VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

Genes control many of the characteristics in humans. Earlobe attachment, the ability to roll your
tongue into a tube, and the colour of your hair, eyes and skin are some of these characteristics.
Earlobe attachment is controlled by one pair of genes. Therefore, this characteristic has two
phenotypes – you have attached earlobes or unattached earlobes.

Most other human characteristics such as height, weight, hair colour and skin colour are controlled
by more than one pair of genes. This produces a range of phenotypes. For example, the colour of
your eyes is controlled by at least three pairs of genes on different pairs of chromosomes. Some
other genes may turn these genes off and on. So, it is the way all these genes combine that
determines the exact colour of your eyes. And it is this combination that creates the wide range of
variation in human eye colour. Variation in hair colour and skin colour, and such characteristics as
head and face shape, are also due to the interaction of many genes.

THE SOURCE OF VARIATION

Biodiversity (or biological diversity) has to do with variation within living things. It can be described
in terms of an ecosystem, at the level of species, or even at the level of individual genes. Species
diversity is the number of different species within an ecosystem. In contrast, genetic diversity is the
range of genetic characteristics within a single species. The most important level in terms of
evolution is that of the gene.

Genetic diversity is important because it codes for variations in phenotypes, some of which may
better suit the individual organism to a particular environment than others, giving it an increased
chance of survival. If this individual survives, there is an increased chance of it reproducing to pass
on the advantageous gene to its offspring, also giving them an increased chance of surviving.
Overall, this genetic advantage will increase the survival of the species within that particular
environment. There are three main ways that genetic diversity can occur: (1) Independent
assortment of chromosomes during cell division in the reproductive organs, (2) Recombination of
genes in chromosome pairs during sex cell division. (3) Mutations in the DNA in the cells in the
testes and ovaries.

INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

A cell with three pairs of chromosomes could produce sex cells with eight different combinations of
chromosomes. In humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, there are about 8 million different
possible combinations of chromosome in the sex cells. This is why siblings look similar but not
identical to each other and to their parents! The production of different arrangements of
chromosomes in sex cells is called independent assortment.
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

RECOMBINATION

During the production of sex cells in the testes or ovaries, the pairs of chromosomes sometimes
swap bits of each other, resulting in a different arrangement of genes on the chromosomes.

In the diagram, the top section of the DNA on a pair of chromosomes exchanges. This process is
called crossing-over, and it results in a recombination of genes in a pair of chromosomes.

MUTATIONS

When the base sequence in a gene pool is changed, it is highly likely that the proteins that are
produced by this gene will be different from the original. The random changes to the DNA are
called mutations. Mutations in body cells cause little or no change to the organism, although
cancerous tumours can develop from these mutations. However, if mutations occur in a sex cell,
the changed DNA may be passed on to the next generation when fertilisation occurs.

A change in the genetic code in DNA can lead to the production of a change in the protein that is
coded for and produced by that segment of DNA. This can result in a change in the organism’s
characteristics. In the diagram below, for example, a change in DNA has led to the production of a
protein that will result in a change in the colour of the mouse from white to black. Mutations that
occur in gamete cells (such as sperm and eggs) are the source of new alleles (alternative forms of
genes) within populations.
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

EFFECTS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

A mandarin tree is loaded with sweet, juicy mandarins. About 100 km away, mandarin trees bear
very few, fairly dry fruit. Why is this, when all the mandarin trees came from the same stock? The
juicy mandarins are grown in an area that has had good autumn rain; the other area has had very
low rainfall. Cold weather occurred at the start of winter, which increased the sugar in the juicy
mandarins. The other area has had unusually warm weather.

Even though the mandarin trees have the same genotype, the environmental conditions have
produced different phenotypes. The trees have the same alleles, but they are expressed differently
because of the different environments they are in.

A child who grows up in a country that is ravaged by malnutrition and disease will be different to a
child who is well fed and able to be immunised against disease. The malnourished child’s growth is
stunted, his immunity to disease is poor and his mental development may be limited all because of
environmental conditions.

It is the combination of genetic and environmental factors that determines the characteristics of a
population of organisms. The genes determine the potential phenotype of an organism, while a
combination of the genes and the environment determine its actual phenotype.
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

QUESTIONS

1. How do you account for the fact that some people have attached earlobes and others have
unattached earlobes, while there is a wide range of the shapes and sizes of ears?

Variation in the shapes and sizes of ears, and such characteristics as attached and unattached
earlobes are due to the interaction of many genes

2. Where does independent assortment occur in the body? What is the importance of the word
independent in this process? Explain how this process produces variations in organisms.

meiosis metaphase 1,

the production of different arrangements of chromosomes in sex cells is independent assortment

3. What is crossing-over? Explain how it is a source of variation in organisms.

It is the exchange of genetic information between homologous chromosomes during metaphase 1

in meiosis. It is a source of variation as the genetic information exchanged allows for the original
genome to be altered.

Pairs of chromosomes sometimes swap bits of each other, resulting in a different arrangement of
genes on the chromosomes. It results in a recombination of genes in a pair of chromosomes

4. Explain why a mutation in the cells in the skin does not affect the variation in future generations,
whereas a mutation in the sex cells may.

Mutation in the skin cell only affects the organism and not the offspring as that genetic information
is not carried in the sex cell.

Variations in somatic cells affect the person but are not passed n, whereas mutations in sex cells
are passed on to offspring when gametes combine

5. Explain how variations in a population are caused by genetic factors as well as by environmental
factors.

Genes determine how an organism appears or behaves, different genetic factors causes different
appearances and behaviours in organisms which causes variation. Environmental factors can also
cause mutations in genes which ultimately causes variation in a population.

It is the combination of genes and environmental factors that determines the characteristics of a
population of organisms, the genes determine the potential phenotype of an organism, while a
combination of the genes and environment determine its actual phenotype

6. Explain, giving an example, how a particular environmental factor can affect the phenotype of an
organism.

The UV rays from the sun can affect the skin colour of an organism.
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

7. Hydrangea plants produce pink flowers and blue flowers depending on the acidity of the soil as
shown in the graph.

(a) Write a generalisation about the colour of flowers and the pH of the soil?

The lower the acidity of the soil the flower is most likely to be blue, the higher the acidity fo the soil
the flower is most likely to be pink

(b) What is the best soil pH for growing blue flowers? For growing pink flowers?

Between 5 and 5.5 for blue flowers, between 6 to 6.5 for pink flowers.

8. The particular type of Siamese cat in the photo has light-coloured fur on its body except on its
face, ears, tail and legs. This cat carries a gene that makes a heat-sensitive version of the enzyme
involved in making the dark colour (melanin) in the fur.

(a) Suggest why the extremities of the cat’s body have darker fur.

The temperature at the extremities would be colder than the rest of the body, this produces
enzymes to dark the colour of the extremities.

(b) Do you think that the enzyme is turned off or turned on by high temperatures? Give a reason for
your answer.
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

The enzyme would be switched off by high temperatures. This is shown y the body which is hotter
and off the surface and is white in colour

(c) When the cat was a kitten, a patch of fur from its back was removed and the skin kept warm
until new fur grew. Would you expect this fur to be dark or light? Explain.

I would expect it to be light because higher temperature switches off the enzyme that makes the
skin darker

(d) Explain how the environment has affected the gene expression in this particular cat.

Temperature determines the expression of colour int his cat

9. The colour of skin is controlled by three genes, each found on different chromosomes. The
alleles for dark skin are M1, M2 and M3, and they are dominant over the alleles for pale skin – m1,
m2 and m3. For example, a person with the darkest skin would have the alleles M1M1, M2M2 and
M3M3.

(a) What genes would a person with the palest skin carry?

m1,m1, m2,m2, m3,m3

(b) How many combinations of skin colour are possible with these genes?

There would be lots of different combinations possible

(c) Predict the shade of skin colour a person with the alleles M1m1, M2m2 and M3m3 might have.

They would be somewhere between the darkest variety and the lowest variety

(d) Is your prediction in (c) accurate? What other factors might affect the phenotype of this person?

Environmental factors such as diet may also play a role. There could be no way of knowing
whether a prediction is accurate.

10. Explain why mutations are important to asexually reproducing organisms.

Variety is an important factor in the survival of a species. In asexually reproducing organisms

mutations would be a major mechanism for variation

11. Suggest why genetic diversity is important to the survival of a species.

 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

It is needed for a species to survive when conditions suddenly alter

12. Distinguish between genetic diversity and species diversity.

Species diversity is the number of different species with an ecosystem. Genetic diversity is the
range of genetic characteristics within a single species.

13. Are all mutations bad? Justify your response.

When the base sequence in a gene pool is changed, it is highly likely that the proteins that are
produced by this gene will be different from the original. The random changes to the DNA are
called mutations. Most are harmful, but some can provide an advantage to a member of the
species that enables it to survive better

BACTERIA DON’T SUNBAKE!

The ozone layer helps to filter out many harmful UV rays. In Precambrian times, over 62 million
years ago, there was, however, no ozone layer. How then did life survive? To answer this question,
a team of biologists from NASA’s Ames Research Centre in California has been studying microbial
mats of bacteria and blue-green algae, the types of organisms that lived in Precambrian times.

The natural production of DNA in each organism was studied by placing some of the mat into a
plastic bag that was transparent to UV light. Some radioactive phosphate was added into the bag.
(Phosphate is used by cells to produce DNA). Every few hours the amount of phosphate in the
DNA of some of the cells was measured. The results for both bacteria and blue-green algae
showed the same pattern of DNA production.

At sunrise, the amount of phosphate in the DNA was high. DNA production then ceased at noon for
three to six hours, resuming just before sunset. Photosynthesis occurred throughout the whole day.

Head of research team Lynn Rothschild concluded that the cells cease DNA production at noon
because of the harmful UV light. The cells use this time to repair any DNA damage before they
begin to divide again. This mechanism might give some unicellular organisms a natural advantage
if the Earth’s ozone layer continues to be destroyed.

14. (a) What questions were the researchers trying to answer?

The ozone layer helps to filter out UV rays. In Precambrian times, how then did life survive if there
was no ozone layer?

(b) Describe the experiment they set up.

The natural production of DNA in each organism was studied by placing some of the mat into a
plastic bag that was transparent to UV light. Some radioactive phosphate was added into the bag.
Every few hours the amount of phosphate in the DNA of some of the cells was measured. The
results for both bacteria and blue-green algae showed the same pattern of DNA production
 VARIATIONS IN ORGANISMS

(c) What were their results? What were their conclusions?

Cells cease DNA production at noon because of the harmful UV light. The cells use this time to
repair any DNA damage before they divide again. This mechanism might give some unicellular
organisms a natural advantage if the Earth’s ozone layer continues to be destroyed

(d) What implications do these conclusions have for life on Earth if the ozone layer continues to
break down?

It may limit organisms making food and oxygen which will affect organisms that depend on these

15. Suggest what will happen if a species does not possess the genes that allow it to adapt to new
environmental conditions.

The species will become extinct