WTP Moduls 2 - Agst2018

Water Treatment Technology
Water Resources Engineering

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305
Dr. Fahid Rabah PhD. PE.
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1. Introduction
1.1 Objectives of water treatment

• The principal objective of water treatment is to provide
potable water that is chemically and biologically safe for
human consumption. It should also be free from unpleasant
tastes and odors.
• water treatment objective is to produce both "potable" and
"palatable".
- Potable: - Water that can be consumed in any desired
amount without concern for adverse heath effects. Potable
dose not necessarily mean that the water tastes good.
- Palatable: - it is a water that is pleasing to drink but not
necessarily safe.

1. Introduction…cont’d
1.1 Objectives of water treatment..Cont’d

• Water treatment aims at producing water that satisfies
a set of drinking water quality standards at a reasonable
price to the consumers.
• Removal of solids in water. Solids maybe suspended,
dissolved or colloidal. Some of the dissolved solids
should stay in water at healthy concentrations.

1.2 Water Quality
1.2.1 Water quality characteristics
a. Physical characteristics:-
• Turbidity
• Color
• Taste and odor
• Temperature
b. Chemical characteristics:
• Many dissolved chemicals exist in water and many of them are
of concern such as:-
Chloride, fluorides, Iron, lead, manganese, sodium, sulfate,
zinc, toxic inorganic substances, toxic organic substances,

1.2 Water Quality
1.2.1 Water quality characteristics.. Cont’d
c. Microbiological characteristic:-
Pathogens: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, helminthes
(warms)

1.2 Water Quality
1.2.2 Water quality standards
See the typical composition of water from different sources
See the EPA Primary drinking water standards

Secondary MCLs (mg/L)

1.2 Water Quality
1.2.3 Water classification by source
Ground- vs. Surface Water
Groundwater
• constant composition Surface water
• variable composition
• high mineral content
• low mineral content
• low turbidity
• high turbidity
• low color
• colored
• low or no D.O.
• D.O. present
• high hardness
• low hardness
• high Fe, Mn
• taste and odor
8

1.2 Water Quality
1.2.3 Water classification by source
- Surface water
- Ground water.
• The difference between the two water
types is given in the following table.

1.3 Water treatment methods
1.3.1 Unit operations and Unit processes
Water treatment plants utilize many treatment
processes to produce water of a desired quality.
These processes fall into two broad divisions:-
A) Unit operations: (UO)
Removal of contaminants is achieved by physical
forces such as gravity and screening.
B) Unit processes (UP)
Removal is achieved by chemical and biological
reactions.
10

1.3 Water treatment methods
1.3.2 Most common treatment methods
• Coagulation and flocculation (UP)
• Softening (UP)
• Reverse osmosis RO (UP)
• electrodialysis (UP)
• ion exchange (UP)
• adsorption (UO)
• Precipitation (UP)
• disinfection (UP)
• sedimentation (UO)
• filtration (UO
11

1.4 Water Treatment Plants
1.4.1 Most common water treatment plants
Water treatment plants can be classified as:-
A) Simple disinfection:-
It is a direct pumping and chlorine injection. Used to treat
high quality water.
B) Filtration plants: (surface water)
• Removes: color, turbidity, taste, odor, and bacteria (filtration
plant)
• if the source water has better quality with lower solids,
flocculation and sedimentation can be omitted, this
modification is called direct filtration.
C) softening plants:- (ground water)
12

Surface Water Treatment
Sedimentation
Screen basin
Surface water
from supply
Rapid Flocculation
Rapid Mix Basin
Sand Filter Sludge
Disinfection To
Distribution
Storage System
13

Groundwater Treatment
Sedimentation
basin
Ground water
from wells
Rapid Flocculation
Recarbo- Mix Basin Sludge
nation
Disinfection
To Distri-
Storage bution
CO2 System
14

Treatment Flow Chart
PAC Coagulant
Capacity: 132 million m3/day
Chlorine Flash Flocculation Sedimentation

injectionStabilization mix tank tank
Intake tank
Reservoir
Filter
Finished water
storage tank Chlorine
injection
Clear well
Household Pump
15

Conventional Water Treatment Process
16

Sedimentation
17

Sedimentation Tank
18

Circular Clarifiers
19

20

Automatic Backwash Filter
21

Filtration
22

Flocculator
23

Vertical Baffle Flocculator
24

Flocculation
25

26

Trojan UV
8000 LP S
ys tem
27

Lecture 2: Coagulation and Flocculation

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Coagulation and flocculation
1. Definitions:
- Coagulation and flocculation are two consecutive process (i.e.
occur one after the other) that are used to remove colloidal
particles from water.
- Colloids are very small particles (turbidity and color causing
particles) that can not be removed neither by sedimentation
(due to their light weight) nor by filtration. Examples of
colloids: soil particles, bacteria, viruses and color causing
materials. These colloids are stable in solution and
theoretically will stay there for ever unless an action is done
to destabilize them. Coagulation and flocculation are the two
processes used for this destabilization.

Particles Spectrum
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE OPTICAL MICROSCOPE VISIBLE TO NAKED EYE
IONS MOLECULES MACRO MOLECULES MICRO PARTICLES MACRO PARTICLES

MICRON 10-3 10-2 10-1
Angström
Molecular
weight
Sugars Viruses
Algae and protozoans
Dissolved salts
Bacteria
Pesticides
Colloids
Metal ions
Sands
Humic
acids
Reverse Osmosis Microfiltration

Nanofiltration
Ultrafiltration CONVENTIONAL FILTRATION
Note : 1 Angström = 10-10 meter = 10-4 micron
Figure 2.1

2. Colloidal Stability
• Colloids are very Small particles (0.01 to 1 µm)
• Most naturally occurring particles in water are negatively charged. Since like
charges repel, these small particles, or colloids, will remain suspended almost
indefinitely.
• A fixed layer of positive ions (counterions) is attracted to the negatively charged
colloids by electrostatic attraction. This layer is called stern layer or fixed layer.
This layer is surrounded by a movable diffuse layer of counterions but with a
lower concentration than that in the fixed layer. The two layers form what is
called the double layer theory.
• The surface between the two layers is called the shear surface. When the colloid
moves the fixed layer moves with it.
• The positive charge attached to the colloid in the stern layer is not enough to
neutralize the negative charge of the colloid. So there is a net electrical potential
around the colloid as shown in the Figure 2.2.
• The Electrical potential at the shear surface is called the Zeta potential which is a
measure of the repulsive force of the colloid to other colloids having the same
charge.

