Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DesignManualforLowVolumeRoadsPartG PDF
DesignManualforLowVolumeRoadsPartG PDF
DesignManualforLowVolumeRoadsPartG PDF
IT Y
E TH
OR
IO
IA
NR UT
H
P
OADS A
G TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of Contents........................................................................................... i
Foreword....................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements...................................................................................... ii
Road Features............................................................................................... 2
Basic Access.................................................................................................. 4
Regular Maintenance.................................................................................. 10
Maintenance Activities................................................................................ 15
Drainage..................................................................................................... 23
Road Surface............................................................................................... 51
Priorities...................................................................................................... 91
Work Options.............................................................................................. 94
Terminology.............................................................................................. 104
G FOREWORD
This first edition of this Road Maintenance Booklet has been prepared
for circulation and discussion with the aim of gathering comments and
contributions from stakeholders and potential users.
It is intended that the document will be refined and will be suitable for
translation into a number of local languages to facilitate application at
Wereda, Kebele and community level.
G ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Some material for this document has been taken from the World Road
Association (PIARC) International Road Maintenance Handbook. Additional
images have been provided by Intech Asset Management. This Booklet
has been prepared with the assistance of Intech Asset Management under
the direction of Ti-UP with funding of the UK Department for International
Development.
The Booklet specifically sets out guidance for Weredas, Kebeles and all
local communities on how to maintain their own road access using the
limited resources available to them. It also advises how it may be possible
to mobilise outside resources to enhance the impact of their own initiatives.
The Maintenance activities and codes are according to the ERA Maintenance
Technical Specifications and proposed amendments.
2. ROAD FEATURES
Road Cross Section (imagine a vertical slice through the road)
Drainage Features
3. BASIC ACCESS
Basic Access is achieved to provide year-round passage to routes by turning
them from weather-dependent tracks into proper roads. A proper road can
be formed from the natural soil (Engineered Earth Road) in many locations.
This usually means that the road surface needs to be slightly higher than the
ground at the road side.
Most natural soils can be built into an (Engineered Natural Surface) Earth
Road. However, for route sections with weak soils, or if traffic increases to
more than about 50 motor vehicles per day, or on steep hills, it may be
necessary to improve the road surface with gravel or various types of paving.
This can be achieved at relatively low cost by applying a Spot Improvement
approach to improve these limited problem sections, using local labour and
materials. Other documents such as the ERA LVR Design Manual (2011)
describe how such improvements can be designed and constructed.
Most routes can be built to Engineered Natural Surface (ENS) – Earth road
standard for most of their length. If in doubt about soil suitability, seek advice
from the regional road authority. The Spot Improvements at problem
sections of the route can be selected from the following list of options:
¡¡ Drift
¡¡ Culvert
¡¡ S-01: Engineered Natural Surface (ENS)
¡¡ S-02: Natural gravel
¡¡ S-03: Waterbound/Drybound Macadam
¡¡ S-04: Hand Packed Stone
¡¡ S-05: Stone Setts or Pavé
¡¡ S-06: Mortared Stone
¡¡ S-07: Dressed stone/cobble stone
¡¡ S-08: Fired Clay Brick, Unmortared/mortared joints
¡¡ S-09: Bituminous Sand Seal
¡¡ S-10: Bituminous Slurry Seal
¡¡ S-11: Bituminous Chip Seal
¡¡ S-12: Bituminous Cape Seal
¡¡ S-13: Bituminous Otta Seal
¡¡ S-14: Non-reinforced concrete
¡¡ S-15: Ultra-thin reinforced concrete
In practical terms it is useful to identify and quantify the Defects, and then
arrange the necessary Maintenance to be carried out. In this booklet defects
and Maintenance activities are grouped into the following:
Regular Maintenance
¡¡ Roadside activities
¡¡ Drainage
¡¡ Road surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
From time to time, other activities not covered by this booklet may be
required. Advice should be obtained from the regional road authorities for
any problem or road aspect not covered in this booklet.
5. REGULAR MAINTENANCE
These are the maintenance activities that are likely to be required somewhere
on a road link every year. Most of the tasks may be carried out manually.
Mechanised alternatives are available for some tasks as indicated.
Regular Maintenance is conveniently divided into three main groups of
activities that are often carried out on a seasonal basis:
¡¡ Roadside activities
¡¡ Drainage
¡¡ Road surface
• Earth Road
• Gravel Road
Roadside Activities
Defect Maintenance Activity (Page No.)
