DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

An incredibly diverse range of living things has evolved on Earth over hundreds of millions of
years. This variety enables each organism to share the resources that the Earth has to offer in a
sustainable way, with each organism occupying a slightly different niche in the environment.
Variation in physical, physiological/biochemical and behavioural adaptations exists between and
within species, with slight changes or mutations occurring as one generation flows into the next.
Only recently were scientists able to identify the ‘code’ for these features – an amazing molecule
called DNA.

WHAT IS DNA?

DNA is like a blueprint for every structure and function in an organism. It contains a code unique to
the individual that can be passed to offspring, generation after generation, with little or no change.
Each cell within a single organism contains DNA molecules with the same general structure. Each
species has its own unique DNA that defines the species. However, individuals within a species
have differences in their DNA also. In individuals within a species, there may be some very fine
variations in the structure of the DNA molecule and therefore in the code that it carries. An
understanding of the structure of DNA enables us to explain not only the similarities that exist
between and within species, but also the differences.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a complex compound that has a similar structure in all
organisms. DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. The basic structure of a nucleotide is
shown in the figure below. Nucleotide molecules have three main parts:

 A phosphate group.
 Deoxyribose sugar.
 One of four nitrogen-rich bases.

The nucleotides are organised in a way that makes DNA a double helix. The shape of a double
helix is like a twisted rope ladder. The uprights are made of alternating phosphate and sugar
groups.

The nitrogen-rich bases (commonly called bases) pair up to form the rungs. The four bases
ADENINE (A), THYMINE (T), GUANINE (G) and CYTOSINE (C) all have different chemical
structures. This means they can only pair up in one way, a characteristic known as complementary
base pairing. For example, adenine can only form a complimentary base pair with thymine (A–T)
and guanine can only pair with cytosine (G–C).
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

The complimentary bases are attached by hydrogen bonds (relatively weak bonds). This weak
bonding is important for the easy ‘unzipping’ of the ladder during replication. A large base (adenine
or guanine) is always bonded to a small base (thymine or cytosine) because this gives the correct
amount of space between the strands.

The chemical structure of the four bases and a DNA nucleotide are shown below.

Because of its structure and base pairing, DNA could make copies of itself. The model for DNA is a
pair of templates, each of which is complementary to the other. Prior to duplication, the hydrogen
bonds are broken, and the two chains unwind and separate. Each chain then acts as a template for
the formation onto itself of a new companion chain so that eventually we have two pairs of chains
where we only had one before. The sequence of the pairs of bases will have been duplicated
exactly. Therefore, the unique double-helix structure of DNA, with its two complementary strands,
allows it to replicate by a simple mechanism so that more identical DNA can be made.
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

The basic DNA structure is shown below with the lower section uncoiled to illustrate the pairing of
the bases.

GENES AND CHROMOSOMES

Chromosomes are long, thin, threadlike structures found in the nucleus of cells. Chromosomes are
made up of DNA and protein. The cells in the human body each contain 46 chromosomes (in 23
pairs). The only exceptions are the sperm and egg cells, which only contain 23 chromosomes (one
of each pair) and red blood cells, which have no nucleus. Other organisms have different numbers
of chromosome pairs in their cells.

Genes are sections of DNA. Each chromosome can have over 1000 genes. The differences
between one gene and the next is the order of the bases along the DNA strand and the length of
the DNA strand. The order of the bases along the DNA strand is the genetic code. Each gene
codes (contains instructions) for a specific protein. Proteins control many characteristics or
functions in the body. Proteins include the structural materials that build up your cells and tissues,
most hormones and all enzymes.
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

QUESTIONS

1. What does DNA stand for?

Deoxyribosenucleic acid

2. Which four bases make up DNA? Describe how they pair up to make this molecule.

Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine. Guanine pairs up with cytosine and adenine pairs up with
thymine. They are paired up so they can be easily broken apart for replication.

3. In the DNA molecule, name the molecules that make up the ‘uprights’ of the ladder. Which
molecule of the ‘uprights’ are the rungs joined to?

Phosphate group and deoxyribose sugar group. The rungs of the ladder are joined to the
deoxyribose sugar

4. Explain what is meant by complimentary base pairing.

 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

It’s the phenomenon where a specific nitrogenous base bonds with another, (guanine with cytoside
and adenine and thymine)

Four bases all have different chemical structures. This means that they can only pair up in one
way, a characteristic known as complementary base pairing.

Adenine can only form a complimentary base pair with thymine and …

5. A scientist knew that one strand of DNA contained the following base sequences: TTA TCT
GGA CCG GCT GCG.

What would be the base sequence on the other strand of DNA? Write down this sequence of
bases.

AAT AGA CCT GGC CGA CGC

6. What are genes and what do they do?

Genes are sections of DNA. Each gene codes contains instructions for a specific protein. Proteins
control many characteristics or functions in the body. Proteins include the structural materials that
build up your cells and tissues, most hormones and all enzymes

They tell your body how to make all its proteins

7. Describe where DNA is found in an organism.

In the cell’s nucleus

8. Each species has a particular number of chromosomes. The table below shows some examples
of the number of chromosomes in the body cells of some organisms.

SPECIES OF NUMBER OF SPECIES OF NUMBER OF

LIVING THING CHROMOSOMES LIVING THING CHROMOSOMES
IN EACH BODY IN EACH BODY
CELL CELL
CHIMPANZEE 48 FROG 26
EUGLENA 90 HOUSEFLY 12
FRUIT FLY 8 PIG 40
HUMAN 46 PLATYPUS 52
KOALA 16 RICE 24
ONION 16 SHEEP 54
SHRIMP 254 HORSE 66
SUGARCANE 80 BAT 44
TOMATO 24 CAT 38
CABBAGE 18 DOT 78
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

(a) Using the data in the table, construct a column graph.

Series 1
300

250

200

150

100

50

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y fly us t t t
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Fr use Pi
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Series 1

(b) Which species had the highest total number of chromosomes? Which species had the lowest
total number of chromosomes.

The shrimp had the largest number of chromosomes, the fruit fly had the least

(c) Carefully look at your graph. Are there any patterns? Discuss possible reasons for these.

There are no patterns

(d) Do you think the number of chromosomes reflects the intelligence of an organism? Provide
reasons for your response.

Humans are the most intelligent organism, yet they have fewer chromosomes than less complex
organisms like the shrimp. Chromosome number does not reflect intelligence.

9. Describe the relationship between DNA, chromosomes and genes.

DNA is the molecule that determines the genetic characteristics of most living things.
Chromosomes are made of DNA and protein. Genes are sections of chromosomes.
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

10. Explain in your own words what characteristic of DNA creates the genetic code.

The order of bases along DNA

11. Identify the mistakes in the following sections of DNA.

(a)

Guanine and paired with itself

(b)

Thymine is paired with cytosine

12. Construct a diagram of the complementary DNA strand for these two examples below.

(a)

TACGAATCCAT

(b)

AGCTGGCACCG

13. The sequence of bases below represents a section of a single strand of DNA. Propose the
base sequence in the complementary strand of DNA.
 DNA – THIS IS YOUR LIFE!

Your base sequence:

TATCGCAGTTCACAGTGGGA

14. Identify which of the following figures represents a possible base sequence in a molecule of
DNA.

Justify your decision for each molecule. The first one has been done for you.

(i) Not a possible base sequence. G is paired with G instead of with C.

(ii) Possible base sequence

(iii) Not possible. A is paired with A instead of T

(iv) possible