Figure 2.2
Double layer charges and Zeta
potential around a colloid 5

• There are two major forces acting on colloids:

1) Electrostatic repulsion
negative colloids repel other negatively charged
colloids
2) Intermolecular, or van der Waals, attraction.
Figures 2.3 : Illustrates these two main forces.
For a stable colloid the net energy is repulsive.
Figures 2.4 (a): A stable suspension of particles where
forces of repulsion exceed the forces of attraction

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

3. Coagulation (Colloidal Destabilization)

- It is the process of destabilization the colloids by adding chemicals (Coagulants)
with a counter charge to neutralize the charge carried by the colloids. This will
reduce the repelling force and gives the opportunity for the attractive forces to
prevail and allow the particles and make them ready to agglomerate and form
bigger particles.
See Figure 2.4 (b): Destabilization caused by counterions of a coagulant which

neutralize the negative ion of the colloid.
4. Flocculation ( Forming Flocs)

After destabilization (i.e. Coagulation), particles will be ready to a tract and
agglomerate and form flocs. But this agglomeration is slow and they need help to
accelerate this agglomeration.
This help is called Flocculation “which is the slow stirring or gentle agitation to
aggregate the destabilized particles and form a rapid settling floc”. This gentle
mixing increases the collisions between the particles and help them to
agglomerate. Notice that rapid mixing will destroy the flocs, that's why we need
gentle mixing.
We will discus flocculation later in this lecture. Lets now return back to Coagulation.

Coagulation Flocculation/Sedimentation
10

5. Coagulants:
The chemicals added to water to destabilize colloids
are called Coagulants. The most common Coagulants
used in water treatment are:
- Aluminum Sulfate (Alum): Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O
- Ferric Chloride : FeCl3 ⋅ xH2O
- Ferric sulfate : Fe2(SO4)3 ⋅ xH2O
Two key properties of Coagulants
• Should be nontoxic: health concern
• Trivalent ions: most efficient compared to mono and
divalent.
11

6. Coagulation chemistry:
If Alum is used the following reactions occur:
• Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O ↔ 2Al3++ 3SO42-+ 14H2O
• 2Al3+ + colloids ↔ neutralize surface charge
• 2Al3+ + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2
• If insufficient bicarbonate is available:
Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 3H2SO4 + 14H2O
• Optimum pH: 5.5 to 6.5
• Operating pH: 5 to 8
12

7. Factors affecting Coagulation

The two main factors affecting the coagulation process are:
- Coagulant dosage
- pH of the water
The optimum dosage and optimum pH are determined by
laboratory test called the Jar Test. the Jar test consists of six
beakers filled with the water to be treated and then each is
mixed and flocculated uniformly. A test is often conducted by
first dosing each jar with the same value of coagulant and
varying the pH of each jar. The test can then be repeated by
holding the pH constant and varying the coagulant dosage.
See Figures 2.5 , 2.6 and 2.7.
13

Jar Test
Figure 2.5
14

Optimum pH for coagulation
Figure 2.6
15

Optimum pH
Optimum dose
16
Figure 2.7 Optimum pH and optimum dose from the jar test
8. Coagulation aids
Coagulation aids are chemicals that are added to inhance the coagulation
process. Some examples of these chemicals are:
- pH adjusters:
Alkalis : lime [Ca(OH)2] or Soda Ash [Na2CO3)] to lower the pH
Acids : Sulfuric acid [ H2SO4] to raise the pH
- Inter-particle bridging aids
Polymers: long chained carbon compounds of high molecular weight
that join flocs together and forms a shape that looks like a bridge
connecting many flock.
- Weight adding aids
activated silica and clay. They are both negatively charged and attracted to
the positive coagulant ions and help in increasing the weight of the flocs.
17

9. Coagulation and Rapid Mixing:

- When coagulants are added to water in treatment plants, they
need to be mixed and dispersed instantly. The Coagulation
reaction takes place in very low time less than 1 second.
- Coagulation occurs in a rapid mixing tank such as those
shown in Figure 2.8.
- Rapid mixing may also be achieved using hydraulic jump
mixing as shown in Figures 2.9 and 2.10.
- See also Figures 2.10,2.11 and 2.12
18

Rapid Mixing Tanks
Figure 2.8
19

Hydraulic Jump Mixer
20
Figure 2.9
Hydraulic Jump Mixer
21
21
Figure 2.10
Impeller
Mixer
22
Figure 2.11
Mechanical Flash Mixer
Figure 2.12
23

Various Impeller Shapes
Figure 2.13
24

Figure 2.9
Sedimentation
Screen basin
Surface water
from supply
Rapid Flocculation
Rapid Mix Basin
Sand Filter Sludge
Disinfection To
Distribution
Storage System
25

10. Flocculation ( Forming Flocs)

-After destabilization (i.e. Coagulation), particles will be
ready to a tract and agglomerate and form flocs. But this
agglomeration is slow and they need help to accelerate this
agglomeration.
- This help is called Flocculation “which is the slow stirring or
gentle agitation to aggregate the destabilized particles and
form a rapid settling floc”. This gentle mixing increases the
collisions between the particles and help them to agglomerate.
Notice that rapid mixing will destroy the flocs, that's why we
need gentle mixing.
- Flocculation occurs in a tank called a Flocculator or
Flocculation Basin equipped with a method for Slow Mixing.
The most common types of Flocculators are shown in the
following slides.
26

Flocculator Types
11. Flocculator Types
A. Mechanical Mixing Flocculators

-Vertical shaft with impeller (turbine or propeller type blades)
-Paddle type with either horizontal or vertical shafts
- Walking Beam Flocculator
B. Hydraulic Mixing Baffled Channels Flocculators
-Horizontal baffled channels
-Vertically baffled channel
27

Vertical Impeller Flocculator
1×D
0.75 × D
D (minimum)
Hydrofoil impeller
Figure 2.10
28

Vertical Impeller Flocculators
Figure 2.11 29

Vertical Shaft Paddle Flocculator
Figure 2.12
30

Vertical shaft Paddle
Flocculator
Figure 2.13
31

Sedimentation
Tank
Vertical
shaft Paddle
Flocculation
tank
Coagulation Rapid Mixer

