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Chapter 1: Introduction: Database System Concepts, 7 Ed
Chapter 1: Introduction: Database System Concepts, 7 Ed
Database-System Applications
Purpose of Database Systems
View of Data
Database Languages
Database Design
Database Engine
Database Architecture
Database Users and Administrators
History of Database Systems
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Systems
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Applications Examples
Enterprise Information
• Sales: customers, products, purchases
• Accounting: payments, receipts, assets
• Human Resources: Information about employees, salaries, payroll
taxes.
Manufacturing: management of production, inventory, orders, supply
chain.
Banking and finance
• customer information, accounts, loans, and banking transactions.
• Credit card transactions
• Finance: sales and purchases of financial instruments (e.g., stocks
and bonds; storing real-time market data
Universities: registration, grades
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Applications Examples (Cont.)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Purpose of Database Systems
In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of file
systems, which leads to:
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Purpose of Database Systems (Cont.)
Atomicity of updates
• Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial
updates carried out
• Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
Concurrent access by multiple users
• Concurrent access needed for performance
• Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
Ex: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by
withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
Security problems
• Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
University Database Example
In this text we will be using a university database to illustrate all the
concepts
Data consists of information about:
• Students
• Instructors
• Classes
Application program examples:
• Add new students, instructors, and courses
• Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
• Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA) and
generate transcripts
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
View of Data
A database system is a collection of interrelated data and a set of
programs that allow users to access and modify these data.
A major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an abstract
view of the data.
• Data models
A collection of conceptual tools for describing data, data
relationships, data semantics, and consistency constraints.
• Data abstraction
Hide the complexity of data structures to represent data in the
database from users through several levels of data abstraction.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Models
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relational Model
Columns
Rows
Ted Codd
Turing Award 1981
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
A Sample Relational Database
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Levels of Abstraction
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
View of Data
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Instances and Schemas
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Physical Data Independence
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Definition Language (DDL)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
SQL Query Language
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Access from Application Program
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Design
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Engine
A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the
responsibilities of the overall system.
The functional components of a database system can be divided into
• The storage manager,
• The query processor component,
• The transaction management component.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storage Manager
A program module that provides the interface between the low-level data
stored in the database and the application programs and queries
submitted to the system.
The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
• Interaction with the OS file manager
• Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
The storage manager components include:
• Authorization and integrity manager
• Transaction manager
• File manager
• Buffer manager
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Storage Manager (Cont.)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Query Processor
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Query Processing
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Transaction Management
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Architecture
Centralized databases
• One to a few cores, shared memory
Client-server,
• One server machine executes work on behalf of multiple client
machines.
Parallel databases
• Many core shared memory
• Shared disk
• Shared nothing
Distributed databases
• Geographical distribution
• Schema/data heterogeneity
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Architecture
(Centralized/Shared-Memory)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Applications
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Two-tier and three-tier architectures
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Users
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Administrator
A person who has central control over the system is called a database
administrator (DBA). Functions of a DBA include:
Schema definition
Storage structure and access-method definition
Schema and physical-organization modification
Granting of authorization for data access
Routine maintenance
Periodically backing up the database
Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal
operations, and upgrading disk space as required
Monitoring jobs running on the database
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History of Database Systems
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History of Database Systems (Cont.)
1980s:
• Research relational prototypes evolve into commercial systems
SQL becomes industrial standard
• Parallel and distributed database systems
Wisconsin, IBM, Teradata
• Object-oriented database systems
1990s:
• Large decision support and data-mining applications
• Large multi-terabyte data warehouses
• Emergence of Web commerce
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
History of Database Systems (Cont.)
2000s
• Big data storage systems
Google BigTable, Yahoo PNuts, Amazon,
“NoSQL” systems.
• Big data analysis: beyond SQL
Map reduce and friends
2010s
• SQL reloaded
SQL front end to Map Reduce systems
Massively parallel database systems
Multi-core main-memory databases
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 1
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 1.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Chapter 2: Intro to Relational Model
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Example of a Instructor Relation
attributes
(or columns)
tuples
(or rows)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relation Schema and Instance
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Attributes
The set of allowed values for each attribute is called the domain of the
attribute
Attribute values are (normally) required to be atomic; that is, indivisible
The special value null is a member of every domain. Indicated that the
value is “unknown”
The null value causes complications in the definition of many operations
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relations are Unordered
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Database Schema
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Keys
Let K R
K is a superkey of R if values for K are sufficient to identify a unique tuple
of each possible relation r(R)
• Example: {ID} and {ID,name} are both superkeys of instructor.
Superkey K is a candidate key if K is minimal
Example: {ID} is a candidate key for Instructor
One of the candidate keys is selected to be the primary key.
• Which one?
Foreign key constraint: Value in one relation must appear in another
• Referencing relation
• Referenced relation
• Example: dept_name in instructor is a foreign key from instructor
referencing department
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Schema Diagram for University Database
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relational Query Languages
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Relational Algebra
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Select Operation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Select Operation (Cont.)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Project Operation
A unary operation that returns its argument relation, with certain attributes
left out.
Notation:
A1,A2,A3 ….Ak (r)
where A1, A2, …, Ak are attribute names and r is a relation name.
The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing the
columns that are not listed
Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Project Operation Example
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Composition of Relational Operations
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Cartesian-Product Operation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The instructor X teaches table
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Join Operation
The Cartesian-Product
instructor X teaches
associates every tuple of instructor with every tuple of teaches.
• Most of the resulting rows have information about instructors who did
NOT teach a particular course.
To get only those tuples of “instructor X teaches “ that pertain to
instructors and the courses that they taught, we write:
instructor.id = teaches.id (instructor x teaches ))
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Join Operation (Cont.)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Join Operation (Cont.)
Thus
instructor.id = teaches.id (instructor x teaches ))
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Union Operation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Union Operation (Cont.)
Result of:
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2017 (section))
course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2018 (section))
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Set-Intersection Operation
• Result
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Set Difference Operation
The set-difference operation allows us to find tuples that are in one relation
but are not in another.
Notation r – s
Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.
• r and s must have the same arity
• attribute domains of r and s must be compatible
Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2017 semester, but not in the
Spring 2018 semester
course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2017 (section)) −
course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2018 (section))
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The Assignment Operation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
The Rename Operation
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Equivalent Queries
Query 2
dept_name=“Physics” ( salary > 90.000 (instructor))
The two queries are not identical; they are, however, equivalent -- they
give the same result on any database.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Equivalent Queries
Query 2
(dept_name=“Physics” (instructor)) ⋈ instructor.ID = teaches.ID teaches
The two queries are not identical; they are, however, equivalent -- they
give the same result on any database.
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
End of Chapter 2
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 2.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Chapter 6: Database Design Using the E-R
Model
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Outline
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Design Phases
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Design Phases (Cont.)
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Design Alternatives
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Design Approaches
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Outline of the ER Model
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
ER model -- Database Modeling
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Entity Sets
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Entity Sets -- instructor and student
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
Representing Entity sets in ER Diagram
Database System Concepts - 7th Edition 6.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan