A lot of heat energy is needed to overcome the attraction between the positive metal ions and the

sea of electrons which is why metals have high melting and boiling points

Because metals have few valence electrons, they are free to move around

Naturally hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are diatomic; occurs in
molecules (not H; instead H2)

A molecule is formed when two or more atoms join together chemically. A compound is a molecule
that contains at least two different elements. All compounds are molecules but not all molecules are
compounds.

Covalent bonding – electrons from other elements are attracted to the nucleus of the other element

Compounds are formed in a specific structure due to the repel of anions

Ionic substances are brittle – if a small dislocation occurs repulsion between like charges causes the
crystal lattice to break part

Solid ionic substances don’t conduct electricity as ions are not free to move

Crystalline structure breaks down in water or molten so then ions can move

Metallic bonding is held by the sea of delocalised electrons and the cations

H2SO4 + K2O:  K2SO4 + H2O

K2+ + SO42-  K2SO4 (amount of atoms in a molecule is disregarded when written as an ionic
compound unless it is a polyatomic atom such as sulfate)

Covalent compounds may disregard their prefixes if only one combination of the two atoms are
available (such as HI, hydrogen iodide, instead of hydrogen moniodide and hydrogen chloride)

When writing transition metals roman numerals, make sure you put in brackets and leave no space
between the first bracket and the metal cation

All acids are made up of one or more hydrogen cations bound to an anion

Writing formula for acids: the amount of hydrogen cations bound to the anion is the negative charge
the anion has.
E.g. Chlorate (ClO3-)  chlorate acid (HClO3) (only one hydrogen cation to balance the negative one
charge)
e.g. Phosphate (PO43-)  Phosphate acid (H3PO4) (3 hydrogen cations to balance the negative three
charge
e.g. Acetone (CH3COO-)  Acetic acid (CH3COOH) (1 hydrogen cation to balance the negative one
charge)

All anions ending with an ‘-ate’ forms acids that end with ‘-ic’ (e.g phosphate  phosphoric acid,
chlorate  chloric acid, ethanoate/acetate  ethanoic/acetic acid)

HClO2: we are unsure of what the charge of ClO 2 is but because there is only one hydrogen cation we
can say ClO2 (chlorine dioxide) has a charge of negative 1

All atoms that end with ‘-ite’ forms acids that end with ‘-ous’
(e.g Sulfite (SO32-) Sulfurous acid (H2SO3)) (e.g. Nitrite (NO2-)  Nitrous acid (HNO2)
(e.g. Phosphite (PO3 )  phosphorous acid (H3PO3)
3-
(eg. Chlorite (ClO2-)  Chlorous acid (HClO2)
Only roman numerals for transition metals, anything else is wrong (magnesium(II)) is wrong)

Often a mixed fraction of ½ will balance the equation. Therefore, you double ALL the coefficients
when this happens.
e.g. balance C4H10 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
this become C4H10 + O2 → 4 CO2 + 5 H2O. Since there are 13 oxygens on the product side, the
coefficient for O2 could be 6½. Now double all the coefficients and the equation is done.
2 C4H10 + 13 O2 → 8 CO2 + 10 H2O

Stress that sets up decomposition reactions are heat, electricity, shock or pressure

hydrogen peroxide is always kept in a dark brown container as exposure to light will cause it to break
down to oxygen and water due to decomposition reaction

for precipitation reaction to occur, all reactants and products must be soluble except for one product

Synthesis
Metal oxide + water  base
Non-metal hydroxide + water  acid
Non metal oxide + water  acid
Metal oxide + non-metal oxide  salt
Decomposition
Metal carbonate  metal oxide + carbon dioxide
Metal bicarbonate  metal carbonate + water + carbon dioxide
Metal hydroxide  metal oxide + water
Metal chlorates  metal chloride + oxygen gas
Acid  water + non-metal oxide

Chemical reaction for boiling of water: H2O (l)  H2O (g)

4Na + 2Cl2  4NaCl is not proper equation as coefficients are not in their lowest whole-number ratio

When a chemical reaction takes place it does so by breaking and forming bonds

Only lithium, potassium, sodium and calcium react with water to produce their metal hydroxide and
hydrogen gas, but other metals can react to produce metal oxides and hydrogen gas if the water is in
gas form (steam)

Chemical bonds are formed between atoms, as the atoms are trying to reach the most stable state
they can by filling their valence shell

Metal + acid  salt + hydrogen

Metal + water  metal hydroxide + hydrogen
Metal + oxygen  metal oxide

The more electrons that are shared between two atoms the stronger their bond will be

Ionic substances that have nitrate, ammonium, acetate or group 1 are always soluble. Sulfates are
soluble unless for PMS and Castro Bear. Group 17 are soluble unless for PMS.

Considered a solution if its aqueous

Castro bear applies to sulfides and hydroxides as well as group 1

In an ionic equation, diatomic molecules are not written. For example Ag + + Cl-  AgCl.
NOT 2 Ag+ + Cl2-  2 AgCl

A precipitation reaction is where two aqueous ionic compounds form a new compound that is
insoluble in water.