Figure 2.14 32

Horizontal Paddle Flocculator
1. Drive motor
2. Variable speed drice
3. Gear reducer
4. Chain & sprocket power
transfer
5. Stuffing box
6. Flocculator line shafting
7. Shasft connections
8. Bearings
9. Paddle reel assemblies
Figure 2.15
33

Horizontal Paddle Flocculator
Figure 2.16
34

Walking Beam Flocculator
Figure 2.17
35

Figure 2.18
36

Figure 2.19
37

Horizontal Baffled Flocculator
Figure 2.20
38

Vertical Baffled Flocculator
Figure 2.21
39

Figure 2.22
40

Horizontal Flocculators
Figure 2.23 41

Flocculator
Figure 2.24 42

Lecture 3: Water Softening

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Water Softening
1. Hardness definition:
A. Hardness is the term often used to characterize a water that :
ü Dose form a foam or lather well and cause soap scum
Ca2+ + (Soap)- ↔ Ca(Soap)2 (s)

This increase the amount of soap needed for washing
ü cause scaling on pipes and hot boilers.
ü cause valves to stick due to the formation of calcium

carbonate crystals
ü leave stains on plumbing fixtures

Water Softening
B. Hardness is defined as the sum of the divalent metal
cations (in consistent units) existing in water such as :
Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Fe 2+ , Mn 2+
Practically most hardness is due to Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ ions

(the predominant minerals in natural waters)
C. Total Hardness = Ca 2+ hardness+ Mg 2+ hardness
where the concentration of each ion is in consistent
units such as mg/L as Ca CO3, or meq/L.

Water Softening
D. Hard water classification
Description Hardness range
(mg/L as CaCO 3 )
Soft 0 - 75
Moderately hard 75 - 100
Hard 100 - 300
Very hard > 300

Water Softening
E. Formation of Hardness
Precipitation
Bacterial Action CO2 Topsoil
Subsoil
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3 → Mg(HCO3)2
Fig. 3.1

Water Softening
F. Carbonate and non carbonate Hardness
Carbonate Hardness ( CH)
• Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with HCO3-, CO32-
• Often called "temporary hardness" because
heating the water will remove it. When the
water is heated, the insoluble carbonates will
precipitate and tend to form bottom deposits in
water heaters.
Non-Carbonate Hardness ( NCH)
• Ca2+, Mg2+ associated with other ions, Cl-, NO3-,
SO42-
• NCH = TH – CH

Water Softening
F. Hardness Units
Total Hardness = ∑ (Ca 2+ + Mg 2+ )

The hardness unit is the same as that consistent unit
used for both of the above ions. The most used units
are:
a. mg/L as CaCO 3 = (mg/L as species ) EW of CaCO 3
EW of species
EW = equivalent weight
Species = Ion or Radical or Compound
Radical: such as CO32-, SO4 2-
Compounds: such as CO2, CaSO4

Water Softening
MW For radicals and compounds
EW =
Electrical Charge
MW
EW = For ions
Valance
MW = molecular weight of the Species
Example 3.1 : a) Find the EW of Mg 2+ that has a concentration of 10 mg/L
as the ion in water. b) Find the EW of CaCO3 c) find concentration of Mg 2+
as mg/L CaCO3.
a) Finding the EW for Mg 2+ :

g mg
MW = 24.3 MW = 24.3
mole mmole
2 eq 2 meq
Valance (n) = Valance (n) =
mole mmole
MW 24.3 mg 1 mg
EW = EW = .[ ] EW = 12.15
Valance mmole 2 meq/mmole meq

Water Softening
b) Finding the EW for CaCO3 :

g mg
MW = 100 MW = 100
mole mmole
2 meq
Electrical charge (n) =
2 eq Electrical charge =
mole mmole
MW 100 mg 1 mg
EW = EW = .[ ] EW = 50
Electrical Charge mmole 2 meq/mmole meq
D) Finding the Mg 2+ concentration as CaCO3 :

mg/L as CaCO 3 = (mg/L as species )
EW of CaCO 3
Mg 2+ conc.
EW of species
(Mg2 + ) in mg/L as CaCO 3 = (10 mg/L as Mg 2 + )

50 mg/meq
12.15 mg/meq 41.15 mg/L as CaCO 3

10

Water Softening
g/L as ion mg/L as ion
eq/L = or meq/L =
b. EW of the ion EW of the ion
g/L as Compound or Radical

eq/L =
EW of the Compound or Radical
mg/L as Compound or Radical
or meq/L =
EW of the Compound or Radical
Example 3.3 : for example 3.1 find the concentration of Mg 2+ as meq/L .
mg/L as ion 10 mg/L as (Mg2+ )

meq/L = (Mg2+ ) concentration =
EW of the ion 12.15 mg/meq
Mg 2+ conc.
= 0.82 meq/L
11

Water Softening
F. Alkalinity
Alkalinity is a very important parameter in water chemistry and related
very closely to hardness and softening process. The following
equation is used to measure the alkalinity in water:
• Alkalinity = (HCO3-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)

• Where the concentrations are in meq/L or mg/L as CaCO3
Usually the (OH-) and (H+) are negligible.
• The relation between the alkalinity species is given by the
following three equations:
10 -10.33
=
[H + ][CO2−3 ]
, 10-14 = [H + ]• [OH − ] , [H ] = 10
+ − pH
[HCO3-]
Where the concentrations are moles/ L in these three equations
12

Various Forms of alkalinity and CO2 relative to pH in water at 25 oC.
Fig. 3.2
13

Water Softening
Example 3.3
• A sample of water having a pH of 7.2 has the

following concentrations of ions
Ca2+ 40 mg/L
Mg2+ 10 mg/L
Na+ 11.8 mg/L
K+ 7.0 mg/L
HCO3- 110 mg/L
SO42- 67.2 mg/L
Cl- 11 mg/L
• Construct a bar chart of the ions in term of mg/L CaCO3
• Calculate the TH, CH, NCH, Alkalinity
14

Water Softening
Example 3.3 ..cont’
Ion Conc. M.W. n Eq. Wt. Conc. Conc.
mg/L mg/mmol mg/meq meq/L mg/L as
CaCO3
Ca2+ 40.0 40.1 2 20.05 1.995 99.8
Mg2+ 10.0 24.3 2 12.15 .823 41.2
Na+ 11.8 23.0 1 23.0 .51 25.7
K+ 7.0 39.1 1 39.1 .179 8.95
HCO3- 110.0 61.0 1 61.0 1.80 90.2
SO42- 67.2 96.1 2 48.05 1.40 69.9
Cl- 11.0 35.5 1 35.5 .031 15.5
Note : Examples 3.1 and 3.2 are sample calculations for Mg 2+ in this Example
15

Water Softening
Check The ionic balance:

Σ(cations) = Σ(anions)
175.6 = 175.6 mg/L as CaCO3 O.K
3.51 = 3.23 meq/L O.K
Note: (error in the range of ± 10% is accepted)
Note: one check is enough ( either as {mg/L as CaCO3 } or as {meq/L} )
• Total Hardness = Σ (Ca2+) + (Mg2+)= 99.8 + 41.2

TH =141 mg/L as CaCO3
or TH= 1.995 + 0.823 = 2.818 meq/L
16

Water Softening
• Alkalinity = (HCO3-) + (CO32-) + (OH-) - (H+)
a. Since pH = 7.2 →
[H+] = 10-pH = 10-7.2 mole/L = 10-7.2 g/L
eq/L =
g/L as ion
= eq/L =
10-7.2 g H + /L (H ) = 10
+ -7.2
eq/L
EW of the ion 1 g/eq
b. [ ][
10-14 = H+ • OH− ] = 10 -14
[
= 10 -7.2 • OH − ] [OH ]= 10
− -6.8
mole/L
[OH ] = 10
− -6.8
mole/L = 17 *10 -6.8
g/L eq/L =
17 *10-6.8 g OH − /L
17 g/eq
(OH ) = 10
- -6.8
eq/L
c. (HCO3-) = 1.80 meq/L = 1.80 *10-3 eq/L from this example calculations
as in the table.
g/L as HCO3- = EW * eq/L = (61 g/eq) * 1.80 *10-3 g/L = 109.8 * 10-3 g/L
[HCO3-] = (109.8 * 10-3 g/L)/(61g/mole) = 1.80 *10-3 mole/L
17

Water Softening
d. Find the carbonate concentration:
[H + ][CO2 −3 ] 10-7.2 x[CO 2−3 ]
10 -10.33
= 10 -10.33
=
[HCO3-] 1.8 x 10-3
[CO32-]= 1.33 x 10-6 mole/L = 79.8 x 10-6 g/L
79.8 *10-6 g /L
CO32- in eq/L = = 2.66 x 10-6 eq/L
30 g/eq
Alkalinity = (1.80 x 10-3) + (2.66 x 10-6) + 10-6.8 - 10-7.2 = 1.801 x 10-3 eq/L
Alkalinity = 1.801 x 10-3 x 1000 x 50 = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3
Note: it is clear that the most effective form of alkalinity is bicarbonate,

this is always true when the pH is 8.3 or less.
18

Water Softening
• Carbonate Hardness
the portion of the hardness associated with carbonate or bicarbonate
- Alkalinity = 90.1 mg/L as CaCO3

TH = 141 mg/L as CaCO3
CH = 90.2 mg/L as CaCO3
- Non-carbonate Hardness:
NCH = TH - CH
= 141 - 90.1= 50.9 mg/L as CaCO3
19

Water Softening
Construct the bar chart of the ions in term of mg/L CaCO3
TH
0.0 99.8 141 166.7 175.6
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na + K+
HCO3- SO4 2- Cl-
0.0 90.2 160.1 175.6
CH NCH
Ca(HCO3)2 MgSO4 Na2SO4 KCl

CaSO4 NaCl
Note: the chemicals at the lower line of the bar graph is called the hypothetical
combination of positive and negative ions in the water sample
20

Water Softening
2. Softening definition:
a) Softening is the chemical processes in which hardness
causing ions ( Ca 2+ , Mg2+ ) are removed from water ether
completely or partially.
b) Softening may be a chivied by chemical precipitation using
the Lime- Soda Ash method or by ion exchange.
c) In the chemical precipitation method the objective is to
produce CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 :
Ca2+ + CO32- ↔ 2CaCO3(s)
Mg2+ + 2OH- ↔ Mg(OH)2(s)
These two reactions are achieved by the addition of
Lime [Ca(OH)2] and Soda ash [ Na2CO3] as will be
shown.
21

Water Softening
f) A common water treatment goal is to provide a
water with a hardness in the range of 75 to 120
mg/L as CaCO3
g) To precipitate CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 we need to raise the
pH to 10.3 by the addition of Lime [Ca(OH)2]. The
addition of the OH- will convert HCO3- to CO32-
h) To precipitate Mg(OH)2 we need to raise the pH to 11 by
the addition of Soda ash [ Na2CO3]. This will add the
CO32- ion needed to react with the remaining Ca 2+
i) Some of the added lime [Ca(OH)2] is consumed to
remove CO2 which is necessary to raise the pH.
22

Water Softening
3. Chemistry of Lime- Soda Ash Softening
3.1) softening reactions
• Neutralization of carbonic acid
[To raise the pH we need first to neutralize any acid in the water]
CO2 + Ca(OH)2 ↔ CaCO3(s) + H2O
• Precipitation of CH due to calcium:
[To raise the pH to 10.3 all the HCO3- is converted to CO32-]
Ca2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 ↔ 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O
• Precipitation of CH due to magnesium
[To raise the pH to 11 add more lime]
Mg2+ + 2HCO3- + Ca(OH)2 ↔ Mg2+ + CO32-+ CaCO3(s)+ 2H2O
Mg2+ + CO32- + Ca(OH)2 ↔ MgOH2(s)+ CaCO3(s)
23

Water Softening
• Removal of NCH due to calcium

Ca2+ + SO4-2 + Na2CO3 ↔ CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ + SO4-2
Ca2+ + 2Cl-1 + Na2CO3 ↔ CaCO3(s) + 2Na+ + 2Cl-1
• Removal of NCH due to magnesium
Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2 ↔ MgOH2(s)+ Ca2+
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 ↔ CaCO3(s) + 2Na+
24

Water Softening
3.2) Softening process limitations:
1. Lime-Soda softening cannot produce a water completely free of hardness
because of the solubility of CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2, limitations of mixing
and reaction time .
2. Thus , the minimum calcium hardness that can be achieved is
30 mg/L as CaCO3 , the minimum Magnesium hardness that can be achieved
is 10 mg/L as CaCO3 , this gives a minimum hardness of 40 mg/L as CaCO3.
3. However, normally the water is treated to give a hardness in the range of 75 to
120 mg/L as CaCO3.
4. An Excess lime beyond the stoichiometric amount is usually added to
remove Mg 2+ hardness . The minimum excess lime is usually 20 mg/L
as CaCO3 , maximum excess lime is 62.5 mg/L as CaCO3 (1.25 meq/L).
5. Mg 2+ in excess of 40 mg/L as CaCO3 is not desired as it forms scale in
water heaters. Mg 2+ is expensive to remove, so we only remove Mg 2+
in excess of 40 mg/L as CaCO3.
25

Water Softening
3.3) Chemicals requirements:
According to the softening chemical reactions:
-Lime is added at the ratio of 1:1 for each carbonate hardness
compound except for Mg(HCO3) the ratio is 2:1 [i.e. 2 lime for
each 1 Mg(HCO3) ].
-Lime is also added at the ratio of 1:1 for each Magnesium NCH
compound such as MgSO4
-Soda ash is added at the ratio of 1:1 for each Magnesium or
Calcium NCH compound such as MgSO4 , and CaSO4.
- CO2 needed is 1:1 ratio with the excess lime added, and 1:1
ratio with CaCO3 remaining after softening, 2:1 ratio with
Mg(OH)2 remaining after softening.
- The units of the chemicals are either in meq/L or mg/L CaCO3
- Example 3.4 illustrates the chemical requirements calculations.
26

Water Softening
4. Process variation in Lime Soda-Ahs softening:
There are three basic schemes for water softening:
- Excess lime treatment
-Selective Calcium removal
-Split treatment
27

Water Softening
4.1) Excess lime treatment:
• Carbonate hardness associated with Ca 2+ can be effectively
removed to the practical limit of CaCO3 (30 mg/L as CaCO3)
by adding the stoichiometric addition of lime.
•Precipitation of hardness (CH or NCH) associated with Mg2+
as Mg(OH)2 needs in addition to the stoichiometric addition of
lime to an excess lime of 62.5 mg/L as CaCO3), without it
Mg(OH)2 will not precipitate. In fact this excess lime raise the
pH to 11.
•Excess lime treatment reduces the total hardness to 40 mg/L
as CaCO3 ( i.e., 30 mg/L CaCO3 and 10 mg/L Mg(OH)2 as
CaCO3)
•The excess lime treatment is usually achieved in a two stage
system as shown in the Figure 3.3
28

Water Softening
pH = 8.5 -9.5
pH =11 pH =10.3
Fig. 3.3 Schematic diagram of a two stage excess lime softening water
treatment plant
29

Water Softening
• The system is composed of :
-Rapid mixer,
-Flocculator/sedimentation tank,
-recarbonation tank,
- Rapid mixer
-Second stage Flocculator/sedimentation tank
-second stage recarbonation tank
-Filtration tank
• In the first stage only lime is added to the system through a rapid
mixer this will raise the pH to 11. CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 will
precipitate in this stage.
• Recarbonation is implemented to reduce the pH to 10.3 before
interring the second stage. This reduction occurs due to the
removal of the excess lime added in the first stage:
Ca (OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 + H2O
Excess lime
30

Water Softening
• In the second stage only Soda Ash is added to the system
through a rapid mixer . CaCO3 will precipitate in this stage from
the excess lime and from the NCH reaction .
•Recarbonation is implemented after the second stage Flocculator
/sedimentation to reduce the pH in the range of 8.5-9.5 to stabilize
the water by converting some of the Ca CO3 and Mg (OH)2 residual
to bicarbonate :
Ca CO3 + CO2 + H2O= Ca (HCO3)2
Mg (OH)2+ 2CO2 = Mg (HCO3)2
•Recarbonation is a chivied in a tank in which carbon dioxide is injected either
in liquid form or in the gaseous form generated in the tank using a special
burner as Shown in Figure 3.4.
31

Fig. 3.4 Submerged burner for recarbonation 32

Water Softening
•The first stage removes the following:
- CH hardness associated with Ca2+
-CH and NCH associated with Mg2+
- Recarbonation reduces pH from 11 to 10.3
• The Second stage removes the following:
-NCH hardness associated with Ca 2+ that is originally existing in water
-NCH hardness associated with Ca 2+ that was created from the first stage.
-Recarbonation reduces pH from 10.3 to the range 8.5-9.5
33

Water Softening
Example: 3.4
A water with the ionic characteristics shown below is to be softened to the
minimum possible hardness by the two stage lime-soda-ash excess lime process.
Calculate the required chemical quantities in meq/L. Draw a bar diagram of the
finished water. Assume that 0.6 meq/L CaCO3 and 0.2 meq/L Mg(OH)2 will be
in the effluent of the second stage before recarbonation. Assume also that 0.2
meq/L Mg(OH)2 and 0.2 meq/L of the 0.6 CaCO3 will be converted to HCO3-
by second stage recarbonation to reach water stability.
3.4 6.4 7.4
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO2 HCO3- SO4-2
0.6 0.0 4.9 7.4
Solution:
Lime = 0.6+3.4+ 2(4.9-3.4)+ (6.4-4.9)+ excess lime
= 8.5 +1.25 = 9.75 meq/L
Soda Ash = 6.4-4.9 = 1.5 meq/L ( to remove NCH, MgSO42-)
34

Water Softening
Example: 3.4 Cont’
CO2 :
1st stage recarbonation = 1.25 meq/ L [to remove the excess lime]
2nd stage recarbonation = 0.2 meq/L [to convert 0.2meq/L of CaCO3 to Ca(HCO3) ]
+ (0.20 x 2) meq/L [to convert all Mg(OH)2 to Mg(HCO3)]= 0.60 meq/L]
Total CO2 needed = 1.25+0.6 = 1.85 meq/L
Na + :
- The addition of soda ash adds to the water an equal amount of Na+.
- Since we added 1.5 meq/L soda ash, this will add 1.5 meq/L Na+
- The original concentration existing in the raw water is 1.0 meq/L .
Total Na+ = 1 + 1.5 = 2.5 meq/L Na+.
35

