NATURAL SELECTION STORIES

We are all different! Our differences increase the chance of survival of our species. If our
environmental conditions were to change, some of us might have an increased chance of surviving
over others. Those who survive might then pass on any genetically inherited advantage to their
children, who would also have an increased chance of survival; at least unless the environment
changed to their disadvantage. If this happened, then other variations may have increased
chances of survival. This is what the theory of evolution and natural selection is all about. The
three key terms used in relation to natural selection are VARIATION, COMPETITION and
SELECTION.

VARIATION

The theory of natural selection starts with the observation that more individuals are produced than
their environment can support and that individuals are usually different from each other in some
way – they show variations. Some of these variations will provide an increased chance of survival
over other variations within a particular environment.

Individuals that possess a favourable variation will have an increased chance of reproducing and
passing on this variation (through their genes) to their offspring. Over time and many generations,
if this variation continues to provide a selective advantage, the number of individuals within a
population that show the favourable variation will increase.

Individuals that have less favourable variations or that are not as well suited to their environment
will not be able to compete as effectively. They may die young or produce few or no offspring.

SELECTION

Organisms live within ecosystems, which are made up of various living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) factors. These factors contribute to selecting which variations provide the individual with
an increased chance of surviving. It is for this reason that these factors may be referred to as
selective pressures or selective agents. Biotic factors that may act as selective agents include
predators, disease, competitors, prey and mating partners. Examples of abiotic factors include
temperature, shelter, sunlight, water and nutrients.

COMPETITION

Individuals within a population compete for resources such as food, shelter or mates. Those with a
selective advantage over other individuals are better able to compete for the resource.

There may be situations in which competing is not about resources, but about competing to not be
eaten by a predator or killed by a particular disease. In this case, individuals with a particular
variation that reduces their chance of being eaten or killed will have a higher chance of survival.
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The selection pressures and their effect on a population of beetles of different colours is shown
below.

NATURAL SELECTION OF SNAILS – A CASE STUDY

In the 1950s, two English scientists, Arthur Sheppard and Philip Cain, investigated natural
selection of the brown-lipped snail Cepaea nemoralis by the song thrush.

The scientists studied two areas – a forest floor and an open grass-covered field. The forest floor
was covered in brown, dead leaves and it was often partly in shade. The open grassy areas were
well lit and a yellowish-green in colour. The grassy areas also had a dark and light striped
appearance because of the shadows made by the blades of grass.

The song thrush preyed on the snails in both areas. The thrush smashed the snail shells open on
special rocks, called anvils, which were in the birds’ territories. The snails came in two colours –
pinkish-brown and yellow – and some were also banded. The bands were black or dark brown.
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The pictures below show the different types of shells of the brown-lipped snail and a thrush
smashing a shell on a rock anvil.

At Marley Bog, in a grassy field that has a uniform greenish background, 264 out of 560 living
snails collected by Sheppard and Cain were banded. When the anvils in the area were studied,
486 out of 863 dead snails were banded.

QUESTIONS

1. Compare the percentage of banded snails in the living population with the percentage of banded
snails killed by the birds.

47% banded snails in the living population. 56% banded snails killed by the birds

2. Could this selection change the proportion of the banded genes in the population in this area
over a long time? Explain.

Yes, over time snails with banded genes are more likely to be eaten and as a result would produce
a decrease in the population.
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A different study of a beechwood forest floor looked at the effect of seasons on the selection of
snails by the song thrush. In early spring, the beechwood floor is covered in dead, brown leaves.
As spring continues, plants sprout and grow, hiding the dead leaves in new green growth. The
results from one study are shown in the following table. The last column gives the percentage of
the population in early and late spring that had a brown shell. During all of spring, the percentage
of living snails found that had a brown shell was fairly stable.

Season Number of Number of Total snails Percentage of Percentage of

snails killed: snails killed: killed in snails killed total
yellow shell brown shell season that were population
brown alive that
were brown
Early spring 15 21 36 58% 76
(brown leaf
litter)
Late spring 9 64 73 88% 72
(green
growth)

QUESTIONS

3. For early spring and late spring, calculate the percentage of the snails killed that were brown.
Write your answers in the table above.

4. Compare the percentage of brown snails killed in early and late spring. What could have caused
this change.

More brown snails were killed in late spring then early spring this is due to the change in
environment. In early spring, the environment was brown, and the brown snails were able to
camouflage to hide from predators and survive, however in late spring when the environment is
green, the brown snails can no longer do this and are now prone to being eaten.