Writing as disassociated ions: KNO3 becomes K+ and NO3-

Balancing Al (s) + Cu 2+ (aq)  Al 3+ (aq) + Cu (s). The metal on the reactants that is added to the metal
solution does not show its charge whilst the metal from the aqueous solution does. The products
shows the charge of the disassociated ions from the metal but not the one from the aqueous
solution. Balanced equation: 2 Al (s) + 3 Cu 2+ (aq)  2 Al 3+ (aq) + 3 Cu (s). The coefficient in front of
the metals is determined by the charge of the other metal.

Displacement reaction is a chemical reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less
reactive

element from its compound

the metal in the compound starts as an ion in solution but appears in its element form on the
product side. The reactant metal starts out in its element form on the reactant side but ends up as
an ion in aqueous solution as part of the compound

displaying ionic charges on elements indicates that it is part of an ion. In an ionic equation, the
spectator ions are not included but the elements that were in a compound with those ions are
written with their ionic charge to indicate that they are an ion in that compound and not a pure
metal by itself.

Spectator ions are not included in an ionic equation. CuSO 4 + Al  AlSO4 + Cu. The copper sulfate
and the aluminium sulfate in the equation are ions, the single aluminium and copper metal are not
as they are by themselves, not in a compound.
To write an ionic equation. 3 Cu2+ + 2 Al  2 Al3+ + 3 Cu. Sulfate is a spectator ion because it is an ion
that exists in both the reactants and products of the equation. Even though copper and aluminium
existed in ionic form they did not stay this way for all of the equation.

Ionic compounds ionise in aqueous solutions (convert into ions, usually by removing electrons)

Polyatomic ions are bound so tight that they don’t disassociate during chemical reactions

Covalent compounds will not disassociate

Net ionic equations for double displacement reactions don’t have diatomic molecules written

If the diatomic element is part of an ionic compound then it doesn’t have the 2 subscript, however
if it exists but itself as a pure gas then it does. For example Ca (s) + 2H + (aq)  H2 (g)  Ca2+ (aq)

Electrons are delocalised in metals because of the valence electrons, less electrons are able to move
more freely within the orbital

Electrons move freely in metals due to the low attraction between them and the metal

Covalent, atoms share valence electrons, do not become ions

Electrical conductivity requires the movement of charged particles

When heating an ionic compound to its melting point, the heat energy breaks the electrostatic force
between the ions

When ions are disassociated they are free to move within the solution

In a chemical reaction, most in double displacement reactions, if no new phases are produced then
then no reaction occurred, therefore there is no net ionic equation

The easier it is for a metal to lose an electron, the more reactive it is

A factor that increases the number of collisions between particles will increase the reaction rate and
a factor that decreases the number of collision between particles will decrease the chemical reaction
rate

For most chemical reactions, the rate at which the reaction process will approximately double for
each 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature

Increased temperature: reactant particles have more energy and move faster, resulting in a greater
proportion of collisions with sufficient energy to break bonds. Reactant particles move around more,
resulting in a greater frequency of collisions

Increase concentration of solutions/pressure of gases: more reactant particles are in a given space,
resulting in a greater frequency of collisions

Increased surface area of solids/liquids: more reactant particles are exposed to collisions, resulting in
a greater frequency of collisions

Agitation: more reactant particles are exposed to collisions, resulting in a greater frequency of
collisions

Presence of catalysts: the energy required to break bonds is lowered (activation energy) by orienting
reactant molecules in a way that makes bonds easier to break, resulting in a greater frequency of
successful collisions between reactant particles because of the sufficient energy to break bonds

Rate of chemical reaction depends on: frequency of collisions between reactant particles, the energy
of collisions between reactant particles, orientation of collisions between reactant particles

Collision theory: reactant particles must collide with sufficient energy and correct orientation to
break bonds

Rate of a chemical reaction refers to how quickly reactants are converted to products

Chemical reactions do not proceed at a constant rate. The reaction is fastest at start as there is the
highest concentration of reactant particles, resulting in the highest frequency of collisions between
them. As a reaction progresses, the rate decrease as there is a decrease in the concentration of
reactant particles resulting in a decrease in the frequency of collisions between them. Eventually,
the reaction stops as all of the reactants have been converted to products hence there are no more
collisions between reactant particles

Change in volume doesn’t affect chemical reaction if the concentration is the same
aluminium ion electron configuration is: 2,8. not 2,8, 3

if a diatomic molecule exists in the original equation then keep it in the net ionic equation

if no new phases appear within a reaction then it has no reaction

water and other covalent compounds arent written as separate ions as they dont diassociate into
ions

solid compounds do not disassociate in net ionic equations

manganese(iv) oxide MnO2

when a chemical reaction occurs, bonds are broken and new bonds are formed and products have
different identity from the reactants