Water Softening
1.25 0.0 2.1 2.3 3.3
Ca 2+ Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na +
HO- HO- CO32- SO4-2
0.2 0.8 3.3
Excess lime
Bar graph of the water before recarbonation and before adding Soda -Ash
0.0 0.6 0.8 3.3

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
HO- CO32- SO4-2
0.2 0.8 3.3
Bar graph of the water after adding Soda –Ash and 1st stage recarbonation
36

Water Softening
0.6 0.8 3.3

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na +
CO32- HCO3- SO4-2
0.0 0.4 0.8 3.3
Bar graph of the finished water after and 2nd stage recarbonation
The remaining hardness:

Calcium hardness = 0.6 meq/L = 30 mg/L as CaCO3
Calcium hardness = 0.2 meq/L = 10 mg/L as CaCO3
TH remaining = 0.8 meq/L = 10 mg/L as CaCO3
37

Water Softening
4.2) Selective Calcium removal:
-Magnesium hardness is expensive to remove.
-Only Magnesium hardness in excess of 40 mg/L as CaCO3 (0.8
meq/l) needs to be removed.
- For waters having an Mg 2+ hardness less or equal to 40 mg/L
CaCO3, only Ca2+ hardness needs to be removed.
- to remove only Ca 2+, we add lime needed to remove Ca 2+, and
do not add excess lime. In this way no Mg2+ removal occurs.
-Soda Ash may be needed if NCH associated with Ca2+ is to be
removed.
-That’s way this treatment is called selective.
-This treatment is achieved in a single stage system as that shown
in Figure 3.5
38

Water Softening
Soda-Ash
pH =8.5-9.5
pH =10.3
Fig. 3.5 Schematic diagram of a single stage softening water treatment plant
39

Water Softening
Example: 3.5
A water with the ionic characteristics shown below is to be softened by selective
calcium process. Calculate the required chemical quantities in meq/L. Draw a
bar diagram of the finished water.
0.4 0.0 3.5 4.3 4.6
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO2
HCO3- SO4-2 Cl-1
0.4 0.0 2.3 4.3 4.6
Solution:
Since Mg2+ is 0.8 meq/L we can apply the selective calcium treatment.
Lime = 0.4 + 2.3 = 2.7 meq/L [to remove CO2 and Ca(HCO3) only]
= 2.7 x 28 = 76 mg/L CaO
Soda Ash = 3.5 - 2.3 = 1.2 meq/L [ to remove NCH, CaSO4]
= 1.2 x 53 = 64 mg/L Na2CO3
40

Water Softening
CO2 :
For stability reasons it is desired to convert 0.3 out of the 0.6 meq/L CaCO3 to
Ca(HCO3)2 by recarbonation.
Recarbonation = 0.3 meq/ L CO2 [to convert 0.2meq/L of CaCO3 to Ca(HCO3) ]
= 0.3 x 22 = 6.6 mg/L CO2
Na + :
- The addition of soda ash adds to the water an equal amount of Na+.
- Since we added 1.2 meq/L soda ash, this will add 1.2 meq/L Na+
- The original concentration existing in the raw water is 0.3 meq/L .
Total Na+ = 0.3 + 1.2 = 1.5 meq/L Na+
= 1.5 x 23 = 34.5 mg/L Na+
Final hardness = all the original Mg 2+ + 0.6 meq/L calcium hardness
= 0.8 meq/L Mg 2+ + 0.6 meq/L Ca 2+ = 1.4 meq/L
= 1.4 X 50 = 70 mg/L CaCO3
41

Water Softening
0.0 0.6 1.4 2.9

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na +
CO32- SO4-2 Cl-1
0.0 0.6 2.6 2.9
Bar graph of the water after softening and before recarbonation
0.0 0.6 1.4 2.9

Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na +
CO32-HCO3- SO4-2 Cl-1
0.0 0.3 0.6 2.6 2.9
Bar graph of the finished water after recarbonation
42

Water Softening
4.3) Split Treatment:
- Split treatment consist of treating portion of the raw water by excess lime
treatment and Then neutralizing the excess lime by the bicarbonate naturally
existing in the untreated bypass flow (Figure 3.6).
- The first stage is operated to soften the water to the practical limits of 10 mg
Mg+2/L as CaCO3 , and 30 mg Ca2+ /L as CaCO3.
- Magnesium concentration in the bypass will be the same as in the raw water.
- The finished water should have a final of 40 mg Mg+2/L as CaCO3 as desired
by domestic water users and industries.
- Some advantages of Split Treatment:
* Reduces the chemical dosage of lime and CO2.
* No need for first stage recarbonation
* Reduce the capital cost of the first stage since only a portion of the water
is treated and consequently the tanks are smaller.
* Allows us to leave a Mg 2+ concentrations above the practical value of 10
10 mg Mg+2/L as CaCO3 usually we are forced to achieve in the
conventional excess lime treatment.
43

Water Softening
-The Fraction Bypassed is calculated as :
Mg f − Mg i
X=
Mg r - Mg i
Where, Mgf = final magnesium concentration, mg/L CaCO3

Mgi = magnesium concentration from the first stage, mg/L CaCO3
Mgr = raw water magnesium concentration, mg/L CaCO3
44

Water Softening
Recarbonation
pH = 8.5 -9.5
pH =11 pH =10.3
Fig. 3.6 Schematic diagram of a split system softening water treatment plant
45

Water Softening
Example: 3.6
For the water in example 3.4 use a split treatment to soften it. Calculate the
required chemical quantities in meq/L. Draw a bar diagram of the finished
water. Assume that the maximum permissible Magnesium hardness of 40 mg/L
CaCO3 and Calcium hardness in the range of 40-60 mg/L CaCO3 . The expected
magnesium hardness from the first stage split is 10 mg/L CaCO3 .
3.4 6.4 7.4
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO2 HCO3- SO4-2
0.6 0.0 4.9 7.4
Solution:
Mg f − Mg i 40 − 10
X= X= = 0.214
Mg r - Mg i 3(50) - 10
1 - X = 1 - 0.214 = 0.786
46

