CHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Although scientists knew that similarities between organism were evidence of a shared ancestry,
they did not know how these characteristics were passed on. The science of genetics first began in
the mid-1800s after Gregor Mendel discovered how inheritance occurred through his experiments
with pea plants. DNA now plays a vital role in evolutionary studies and in our understanding of
biodiversity.

DNA & PROTEIN STRUCTURE

Biochemistry is the study of the molecules and chemical reactions found in living organisms. All
living cells have the same basic DNA structure and use the same genetic code. Organisms that
have similar anatomy show more genes in common than organisms that are less alike. For
example, 96 % of the genes in humans and chimpanzees are identical. This is strong evidence
supporting evolution – you would expect that two species and their common ancestor would have
much of their DNA the same.

Proteins are made up of amino acids arranged in a sequence, much like beads on a chain. The
instructions to make the amino acid chains are long sequences of DNA nucleotides. Sequences of
nucleotides that code for proteins are called genes. These sequences can be used to compare
how closely related species are. This is mostly done with living species, but the DNA and proteins
from fossils can be analysed as well.

Cytochrome c is a protein found in all living organisms, where it plays an important role in
respiration. Comparing how many amino acids are in the same positions on the cytochrome c
protein chain can tell us how closely two species are related. The table below shows the number of
positions with differences in the amino acid present in cytochrome c protein in humans compared
with seven other animals.

Chimp Monkey Kangaroo Chicken Turtle Bullfrog Tuna

Human 0 1 10 13 15 18 21

The cytochrome c of humans and rhesus monkeys differs only at one position. Whereas the
cytochrome c of humans and bullfrogs differ at 18 positions. This suggests that we are closely
related to monkeys but much more distantly related to frogs. However, studying only one protein
like this is unlikely to give a definite answer about how closely related two species are. Many more
proteins need to be studied to make these conclusions complete.
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GENOMICS, BIOINFORMATICS & EVOLUTION

Genomics is the study of genome structure and function. The genome of a species is the total
genetic information contained in its chromosomes and genes. Comparing genomes of different
species has given biologists a better understanding of evolution and the classification of
organisms.

DNA sequences of different species can be compared and analysed using bioinformatics.
Bioinformatics is the use of mathematics and computational methods to analyse biological
information. Bioinformatics allows scientist to isolate and compare sequences of DNA, including
genes. The evolutionary relationships between species can then be assessed by analysing the
similarities and differences in the DNA sequences of different species.

Understanding the sequence of genes also helps scientists understand their functions. Computer
scientists and biologists create programs that can analyse biological information. Advancing
computer technology is enabling scientists to analyse large numbers of nucleotides in a genome,
such as the human genome, which is approximately 3.2 billion nucleotides long.

With new developments in genome sequencing technology, the amount of sequence data is rapidly
growing. It is important that the computer power needed to store and analyse such large datasets
is available.

Many advances and discoveries have already been made in the fields of genomics and
bioinformatics including:

 sequencing of whole genomes instead of small parts. This has resulted in very large
sequence datasets that require advanced bioinformatics and computer power to store and
analyse the information.
 learning that genes are not the whole story of inheritance; other factors such as gene
regulators (DNA sections that control genes) are also important and influence evolution.
 discovering that distantly related species often share stretches of DNA that do not appear
to code for any protein. Half of the human genes discovered have no known function, and
scientists are working to understand them.

An example of the use of genomics in evolutionary biology is a recent study that investigated how
whales lost their teeth. There are two kinds of whales: toothed whales and baleen whales. Baleen
whales have a brush-like layer called baleen in their mouths that sieves out water and traps their
food. A fossil whale called Aetiocetus that lived about 30 million years ago had both teeth and
baleen.

