turbulent boundary layers is at order of 6 to 10 times of
that of separating laminar boundary. Therefore, although the
consideration of flow separation in the first adverse-pressure
gradient region (the one near the contraction entrance section)
is generally more critical (Morel, 1975), it may not be true
should relaminarization occurs. On the other hand, since the
velocity non-uniformity decays rapidly as the flow goes further
downstream to the test section, it is considered that M2 should
not be treated as a very important factor of the design unless
the following section is extremely short or the contraction is
such that it leads to an abnormally large nonuniformity at the
exit. Accordingly, different from what Morel suggested, the
exit-velocity non-uniformity is not chosen to be the first parame-
ter to determine for the design. Instead, the design procedure
starts with the avoidance of relaminarization, which also elimi-
nates the possibility of separation near the contraction exit.
As the separation is of concern, certain approximations are
needed so as to apply the Stratford criterion (Stratford, 1959),
as
dCpi
Cp, = 0.35-(lO^" •/?,)" (6)
dx
where x,, is the travelling distance of the boundary layer. The
maximum allowable value of C/J, without the occurrence of
separation near the contraction inlet can then be obtained by
(10-"-RJ Ui-Xi,
(Cp,)., 0.35- R, (7)
(x„-dCp,/dx)"^
The boundary layer travelling distance, Xi,, consists of two parts:

CR 4

^ U H I • 0.76

—-—.^^25

0.7 0.1 xJL 0.7 ».g \JL

Fig. 9 Dimensionless acceleration parameter Fig. 10 Nonuniformity at contraction exit (in percentage)

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 the one from the nozzle beginning to the virtual origin of the
boundary layer (Xo) and the other one from the beginning of the Turbulence Modification in the
contraction to the separation point; the former can be generally
estimated by the distance from the nearest screen or honeycomb
Limiting Cases of Heavy- and
upstream to the nozzle entrance and the latter can be approxi- Tracer-Particles
mated by a length of 0.9 x/ (Morel, 1975).

Suggested Design Method D. I. Graham^

When the contraction area ratio (CR), the dimensions of the
end sections (Hi and H2), the distance from the closest upstream
screen or honeycomb to the beginning of the contraction (Xo),
the maximum design speed after the nozzle exit (f/2), and the
level of exit velocity nonuniformity are prescribed, the sug- Introduction
gested procedure of contraction designs starts with the consider-
The presence of nonfluid particles in a turbulent fluid flow
ation of the avoidance of relaminarization. With given values
leads to momentum transfer between the fluid and particle
of CR, H, and U„, Re,, is calculated to find out the allowable
phases. For low particle concentrations this process is not suffi-
ranges of LI Hi and x,JL without causing relaminarization based
cient to modify the primary flow and the momentum transfer
on Eq. (5) and Fig. 8. The next step is to pick up the smallest
can be assumed to be a one-way process from fluid to particles.
LIHi and xJL, which lead to the lowest construction cost and
However, if the concentration of the particle phase is sufficiently
the best exit velocity uniformity. However, since a small xJL
high, the presence of particles can lead to significant modifica-
value leads to a large Cpi and a tendency to separate near the
tion of the primary flow turbulence. The review of this ' 'turbu-
inlet, one may need to increase the xJL value (but still keep
lence modulation effect" by Gore and Crowe (1992) shows
the same LIHx) so that the possible separation is avoided. To
that turbulence levels are enhanced for large particles, while
apply the separation criterion, the procedure is as follows:
smafl particles attenuate turbulence levels. It is the latter case,
in this note, in which we are interested.
(1) Find Cpi from Fig. 4.
(2) Evaluate x,, = Xo + 0.9 (x,), where Xi can be found from Analysis of turbulence modulation effects shows that correla-
Fig. 5. tions between fluid velocities and concentrations are important.
(3) Find dCpildx from Fig. 7. This is particularly true for particles with Stokes numbers (de-
(4) Calculate the Reynolds number {R^) and (Cp,),„ax based fined as the ratio of the characteristic times of particle and the
on Eq. (7). turbulence) of the order of unity. In this note, we are mainly
(5) Compare the values of Cpi from step (1) and (Cp,),nax interested in the two limiting cases St -» 0 and St -> <», and in
from step (4). both of these cases the concentration is independent of the fluid
and particle velocities in forced isotropic turbulence (Squires
If either separation cannot be avoided {Cp-, is greater than and Eaton, 1990). In the foflowing analysis, then, uniform parti-
(Cp,)max) or the exit flow nonuniformity (from Fig. 10) is not cle concentration is assumed.
acceptable for all xJL values, the next step is to increases the In the following section, an expression for the fluid turbulence
nozzle length by selecting a larger LIHx value. By repeating kinetic energy source term {S^) due to the momentum transfer
the same process, the final design would be the one which from a particulate phase is derived. The underlying turbulent
satisfies all design considerations. flow is assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic, and stationary.
It should be noted that shortcomings in the modeling of the
corresponding source term {S^ in the energy dissipation equa-
Conclusions
tion have recently been pointed out (Squires and Eaton, 1994).
A comprehensive design method for contractions with square In this paper, we shall show that some numerical models can
end sections is proposed. To achieve a nonseparated flow with lead to spurious nonzero contributions to (5^) for tracer-parti-
prescribed flow quality at the exit of the contraction, a step- cles.
by-step procedure in selecting an appropriate set of geometric
parameters is established to determine the geometry of the con-
tracting waU. Analysis
Assuming that the only forces acting on a particle moving
Acknowledgment through a turbulent fluid flow are Stokesian drag and gravita-
The study was funded by the National Science Council in tional forces, the /-component of the particle equation of motion
Taiwan under grant number NSC 80-0410-E-005-25. is

References
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Turbulent Boundary Layer in Nozzle-Flow-Boundary Layer and Heat Transfer
Measurements with Wall Cooling," ASME Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol. 92,
No. L p p . 333-344.
Batchelor, G. K., and Proudman, I., 1972, " A Generalized Tlreory for the
Design of Contraction Cones and Other Low-Speed Ducts," NASA TN D-6962.
Morel, T., 1975, "Comprehensive Design of Axisymmetric Wind Tunnel Con-
tractions," ASME JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING, pp. 225-233.
Morel, T., 1977, "Design of Two-Dimensional Wind Tunnel Contractions,"
ASME JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING, pp. 371-378.
Prandd, L. 1933, "Attaining Steady Air Stream in Wind Tunnels," NACA
TM No. 726.
Ramjee, V. andHussain, A., 1976, "Influence of the Axisymmetric Contraction
Ratio on Free-Stream Turbulence," ASME JOURNAL OF FLUIDS ENGINEERING, pp.
506-515.
Stratford, B. S., 1959, "The Prediction of Separation of the Turbulent Boundary
Layer," Journal of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 5, pp. 1-16.
(1)
dt \ PI,
where Uf. and u,,. are the instantaneous fluid and particle veloci-
ties, gi is the acceleration due to gravity, pf and p,, are the
densities of the fluid and particle, and P is the reciprocal relax-
ation time scale of the particle.
The equation for the fluid-phase turbulence kinetic energy k
can be written in the form (Launder, 1990)
' Lecturer School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Plymouth, Drake
Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, U.K.
Contributed by the Fluids Engineering Division of THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS . Manuscript received by the Fluids Engineering Division
November 5, 1995; revised manuscript received December 3, 1996. Associate
Technical Editor: M. W. Reeks.

458 / Vol. 119, JUNE 1997 Transactions of the ASME

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