Water Softening
Solution:
Chemicals to be added
A ) Lime = 0.786 [(0.6 + 3.4+ 2(4.9-3.4) + (6.4-4.9)]
= 6.681 meq/L [needed for the first stage treatment]
Lime = 0.214 [ 0.6 + 3.4] = 0.856 meq/L [needed for removing the Ca 2+
hardness and CO2 from the bypass flow. However, this amount
will be added to the first stage, and will act as an excess lime.]
Excess lime concentration in the first stage = (0.856/ 0.786) = 1.09 < 1.25 meq/L
so additional amount is needed
= Y/0.786 = 1.25 Y = 0.983 meq/L
= 0.214 [ 0.6 + 3.4+ Z] = 0.983 Z = 0.593 meq/L
Corrected lime for the bypass = 0.214[ 0.6+ 3.4 + 0.593]= 0.983 meq/L
Excess lime concentration in the first stage = (0.983/ 0.786) = 1.25 meq/L (OK).
B) Soda Ash = See the lower Bar graph in slide 48 , we need to remove CaSO4
= 1.3-0.60 = 0.70 meq/L
Another method to calculate the needed Soda Ah:
Soda ash =(Raw water Mg 2+ concentration - 0.80) meq/L Mg 2+ NCH + meq/L Ca 2+ NCH
= 1.50 - 0.80 + 0.0
= 0.70 meq/L
47

Water Softening
3.4 6.4 7.4
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+ A
CO2 HCO3- SO4-2
0.6 0.0 4.9 7.4
Bar graph of the water in the Bypass line (Raw water)
1.25 0.0 2.1 2.3 3.3
Ca 2+ Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
HO- HO- CO32- SO4-2 B
0.2 0.8 3.3
Excess lime
Bar graph of the water after the first stage split softening before blending and before
adding Soda Ash
48

Water Softening
3.361 4.161 5.161
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
0.214 A + 0.786 B CO2
HO- CO32- HCO3- SO4-2
0.128 0.0 1.140 1.612 2.660 5.161
Bar graph of the water after blending and before reaction between the excess lime and before
adding Soda Ash 2.1 3.1
1.30
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO32- SO4-2
0.0 0.60 3.1

Bar graph of the water after blending and reaction between the excess lime and before adding Soda
Ash
49

Water Softening
Example: 3.6 Cont’ 0.60 1.40 3.1
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO32- SO4-2
0.0 0.60 3.1
Bar graph of the water after adding Soda Ash and before second stage carbonation
0.60 1.40 3.1
Ca 2+ Mg 2+ Na 2+
CO32- HCO3- SO4-2
0.0 0.30 0.60 3.1
Bar graph of the finished water

Note :
Remaining hardness = 0.60 Ca 2+ hardness + 0.8 Mg 2+ hardness = 1.40 meq/L
= 0.60X 50 mg Ca 2+ /L CaCO3 + 0.8 Mg 2+ mg/L CaCO3
= 30 mg Ca 2+ /L CaCO3 + 40 mg Mg2+ /L CaCO3
Remaining Hardness = 70 mg /L CaCO3
50

Water Softening
5. Coagulation and Softening
• The softening precipitates [i.e. CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2] may be
more efficiently removed by adding a coagulant such as Alum.
• On the other hand, if both coagulation and softening are to be
applied ,(such as in hard turbid surface water), the coagulation
process is more efficient due to the greater quantity of
precipitate formed due to softening.
• That’s why coagulation and lime soda-Ash softening have
similar infrastructure (i.e. rapid mixer, Flocculator,
sedimentation tank).
51

Lecture 4: Membrane Processes Technology
in water treatment (Part I)

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Membrane Processes Technology
1. Definition:
§ Membrane processes are those in
which a membrane is used to filter
through (i.e. permeate) high quality
water while rejecting the passage of
dissolved and suspended solids.
§ A filtration membrane is a physical
boundary over which a solute (TSS
or TDS) can be separated from a
solvent (water) by applying energy
in the form of pressure or electric
potential. SEM Image of Membrane Lumen
§ Figure 4.1 is a cross section in a (AWWA, 1996)
membrane wall, Figure 4.2
Fig. 4.1
illustrates the filtration process.
2

Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes
Membrane
Feed
Permeate
Fig. 4.2 ∆P Particle or Solute Molecule

Solvent

2. Membrane process types:
§ The main membrane processes used in water treatment are:
A. Microfiltation (MF)
B. Ultrafiltation (UF)
C. Nanofiltration (NF)
D. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
E. Electrodialysis (ED)
§ The classification and comparison between these processes is
Based on many characteristics of each such as 1) The driving
force [hydrostatic or electrical], 2) The separation mechanism,
3) The nominal size of the separation achieved.
§ Tables 4.1, and Figures 4.3 and 4.4 illustrate the difference
between the above mentioned membrane methods.
§ Table 4.2 shows the operating pressures and the materials used
to produce the membranes.
4

Range Ion Removal Molecule Removal Particle Removal
10 100 1000 10,000

Ångstroms 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
Diameter microns
Powdered
Atoms Carbons
Metallic Ions
Pesticides
Sugars Viruses
Size of
Material Dissolved Salts Proteins
Removed Bacteria
Colloidal Material and Emulsions
Dissolved Suspended
Solids Solids
Membrane Reverse Osmosis Ultrafiltration

Fig. 4.3
Filtration
Process Nanofiltration Microfiltration 5

Table . 4.1
(Note: nm=10-9 m)

Table . 4.2

Pressure-Driven Membrane Processes
MF UF NF RO
Suspended Solids (Particles)

Fig. 4.4
Macromolecules (Humics)
Multivalent Ions (Hardness)

Water Molecules
Monovalent Ions (Na + ,Cl-)

3.Membrane Configurations:
The principal types of membranes are:
3.1Tubular Modules:
• In this type the membrane is cast on the inside of a support
tube.
• A number of tubes are then placed in a pressure vessel.
• The feed water is pumped through the feed tube and the product
water is collected on through the skin of the membrane.
• The concentrate continues to flow through the feed tube.
• This type is used for water with high suspended solids content
since it is the easiest to clean. Cleaning can be accomplished
by circulating chemicals and pumping a “ foamball” or “
spongeball”. See Figures 4.5, 4.6

Tubular
Tubular
Membrane
Membrane
Module
Module
Support tube
Membrane
Fig. 4.5
10

Tubular
Tubular Membrane
Membrane Module
Module
Fig. 4.6
11

3.2 Hollow Fiber :

§ In hollow fiber modules hundreds to thousands of hollow
fibers are bundled together to form a module
§ The entire assembly is inserted into a pressure vessel.
§ The feed water can be applied to the inside of the fiber (inside-
out flow), or the outside of the fiber (outside-in flow).
§ See Figures 4.7, 4.8
12