Recent evidence from analysis of the DNA of living whales has suggested how the loss of teeth
occurred. Scientists identified several mutations in genes that control tooth development. The
major mutation is an insertion of a section of DNA in the middle of a gene that controls how the
 CHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

tooth enamel (the outside coating of a tooth) is formed. When the extra section of DNA was
inserted, the tooth enamel gene stopped functioning.

Other genetic mutations that caused a loss of function were also identified in genes involved in
tooth formation. The study found that baleen whales have the same genes involved in tooth
formation that toothed whales have, but they do not function and so teeth do not grow. Darwin
observed the development of tiny teeth in baleen whale embryos but noticed that they disappear
as the embryo grows. This recent study using DNA technology helps us to better understand the
evolution of tooth loss and formation in whales.

THE EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION IN BRIEF

The evidence for evolution is:

 Fossils – there is increasing complexity in species, changes over geological time in lineage
and transitional forms.
 Comparative anatomy – homologous structures can be identified at many different levels of
classification, such as the limb bones in classes of vertebrates.
 DNA – species that have similar anatomy have been shown to have many common genes.
 Protein structure – closely related species have more similarities in amino acid sequences
in particular proteins.
 Distribution of species – isolated islands have unusually high proportions of unique species;
continents now separated by oceans and containing identical fossil species were once
connected in the past.
 Embryology – embryos with similar anatomy share some of the same genes for
development of the embryo. These same genes can exert different effects in different
species.

QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by the term ‘genome’?

Genome of a species is the total genetic information contained in its chromosomes and genes.

2. Explain what bioinformatics is.

The use of mathematics and computational methods to analyse biological information.

3. Why do you think genomics and bioinformatics are important in evolutionary research?

Genomics allows us to compare genomes of different species which has given biologists a better
understanding of evolution and the classification of organisms.

DNA sequences of different species can be compared and analysed using bioinformatics.
Bioinformatics allows scientist to isolate and compare sequences of DNA. The evolutionary
relationships between species can then be assessed by analysing the similarities and differences
in the DNA sequences of different species.

Understanding the sequence of genes also helps scientists understand their functions which is also
important and supports evolutionary research.
 CHEMICAL EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

4. What term best describes the study of the development, structure and function of embryos?

Embryology

5. What term best describes the study of the molecules and chemical reactions found in living
organisms.

Biochemistry

6. There is no difference in the sequence of amino acids on the cytochrome c molecules of

present-day humans and apes. However, monkeys and humans have one difference, while
humans and kangaroos have ten differences. Use this information to identify whether apes,
monkeys or kangaroos shared the most recent common ancestor with humans. Justify your
answer.

Apes share the most recent common ancestor with humans as they both share similar amino acid
sequence. The similarity of amino acids determines this, as it shows that the organisms has not
evolved long enough to change the sequence of it. Although only one protein is not enough to
determine ancestry it is likely that this is the case. Fewer mutations mean a shorter time span
between groups

7. Examine the data in the table below and then answer the questions that follow.

(a) Which species is most closely related to humans?

Chimpanzee

(b) Which species is less likely to be closely related to humans?

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Capuchin monkey

8. List five types of evidence that support Darwin’s theory of evolution.

Fossils, comparative anatomy, DNA, distribution of species and embryology

9. Horse breeders pay large amounts of money to have prize-winning racehorses breed with mares
in their stables. The fastest horses are flown around the world for breeding purposes. It is also
possible to collect and freeze sperm from successful competition horses. Explain how this might
affect the evolution of the horse. How might horses look in another million years?

Breeding two fast horses would usually result in an offspring that also possesses the genes that
allows it to run fast. This might affect the evolution of horses as their speed will increase. In a years
time, horses might have more developed structures that help them to run faster for example in their
legs.

10. How can DNA sequences be used as a source of evidence for evolution?

Organisms with more similar DNA sequences are more closely related. Similarities in DNA
sequences acts as evidence for evolution as it tells us how close two organisms are from their
ancestral organisms. This relation between the two organisms suggests the theory of evolution.
Less changes means that from the ancestral organism, the two species have not evolved that long
ago.