1. Trees and bushes growing on
131 Brush clearing (P15)
roadside
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 132 Shoulder Rehabilitation
does not drain properly (manual) (P19)
133 Plant grass and water
3. Shoulder erosion
(P21)
1. Grass on shoulder or in drain
134 Cut grass (P15)
requires cutting
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 240 Shoulder Blading
does not drain properly (minor) (mechanised) (P19)
2. Shoulder uneven or eroded, or 241 Shoulder Rehabilitation
does not drain properly (major) (mechanised) (P19)
Drainage
Road Surface
Defects and maintenance requirements will depend on the road surface
type.
Earth Road
Defect Maintenance Activity (Page No.)
12. Road surface potholed, rutted
112 Reshape & Compact Earth
or uneven, and does not drain
Road Camber (P51)
to edge
Gravel Road
8. MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES
Defect 1: Grass, weeds, bushes or trees have been allowed to grow
unchecked at the side of the road.
Development, if neglected:
¡¡ Drainage ditches cannot be cleaned;
¡¡ Surface water can pond at the edge of the road and weaken the road
surface;
¡¡ Silt can accumulate at the edge of the road;
¡¡ The visibility for road users is reduced, with increased risk of accidents
with persons or animals;
¡¡ Increased fire hazard in the dry season.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 134 Grass Cutting
¡¡ 131 Bush Clearing
¡¡ Grass Cutting
Grass and weeds should be cut at least once a year after vegetation
reaches full growth or according to local experience. The vegetation
should be trimmed by hand. Sickles, scythes, slashers, bushknives, or
similar handtools will be required.
¡¡ Bush control & Trees
Any bushes on the road shoulders or drains should be cut down.
Dead or leaning trees within the right-of-way which may fall on the
roadway or block the drainage system, or block sight lines should
be removed. The felling of trees, or the removal of large branches at
heights of more than 2 metres above ground level can be hazardous.
This work should only be carried out under expert supervision or by
experienced workers. Trees should be felled using one- or two-man
saws or axes. Ladders should be used for climbing trees, and ropes
should be used to restrain trees and control felling. Traffic should be
halted when the tree is finally toppled. All debris should be removed
and disposed of safely.
¡¡ Disposal of debris
All cuttings and debris should be disposed of safely so that there is
no risk of drains being blocked or fire hazard.
¡¡ Herbicides
Herbicides (weed-killer) are chemical agents intended to destroy or
reduce vegetation growth. It is not recommended that herbicides
or any chemical methods be used to control roadside vegetation.
Some reasons are:
• Herbicides can cause pollution of crops, rivers and streams
and drinking water supplies;
• Herbicides are often dangerous to health;
• Herbicides are expensive, and must often be imported;
• Herbicides do not always produce satisfactory results.
¡¡ Burning
Do not burn roadside vegetation to control its growth or the debris
from Bush Clearing activities. The results may be more harmful than
desired:
• The fire could spread and destroy valuable vegetation (trees,
grass crops), and traffic signs;
• Vegetation may grow faster after burning;
• Smoke and flames blowing across the road are dangerous for
traffic.
Development, if neglected:
¡¡ Hazard to road users, increased risk of accidents;
¡¡ Obstruction of water flow from roadway;
¡¡ Inadequate support for the road surface;
¡¡ Water collects and softens/weakens the shoulder and pavement;
¡¡ The edge of the pavement will break when vehicle wheels run over it;
¡¡ The roadside ditch may become blocked by the excess material.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 132 Shoulder Rehabilitation (manual);
¡¡ 241 Shoulder Rehabilitation (mechanised);
¡¡ 240 Shoulder Blading (mechanised).
a) Rehabilitation Manual Method (132)
The low surfaces and all high material should be loosened with a pick axe or
mattock. The shoulder should be reshaped to slightly above the final level
and the correct crossfall using a shovel and rake. Any low spots should be
topped up with fresh material of the same type and quality as the existing
shoulder. The crossfall of the uncompacted material should be checked with
a camber board. Excess material should be spread over the embankment
slope or transported by wheelbarrow to a convenient and safe dumping
site. Material should not be deposited on the roadway or in the drainage
ditch. If the material is dry it should be sprinkled with water. The shoulder
is then compacted with hand rammers or a hand roller. The compacted
surface should butt smoothly onto the roadway. Check the finished crossfall
with the camber board and repeat the reshaping if necessary. Brush all loose
material and debris from the roadway.
trailer or truck. Material should not be deposited on the roadway or into the
drainage ditch.