5. One possible explanation of the data in the table is that the change in percentage of brown
snails killed was due to a chance increase in the proportion of brown snails. Use the data in the
last column of the table to evaluate this explanation.
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NATURAL SELECTION OF BACTERIA: COMBATING BACTERIAL RESISTANCE

The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a serious problem for human health that is
getting worse. The first factor that is contributing to this resistance is that antibiotics are
widespread in the environment. Antibiotics are commonly used to treat infectious diseases in
humans, animals and plants. From there they enter the soil and water. Antibiotics are also being
found in human foods because some animals are fed antibiotics to protect them from disease and
help them grow faster. The widespread use of antibiotics increases the chance of natural selection
of bacteria by antibiotics. Additional factors that contribute to the development of bacterial
resistance include:

 Using antibiotics when they are not needed (such as for a common cold).
 Using incorrect dosing amounts of antibiotics.
 Not finishing an entire course of antibiotic tablets.

The increasing level of bacterial resistance to antibiotics occurs through natural selection. Mutation
is part of this process. Mutations in genes have given bacteria the ability to withstand antibiotics.
The bacteria do this in a number of ways:

 The bacteria are able to destroy or inactivate the antibiotic molecules.

 The bacteria’s cell wall is changed, so the antibiotic molecules cannot attach to it.
 The bacteria’s cell membrane is changed, so it is harder for antibiotic molecules to pass
through it.
 The bacteria are able to pump antibiotic molecules out of their cells so they cannot build up.

Bacteria have developed resistance to genes through mutation or by gene transfer between
bacteria. One bacterial cell can transfer genes to another. This process is shown below.

This gene transfer can even occur between different species of bacteria (diagram a). Resistant
bacteria can pass genetic information to non-resistant bacteria. The resistant bacterial cell forms a
tube that joins the two bacterial cells and the resistant DNA passes through the tube to the other
bacteria (diagram b). Now both bacteria are resistant to a disease that only one of them has been
exposed to (diagram c).
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Many of the genes that give bacteria antibiotic resistance are found on plasmids. Plasmids are
circular strands of DNA that are not part of the chromosome of the bacteria. Plasmids exist
separately in the cell. It is not known how plasmids came to exist in bacteria. Common bacteria
now have combinations of genes that can make them resistant to multiple antibiotics. This is
largely due to plasmid transfer.

QUESTIONS

6. List three places where bacteria come into contact with antibiotics.

Human body, soil, plants

7. List five factors that contribute to antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Using antibiotics when they are not needed, using incorrect dosing amounts of antibiotics, not
finishing an entire course of antibiotic tablets, widespread in the environment.

8. Explain why antibiotics can be found in some human foods.

Some animals are fed antibiotics to protect them from disease and help them grow faster

9. Propose how antibiotics could enter the soil and water on farms.

Antibiotics are commonly used to treat infectious diseases in humans, animals and plants and from
there they enter the soil and water
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10. List four characteristics resulting from mutation that have helped bacteria to survive antibiotic
molecules.

The bacteria are able to destroy or inactivate the antibiotic molecules, the bacteria’s cell wall is
changed, so the antibiotic molecules cannot attach to it, the bacteria’s cell membrane is changed,
so it is harder for antibiotic molecules to pass through it, the bacteria are able to pump antibiotic
molecules out of their cells so they cannot build up.

11. How could bacteria that have never had contact with antibiotics contain genes that give them
resistance to antibiotics? List two ways.

Through gene transfer and

12. Explain why the transfer of genes between bacteria could lead to serious health risk.

Transfer of genes between bacteria allow bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics to pass that trait
to other bacteria allowing them to also become resistant to antibiotics.

13. Identify three resources for which individuals within a population may compete.

Food, shelter and mating partners

14. Identify three examples of (a) biotic and (b) abiotic selective pressures or selective agents.

Biotic selective agents can be predation, competition and disease. Abiotic selective agents can be
temperature, environment and sunlight

15. How are the following two facts linked? More dark-coloured mice live on dark-coloured rock
than light-coloured rock. Dark coat colour is caused by a mutation in the gene for light coat colour.

Majority of the population of mice are light coloured, however due to genetic mutation dark
coloured mice can be produced. As the environment changes to where rocks are darker coloured,
these mutated dark coloured mice are more fit in the environment due to their camouflage. They
are able to reproduce and pass their inheritable genetic traits to their offspring which would have
dark coloured coat.

16. DDT was a pesticide used to kill mosquitoes. It is no longer effective and has caused some
unexpected environmental and ecological issues. Suggest reasons for the gradual decrease in
DDT’s effectiveness as a pesticide.

As DDT killed of mosquitoes, the mosquitoes that were resistant to DDT were able to survive and
reproduce more resulting in more offspring that are resistant to DDT. Over generations, this
process continues to a point where most mosquitoes are not affected by the pesticide.
NATURAL SELECTION STORIES