The evolutionary relationship between species can be assessed by analysing the similarities and
differences in the DNA sequences of different species

11. Examine the table below showing the DNA sequence from part of a haemoglobin gene from
four different mammalian species.

T (thymine), A (adenine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine) represent nitrogenous bases.

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(a) In terms of the first 11 nitrogenous bases, which mammalian species is most similar to
humans? How is this species different from humans?

The rhesus monkey is the most similar to humans. In DNA terms, only one adenine base is
replaced by a guanine base

(b) In terms of the first 11 nitrogenous bases, which mammalian species is least similar to
humans? How is this species different from humans?

The rabbit, in DNA terms it has 4 different bases compared to the human.

(c) On the basis of the data in the table, rank these species in terms of how long ago they may
have shared a common ancestor with humans.

Orangutan – 20 million years ago

Rhesus monkey – 10 million years ago

Rabbit – 40 million years ago

(d) Suggest how these differences in the sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA may have arisen.

Due to mutations/crossing over in an organism, nitrogenous bases in DNA have changed. These
mutations in organisms have produced variations within a population, these variations were fit for
the environment and due to speciation, new species were produced as a result and most of the
population would possess the difference in the DNA sequence

12. The layers of rock shown in the illustration below have been disturbed by plate movements.
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(a) Which layer of rock is the youngest? Justify your answer.

The first layer

(b) Which layer of rock is the oldest? Justify your answer.

The third layer on the back landscape according to the fossil history

13. Humans and mice have 80 % of their DNA in common. Humans and cabbages share 20 %.

(a) Why do you think humans and cabbages have DNA in common?

Al living things descended from a common ancestor. That means plants and animals share similar
DNA. The basic idea is, two organisms have similar genes because they inherited it from a
common ancestor, the less similar the genes are the more distant the species are related

(b) Why would mice and humans have so much DNA in common?

Mice and humans are both mammals so they would have diverged more recently in their evolution
so have more DNA in common

14. Which of these two sentences is more correct? Explain your answer.

‘Birds and mammals evolved from reptiles’ or ‘The ancestors of reptiles gave rise to organisms
with bird-like characteristics and others with mammal-like characteristics’.

The second sentence is more correct. Evolution takes time and due to variations and natural
selection during the process, species would be produced with bird-like or mammal-like
characteristics which act as missing links.

15. Match the words in the box below to the statements that follow.
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PHENOTYPE, HOMOLOGOUS, SPECIES, NATURAL SELECTION, SELECTIVE AGENT,

DESCENDANT, ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY, INBREEDING, HOMO, HOMOLOGOUS,
PRIMATES, BIOINFORMATICS, INBREEDING, ADAPTIVE RADIATION, SELECTION
PRESSURE.

Change in the characteristics of a species over many generations.

1: evolution

The time between the birth of an individual and when they produce their own offspring.

2: generation

Differences in characteristics due to differences in particular genes.

3: phentoype

The group of organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring under natural conditions.

4: species

A rapid variation or divergence of an evolutionary lineage from a recent common ancestor.

5: adaptive radiation

The genus to which humans and several extinct species belong.

6: homo

The order of animals with ‘grasping’ hands, nails rather than claws and forward-facing eyes.

7: primates

Process where an environmental factor acts on a population and results in some organisms having
more offspring than others.

8: natural selection

The study of embryos of different species.

9: embryology

Environmental factor that acts on a population during natural selection.

10: selective agent

Selective breeding between two closely related individuals.

11: inbreeding

Using technology to gather, store and analyse biological data and to solve biological questions.

12: bioinformatics

The effect of the selective agent on a population.

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13: selection pressure

The physical structure of an organism.

14: anatomy

A group of species that evolves from an ancestor.

15: descendant

The term for structures in different species that are controlled by some of the same inherited
genes.

16: homologous