If the material is dry it should be sprinkled with water. The shoulder is then
compacted using a self-propelled, towed or pedestrian roller. The compacted
surface should butt smoothly onto the roadway. Check the finished crossfall
with the camber board and repeat the reshaping if necessary. Brush all loose
material and debris from the roadway.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 133 Plant grass and water.
a) Seeding
Grass seeding will only be successful if climate and soil conditions are
favourable. The best advice can be provided by the local department of
agriculture on:
¡¡ Topsoil required;
¡¡ Seed type, rate of spread;
¡¡ Fertilizer types, rate of spread;
¡¡ Most favourable season and weather for seeding;
¡¡ Other preparatory treatment of the soil (for example mixing-in
ground limestone).
Typical procedure:
¡¡ Loosen the soil to a depth of 10 cm in the area to be seeded using
rakes or similar tools;
¡¡ Spread the topsoil to a depth of at least 5 cm;
¡¡ Water the area to be seeded;
¡¡ Apply fertilizer at the specified rate;
¡¡ Apply ground limestone at the specified rate and mix-in;
¡¡ Apply seeds by hand at the specified rate;
¡¡ Lightly roll the seeded area within 24 hours using hand roller, only if
the soil does not adhere to the roller;
¡¡ The seeded area should be watered as required until the grass has
taken hold.
9. DRAINAGE
Defect 4: Culvert silted or obstructed with debris
Development, if neglected:
The intended waterway opening will be so reduced that flood water cannot
flow as intended. Flood water will back-up or pond on the upstream side of
the culvert and may eventually over-flow the road embankment. The road is
then in danger of being washed away.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 121 Culvert Cleaning/
In order to function properly, a culvert must retain the full opening over its
complete length. In addition, the upstream approaches and the downstream
area must be free of obstructions. Floating debris (tree branches, bushes,
etc.) carried by water is a great danger to culverts. The debris may completely
block the culvert inlet. The following Regular Maintenance activities may be
required:
¡¡ If debris racks are already provided, these as well as the culvert
opening should be freed of all accumulated obstructions.
¡¡ Clear any sand, silt or debris from inside the culvert. Sanding or silting
of culverts, especially those with openings smaller than 1 metre, can
be a particular problem. These culverts can be cleaned by pulling a
cable or rope through, to which is attached any suitable object (e.g.
a bucket). Alternatively a long handled trowel and spike can be used.
This Maintenance task is best carried out before the rains and after
any heavy rainstorm.
Development, if neglected:
Concentration of flood flow causing erosion and possible overtopping and
damage to roadway, paving or shoulders.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 122 Ditch Clearing (Manual);
¡¡ 230 Ditch clearing (Mechanised).
A ditch & slope template should be used to obtain the correct drain shape.
¡¡ Using the template a 50 cm wide slot should be excavated to the
correct ditch shape every 10 metres along the drain. The slots act as
a guide for excavating the ditch to the correct shape;
¡¡ In flat areas, the gradient of the ditch should be checked using
ranging rods and profiles or similar methods, to ensure that water
will not pond. The levels at adjacent slots should be checked using
a line and level or abney level, and the level of the slot adjusted if
necessary.
¡¡ Excavate all surplus material between the slots and to the correct
shape with the aid of stringlines stretched between the slots. If
necessary the intermediate invert levels can be checked using a
traveller sighted between the ranging rod profiles.
¡¡ Material excavated from the drain must be removed and spread well
clear of the drain so that it cannot later fall or wash back into the
ditch.
¡¡ The shape can be checked during the excavation activity using the
ditch template.
When excavating a completely new ditch it is preferable to split the task into
two operations:
i) Cut the central rectangular shape and check with a template
(INVERT);
ii) Cut the slopes and check with the full ditch & slope template
(SLOPES).
The alignment or route of the drain should be set out using stringlines and
pegs. The ranging rods and profiles should be set up at the start and outfall
of the ditch. Intermediate profiles may be required on long ditches. The
levels of intermediate slots can be determined using the traveller.
This Maintenance task is best carried out before the rains and after any
heavy rainstorm.
Case 1:
When the grader can operate only on the shoulder and in the ditch, but not
beyond the ditch:
¡¡ Start by grading the outside slope of the ditch, using the blade to
windrow the soil to the bottom of the ditch between the rear wheels.
(This can be repeated to obtain the desired depth of ditch. This part
of the task can also be done manually);
¡¡ The next blade pass(es) are to clean the invert of the ditch by
removing the windrow to the top of the ditch at road shoulder;
¡¡ The final pass is required to move the windrow material away from
the shoulder ditch edge.
If the recovered material quality is inferior to that of the road surface, THE
MATERIAL MUST BE REMOVED FROM THE SITE.
¡¡ On completion, the ditch should generally have a depth of 50 cm
(minimum), which can be checked with a ranging rod and tape/rule;
¡¡ If necessary the grade of the ditch invert can be checked using the
methods described in a) Manual Method (122).
Case 2:
When the grader can operate beyond the ditch. Reverse the operations
shown previously:
¡¡ Grade the inside slope, windrowing material to the bottom of the
ditch. Repeat as necessary to achieve the desired depth of ditch;
¡¡ Remove the windrow material to the top of the outside slope;
¡¡ Move windrow away from ditch edge and spread the material so that
it will not wash back into the ditch;
¡¡ On completion, the ditch should have a depth of 50 cm (minimum),
which can be checked with a ranging rod and tape/rule;
¡¡ If necessary the grade of the ditch invert can be checked using the
methods as described in a) Manual Method (122).
Development, if neglected:
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, paving or shoulders.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill).
This activity may be sufficient for minor erosion damage to a ditch. However,
reconstructing the ditch profile with selected fill material alone may not be
sufficient to prevent the defect recurring within a short time. Loose stones
or boulders should be removed. The defective section of ditch should be
cut back to firm material and fresh material placed in layers not exceeding
15cm thickness and compacted with a hand rammer. If the material is dry
it should be sprinkled with water before compaction. The added material
should be trimmed back to the correct ditch profile and checked with the
ditch template. Dispose of the excess materials well away from the roadside
so that water flow will not be impeded and they will not fall or wash back
into the ditch.
Development, if neglected:
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, earthworks paving or
shoulders.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 124 Repair Erosion Damage (rockfill);
¡¡ 129 Wattling.
Dealing with slips and unstable slopes is hazardous and particular care
should be taken to safeguard manpower, equipment and the road users.
The cheapest solution (if appropriate) is expected to be Wattling. Other, but
more expensive, remedial options are:
¡¡ Counterfort drains;
¡¡ Stone pitching the slope;
¡¡ Reducing slope angle;
¡¡ Clearing slip material;
¡¡ Surcharging the slope;
¡¡ Gabions;
¡¡ Cribwork;
¡¡ Masonry retaining wall;
¡¡ Concrete retaining wall.
Wattling (129)
This activity may be suitable after repairing an eroded slope with Maintenance
Activity: 123 Repair Erosion Damage (Selected Fill)
Wattling will help to resist surface water erosion of a slope. Wattles are
bundles of plant stems up to 3 m long, tied together and laid in shallow
trenches, staked into position on contour lines (lines of the same height),
or x - form lines. As with turfing and seeding, a favourable climate and soil
conditions are essential for the successful use of wattling.
Typical procedure:
¡¡ Cut wattling stems at suitable source and transport them to site
immediately. Stems should not be allowed to dry out;
¡¡ Tie bundles of stems 15 - 20 cm diameter, alternating the ends;
¡¡ Excavate a trench in the slope along the desired line. The trench
should be deep enough to accommodate tied wattling stems (this
work can be completed beforehand);
¡¡ Place wattling stems in trench and use stakes to fix them in position.
Overlap bundles and stake through the overlaps;
¡¡ Cover the wattling with topsoil and tamp them firmly in place;
¡¡ Watering may be necessary until the roots take hold.
Development, if neglected:
Further damage to structure or roadway, slope or structural failure.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 125 Mortared Masonry Repair
Development, if neglected:
Further damage to structure or roadway, slope or structural failure.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 126 Dry Masonry Repair.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 27 Gabion Structure Repair.
Gabions are usually made of zinc coated steel baskets, although they may
also be made from welded mesh sheets, galvanised chainlink fencing and
woven wire depending on the circumstances and locally available materials.
The baskets are hand-filled with rock and stones between 12 and 30 cm size.
In this way they attain great stability, but will allow minor settlement. Repairs
may be required due to bulging or breaking of the basket due to foundation
or backing movement, or settlement of the stone within the basket. Gabions
are designed to allow some settlement. Repairs should aim to ensure that
the stone continues to be contained. Repairs will normally consist of opening
the baskets, re-packing the stone inside, topping up stone if necessary and
re-securing the lid of the gabion. It may be necessary to weave new cage
material over broken or deformed areas, and any suitable steel mesh or
woven sheets can be used for this.
The gabion baskets are normally supplied folded flat complete with
tying wire so that the transport volume is minimised. Foundations should
be excavated level and cleaned as for a conventional structure, with any
unsuitable material removed and replaced with good soil, stone or gravel,
and compacted. The baskets should be erected in their final position.
Development, if neglected:
Damage to drainage system, roadway, structures, paving or shoulders.
Maintenance Activity
Unlined ditches may suffer from scour of the invert and sides. Simple repairs
may be achieved by filling the affected areas with soil and trimming to the
correct profile, and turfing where climatic conditions are favourable. The
turves will probably need to be pegged in place to retain them, and watered
until established. Simple Check Dams (scour checks) may be constructed of
wood or stones. Larger ones may be constructed of stone masonry, brick
or concrete. They reduce the speed and erosion force of the water. They
also hold back the silt carried by the water flow to provide a series of gently
sloping sections of ditch separated by steps.
The Check Dams must not be too high otherwise water will be forced onto
the surrounding ground, the shoulder or the roadway. The Check Dam
construction should therefore be controlled with the aid of a template.
Check Dams should not be constructed on ditches with gradients of less
than 4%. This will encourage too much silting of the drain and could lead
to road damage. The gradient of the side drain should be checked with an
abney level or line and level to determine the requirements for scour
checks (spacing guidance in the ERA LVR Design Manual).
After the basic Check Dam has been constructed, an apron should be built
immediately downstream either using stones or grass turves pinned to the
ditch invert with wooden pegs. The apron will help resist the forces of the
water flowing over the Check Dam. Grass sods should be placed against
the upstream face of the Check Dam, to prevent water seeping through the
Check Dam and to encourage the silting behind the Check Dam. The long
term objective is to establish complete grass cover over the silted Check
Dams to stabilise them.
Well constructed Check Dams will allow the water to gently cascade over
(and not through) the checks, removing energy from the water and reducing
erosion power.
EARTH ROAD
Defect 12: Road surface potholed, rutted or
uneven, and does not drain to edge
Development, if neglected:
Road becomes waterlogged or impassable.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 112 Reshape & Compact Earth Road Camber.
This activity is carried out using labour, basic hand tools and control aids.
Setting out
¡¡ The PROFILE method of setting out enables a smooth vertical
alignment to be re-established on a severely deteriorated road
surface;
¡¡ The alignment will consist of straight gradients and vertical curves;
¡¡ The centre line of the road is pegged every 10 metres;
¡¡ A ranging rod is fixed at each 10 metre peg;
¡¡ Each ranging rod is fitted with a profile board. The profile board can
slide up and down the ranging rod and be clamped at any height.
Check that the amount of earthworks at each centre line (finished level) peg
is acceptable, or repeat the procedure using different assumptions.
Once the centre line level pegs are fixed, set out the pegs for the edge of
the roadway and both sides of the ditch using the tape measure, camber
board and spirit level for the required road cross section.
Excavate backslope
If insufficient material is excavated to form the camber, dig additional
material from the backslope or from beyond the side drain.
Gravel Road
Defect 13: Road Surface potholed
Development, if neglected:
Gravel surface loss increases. Road becomes very rough, slowing and
damaging traffic, and may become waterlogged or impassable.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 110 Spot Repair – Selected Material;
¡¡ 111 Spot Repair – Crushed Aggregate.
Potholes and ruts should be repaired with materials similar to the surrounding
surface. This can be either selected gravel material (110) or crushed stone
aggregate (111) with sufficient fines to bind the material together.
used for larger areas, although the hand rammers will still be required
for the corners and short edges;
¡¡ Patching work started must not be left unfinished overnight. At night
the site should be made safe for traffic and all signs and obstacles
removed from the road.
Defect 14: Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not drain to edge
(Minor: <3cm)
Development, if neglected:
Gravel surface loss increases. Road becomes very rough, slowing and
damaging traffic.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 220 Blade Gravel Road (light)
Light grading may be carried out with a motor grader or a tractor towed
grader to correct minor defects on the gravel road surface such as
corrugations, shallow ruts and flat camber. The task may also be achieved
using labour with handtools.
Minor corrugations can be dealt with by using a low cost drag towed by a
tractor or other vehicle.
Defect 15: Road Surface rutted or uneven, and does not drain to edge
(Major: >3cm)
Development, if neglected:
Road becomes very rough, slowing and damaging traffic. Water ponds on
road surface. Gravel surface loss increases and danger of total gravel layer
loss and road being impassable.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 221 Blade Gravel Road (heavy)
Heavy grading may be carried out with a motor grader or a tractor towed
grader. However the task will also require towed or self-propelled watering
and compaction equipment. The task may also be achieved using labour
and hand tools by adapting the methods of Maintenance activity 112.
Preparation
Patching (Activity 110 or 111) of large potholes or depressions should be
carried out in advance of the grading. Areas of standing water should be
drained. This preparation will ease the work and make the resulting surface
last longer.
Scarifying
Using a motor or tractor towed grader it may be necessary to scarify the
existing surface to cut to the bottom of any surface defects and loosen the
material for reshaping.
Machine Attendants
These help direct traffic and grader turning, and remove large stones and
other unwanted material from the path of the grader.
Grading
The grader works on one
side of the road at a time and
works in passes about 200
metres long to convenient
and safe turning points.
Heavy Grading will require
additional passes to achieve
the required camber. Work
should be completed on one
side of the road at a time. An
even number of passes should
be used to avoid a flat finished
crown. Normally initial cutting
passes are required to bring
material in from the edges of
the road. Spreading passes
redistribute the material away
from the crown. The initial
passes cut to the bottom of
the surface irregularity and
deposit a windrow just beyond
the centre line.
Watering
The towed or self-propelled water tanker sprays the windrow with water,
if required. The windrow is spread back across the road depositing all the
material to give the correct camber. A second application of water may be
required to obtain the correct moisture content for compaction.
Cambering
The aim should be to develop a proper crown on the road. The road should
be cambered to fall away from the crown at a rate of about 6 to 7 cm for
each metre from the centre of the road before compaction. This should
achieve a crossfall of about 4 to 6 cm per metre (4 to 6%) after compaction.
If there is insufficient camber, water will not drain easily from the surface
of the road, potholes will form and the road will deteriorate quickly. This is
particularly important on gradients, where the rain water tends to run along
the road forming erosion channels.
Do not make a final pass down the centre of the road with the grader blade
horizontal. This flattens the centre of the road and causes water to pond
leading to rapid deterioration of the surface. Do not leave a windrow on the
road overnight as this is a danger to traffic.
Compaction
When towed, self-propelled compaction plant is being used, it must follow
close up behind the grader, but only on sections where grading has been
completed. Usually about eight passes of a roller will be needed to achieve
full compaction, working towards the centre of the road. Shoulders are
treated as part of the running surface.
Superelevation
On bends the surface must be straight (at 4-6%) from shoulder to shoulder
with the outer shoulder higher. This is called superelevation. This is because
any crown on a bend can be very dangerous to traffic. The superelevation
must be retained for the complete length of the bend.
On the transition at each end of the bend into the straight sections, the
superelevation should be gradually reduced until the normal cross section
shape with about 1 in 25 to 1 in 17 (4-6%) crossfall is obtained again.
Structures
The shape of the road must
be maintained over culverts
to avoid a hump. Material
should be brought in if
necessary from either side
of the culvert to maintain
a cover to the top of the
culvert of at least 3/4 culvert
diameter.
Blade position
Development, if neglected:
Road becomes very rough, slowing and damaging traffic. Water ponds on
road surface. Gravel surface loss increases and danger of total gravel layer
loss and road being impassable.
Maintenance Activity
¡¡ 317 Gravel Resurfacing (Selected Material);
¡¡ 318 Gravel Resurfacing (Crushed Aggregate).
Gravel surfaces wear down due to the wasting effects of traffic and weather.
Loss rates can be up to 5cm thickness each year or more even on a Low
Traffic Volume Road. Re-gravelling will be required when (or before) the
residual thickness of gravel reduces to about 5 – 8 cm, otherwise there is a
danger of vehicle wheels ‘punching’ through to the weaker material below.
This would result in mixing and effectively the loss of the gravel layer.
Gravel or crushed stone should not contain any pieces larger than 3cm,
as this will seriously affect performance. ‘Oversize’ pieces should be hand-
picked or ‘screened’ out. Due to the high cost of re-gravelling, technical
advice should be obtained on sources and material suitability. It is unlikely
that re-gravelling will be cost-effective if the material has to be hauled more
than 10km and other types of road surface may be more economical.
Diversion?
Wherever possible, before the re-gravelling work starts, a diversion should
be opened up adjacent to the road. If traffic is diverted from the work site, it
will enable the job to be carried out more efficiently and safely.
Site Preparation
Traffic warning signs should be place at either end of the re-gravelling site.
The existing road surface must be graded-off or reshaped by hand to
provide a firm regular surface on which to work. Where possible, the edges
should be ‘boxed’ to provide lateral support for the new gravel. The graded/
reshaped surface should be watered and compacted. The camber should
be checked with a camber board and the road level should fall 4 to 6 cm for
each one metre width of road (4-6 %).
Gravelling operations
When the initial grading/shaping of the road surface is complete, the loader
or the quarry labour should start to load the tippers or trailers with gravel for
transport to the re-gravelling site.
The supervisor at the quarry should ensure that gravel is taken from the
correct stockpiles and that the trucks/trailers are loaded correctly. Tippers or
tractor trailers should always circulate continuously between the quarry and
the site. Loading resources should be adjusted to try to keep the haulage
equipment working continuously. Dumping should start at the far end of the
site so that the heaps of gravel do not impede tippers or other haulage
vehicles delivering later loads.
¡¡ Material should be
dumped on one side of the
road only;
¡¡ Loads should be placed
at the correct spacing
as instructed by the
supervisor, necessary to
give the required thickness
of gravel over the
complete road width after
compaction;
¡¡ If the road is not closed,
material should be
dumped on the shoulder,
or dumped and spread
immediately by labour;
¡¡ The tankers or towed
bowsers should have
filled up with water using
the pump and then have
driven to the site;
¡¡ Initially the existing road
surface is sprayed with
water;
¡¡ Spreading of the gravel can start when there is a working length of
about 200 metres of dumped material if using a motor or towed
grader. If spreading is by labour, the gravel can be spread as soon
as it is dumped, or even unloaded by labour if non-tipping haulage
equipment is used;
¡¡ Water should not be added during rolling as the material may stick
to the wheels or drums;
¡¡ Rolling should start at the edge of the road and work towards the
middle. The roller should aim to progress from section to section at
the same rate as the grader or labour operations;
Development, if neglected:
Road becomes very rough, slowing and damaging traffic. Water ponds on
road surface, speeding the deterioration and increasing risk of accidents.
Road user costs increase substantially. Road may become impassable.
Maintenance Activity
Depending on the type of paved road surface:
These defects are normally limited in extent and can be repaired using
labour, suitable hand tools and limited materials. Equipment is not normally
required. Any work on the road surface should be signed either side of the
repairs to warn road users and for the safety of those carrying out the work.
For all of the paved road surface types, the repair techniques are very similar,
and consist of:
¡¡ Marking out the area to be repaired;
¡¡ Excavation of the area to be repaired;
¡¡ Backfilling the hole with new material.
Marking out the area to be repaired
The area to be treated is marked out with chalk by
drawing a rectangle around the defects.
The hole is filled with a selected material to match the existing surrounding
good surface and base materials. This can consist of new material, or in the
case of e.g. stone paving, recycled undamaged pieces.
The material is placed in the hole and compacted in one or more layers of
regular thickness depending on the depth and materials involved.
Generally, the last layer, prior to compaction, must have an excess thickness
of about 1/5 the depth of the final layer, in order to allow for settlement on
compaction.
11. PRIORITIES
With limited resources, it is usually necessary to set priorities for carrying
out maintenance work, which should always take priority over any route
upgrading or improvement works. Protect what you have before extending
your assets and liabilities!
Example inventory
Days impassable
motor vehicles
Daily traffic in
Length (km)
last year
Route
Priority A
3.5km earth
50 (April School and
A to Kebele B with spot 0
2010) teff exports
paving
Priority B
20 (January
A to Kebele C 4.5km earth Horticultural 2
2010)
12 (October
Kebele B to C 5.0km earth Dispensary 5
2009)
Pottery,
<10 (July
Kebele C to D 7.0km earth sunken 15
2010)
sections
In this way the vital road drainage system is prepared for the rainy periods
and is kept functioning through the rains. The earth and gravel surfaces are
most effectively maintained during the rains where there is moisture in the
materials to help consolidate them after reshaping. Paved road surfaces will
usually develop any defects during the rains and are best repaired when the
drier weather comes.
In practical terms, the maintenance of Low traffic Volume Roads (LVR) will be
principally carried out by labour methods with possible occasional support
of intermediate or heavy equipment. The last option is usually too expensive
to mobilise and inefficient for remote rural road works.
The main work organization options are detailed in this section with their
typical advantages and disadvantages. The Works Options are:
¡¡ Option 1- Small Contractor (Private);
¡¡ Option 2 - Force Account;
¡¡ Option 3- Community Group;
¡¡ Option 4 - Length Person or Family Contract;
¡¡ Option 5 - Compulsory/Voluntary Labour;
¡¡ Option 6 - Hire-in equipment;
¡¡ Option 7- Large Contractor Based System.
4 40 45 45 52
8 68 75 79 88
With good record keeping a similar table can be developed for each
commune. Equipment inputs may be required for materials haulage and
towed grading. Earth and gravel roads require reshaping/grading typically
between 1 and 4 times per year. These estimates will help to make resource
and cost estimates for each road each year.
Productivity Targets
To plan and manage maintenance works it is useful to have productivity
Standards, Norms or Targets. These need to be flexible considering the
variable nature of LVR maintenance works, experience of the supervisor
and workforce, and whether the work is carried out on a paid or voluntary
basis. Development of local Norms or Targets can take considerable time to
achieve. The following Targets were developed from research in East Africa
and practice in Southern Africa, and can serve as a reference point. The
standards were developed under close supervision conditions, with a well
trained workforce. They represent the best productivities that can be achieved
with a well organised and managed workforce. They should therefore be as
targets to be worked towards. It is expected that under normal conditions
60 – 80% of the productivity standards should be achieved. Good record
keeping can allow local productivity standards to be developed over time.
NOTES
MAINTENANCE
CODE UNIT 1 2 3 4
ACTIVITY
131 Bush dearing - light m/day 425 260 190 - Difficulty = Width of bush
1) up to 1.0m
131 Bush dearing - dense m/day 275 225 175 - 2) 1.0 to 2.0m
3) Over 2.0m
Difficulty = Depth of erosion
Shoulder Rehabilitation 1) up to 1.0m
132 m/day 100 80 65 -
(manual) 2) 1.0 to 2.0m
3) Over 2.0m
Difficulty = Planting width
1) up to 1.0m
133 Plant grass and water m/day 100 80 65 -
2) 1.0 to 2.0m
3) Over 2.0m
Wet areas 425 260 190 Difficulty = Width of grass cutting
134 Cut grass - light m/day -
Dry areas 310 230 170 1) up to 1.0m
2) 1.0 to 2.0m
134 Cut grass - dense m/day 310 240 175 - 3) Over 2.0m
Difficulty = 4 passes more than 3cm of cut.
220 Blade Gravel Road (light) route km/day 10 - - -
Excludes mobilisation & demobilisation
15. TERMINOLOGY
¡¡ Abney Level - Small hand held slope measuring and levelling
equipment.
¡¡ Aggregate - Hard mineral elements of construction material
mixtures, for example: sand, gravel, crushed rock.
¡¡ Aggregate Brooming - Using a broom to spread chippings on a
surface.
¡¡ Alligator Cracks - See Crazing.
¡¡ Apron - The flat invert of the culvert inlet or outlet.
¡¡ Asphalt - Another word for bitumen. Sometimes used to describe
plant mixed bituminous materials.
¡¡ Asphaltic Concrete - A high quality manufactured mixture of
bitumen and aggregates. Expensive and usually only used on main
roads.
¡¡ Attendant or Lengthman - A person contracted or appointed to
maintain a section of road. Can be male or female and the term
‘Attendant’ or ‘Lengthman’ assumes either sex.
¡¡ Basin - A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence
and prevent erosion.
¡¡ Berm - A low ridge or bund of soil to collect or redirect surface water.
¡¡ Bituminous Slurry (Slurry-Seal) - Mixture, usually of fine-grained
aggregates, water, bituminous binder (emulsion), cement, and
sometimes an additive, for a road surface seal.
¡¡ Bituminous Binder (Asphalt) - A petroleum oil based or natural
product used to bind or coat aggregates for road pavements.
¡¡ Bleeding - Defect: Excess binder on the surface of the pavement.
¡¡ Blinding -
a) A layer of lean concrete, usually 5 to 10 cm thick, placed on soil
to seal it and provide a clean and level working surface to build the
foundations of a wall, or any other structure.
b) An application of fine material e.g. sand, to fill voids in the surface
of a pavement or earthworks layer.
¡¡ Block Cracking - Defect: Interconnected cracks forming a series of
large blocks usually with sharp corners or angles.
¡¡ Brick (clay) - A hard durable block of material formed from burning
(firing) clay at high temperature.
¡¡ Bridge - A structure usually with a span of 5 metres or more, providing
a means of crossing above water, a railway or another obstruction,
whether natural or artificial. A bridge consists of abutments, deck
and sometimes wingwalls and piers, or may be an arch.
¡¡ Camber - The road surface is normally shaped to fall away from
the centre line to either side. The camber is necessary to shed rain
water and reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding. The slope