Endview of Hollow Fiber Module

Fig. 4.7
13

Hollow Fiber
module
Fig. 4.8 14

Fig. 4.9 Hollow Fiber membrane

15

3.3 Spiral Wound Modules :

§ In hollow the spiral-Wound membrane, a flexible permeate
spacer is placed between two flat membrane sheets.
§ The membranes are sealed on three sides.
§ The fourth open side is attached to a perforated pipe.
§ A flexible feed spacer is added and the flat sheets are rolled into
tight circular configuration.
§The term spiral is derived from the fact that the flow in the rolled-
up arrangement of membranes and support sheets follows a spiral
flow pattern.
§ The feed water can be applied to the inside of the fiber (inside-
out flow), or the outside of the fiber (outside-in flow).
§ See Figures 4.9 trhogh 4.13
16

Spiral RO Element
Fig. 4.10
17

Fig. 4.11
18

Fig. 4.12
19

Fig. 4.13 Cut-way photo in a Spiral wound membrane module 20

4. Terminology
The following is a brief description of some of the terms used in
the membrane processes:
§ Feed stream : the influent water to the membrane.
§ Concentrate or Retentate: the portion of the feed water that dose not
pass the membrane that contains higher TDS than the feed stream.
§ Permeate: the portion of the feed stream that passes through the
membrane that contains lower TDS than the feed water.
§ Flux: mass or volume rate transfer the rough the membrane.
§ Solvent: Liquid containing dissolved matter, usually water.
§ Solute: Dissolved matter in raw, feed, permeate and concentrate water.
§ Recovery rate: the ratio between the product water to the feed water.
§ Rejection rate: percent removal of the solute from water.
§ Fouling: deposition of solids on the feed side of the membrane.
§ Filtration mode terms are shown on Figure 4.14.
21

Filtration Mode Terms
Fig. 4.14
22

5. Membrane Operation:
5.1 Key factors that directly impact membrane operation
in water treatment:
• Flux
• Fouling
• Rejection rate
• Recovery rate
• Temperature - Viscosity of Water
(Note: Change from 20°C to 4°C results in a ~50% decrease in
production for similar membrane area and pressure)
23

5.2 Membrane fouling:
A. Definition:
• It is the deposition and accumulation of solid from the feed water
on the membrane.
• It is an important design and operation membrane as it affects:
- Pretreatment needs
- Cleaning requirements
- Operating conditions
- Cost and performance
B. Forms of Fouling:
• Formation of chemical precipitates “Scaling”.
• Buildup of solids in the feed-water.
• Damage of the membrane due to the reaction between chemicals in
the feed water and the membrane. See Figure 4.15.
24

Membrane Fouling
MF UF NF RO
Fig. 4.15 25

C. Control of membrane fouling:
There are three approaches are used to control fouling:
1. Pretreatment of the feed water Buildup of solids in the feed-water.
The following are some examples on pretreatment:
- using conventional filtration, microfiltration or ultrafiltrtion.
- disinfecting the feed water to limit the bacterial activity using
either chlorine, ozone or UV.
- removal of iron and manganese to prevent scaling.
- adjusting the pH of the feed water in the range (4 to 7.5) using
sulfuric acid to prevent the formation of calcium carbonate, and using
hexametaphosphate to prevent the formation of calcium sulfate. Other
chemicals called antiscallants are added instead of sulfuric acid.
2. Membrane back-flushing with water.

3. Chemical cleaning of membranes.
26

5.3 Disposal of concentrate waste stream “Brine” :
Disposal of the concentrated waste streams produced by
membrane processes represents the major problem in
membrane operations.
The principal methods used for the concentrate disposal:
1. Ocean discharge
2. Surface water discharge
3. Discharge to wastewater collection system.
4. Deep-well injection
5. Evaporation bonds
6. Controlled thermal evaporation
Each disposal option has it’s own use conditions and should be
studied carefully.
27

5.4 Infrastructure of membrane processes:

The operation of membrane processes is simple:
• A pump is used to pressurize the feed solution and to
circulate it through the module.
• A valve is used to maintain the pressure of the concentrate
(retentate).
• The permeate is withdrawn typically at atmospheric
pressure.
• See Figure 4.16.
• Units are arranged in parallel to meet the flow requirements,
and arranged in series to increase the treatment efficiency,
see Figures 4.17, 4.18, 4.19,and 4.20 .
28

Feed Permeate
Pump
Concentrate
Fig. 4.16 Membrane operation Schematic layout
29

Backwash line
Concentrate line
Fig. 4.17
Membrane units arranged in parallel one stage system 30

Fig. 4.18
Membrane units arranged in parallel and in series in a two stage system
31

Fig. 4.19 32

0.1 MGD RO Package System
Fig. 4.20
33

6. Membrane applications in water treatment:

• MF can remove suspended solids, turbidity, crypto and
giardia. Not color, virus, or dissolved solids.
• UF can remove color and odor causing organics, virus, and
other microbiological pests. Not dissolved salts.
• RO and NF systems should be used to remove only
dissolved solids - they need VERY clear feed water.
• ED removes IONS from water - it does NOT remove
crypto, giardia, uncharged molecules, suspended solids etc.
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http://www.diwater.net/Animation_Library_Listing.htm
34

Lecture 5: Membrane Processes Technology
in water treatment (Part II)

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Reverse Osmosis Treatment (RO)
1. Principles of Reverse Osmosis
A. Osmosis:
Osmosis is the natural passage or diffusion of a solvent such as
water through a semi-permeable membrane from a week solution
to a stronger solution. This natural phenomena is explained in
many ways as follows:
§ The movement is due to the difference in the vapor pressure of
the two solutions separated by the membrane. The vapor pressure
of the pure solvent is higher than that of the solution with
dissolved solids. Thus the solvent moves from the higher pressure
to the lower pressure side.
§ Others say that the solvent moves from the less concentrated
(higher-potential) solution to the more concentrated (lower-
potential) one to reduce the solution concentration.

§ The solvent continues to move and water rises in the concentrated
solution side to a level with a hydrostatic pressure ( Δπ ) equivalent
to the difference in vapor pressure of two solutions. At this level the
system is said to be at equilibrium.
§ ( Δπ ) is called the Osmotic Pressure. Osmotic pressure is the
driving force for osmosis to occur. The osmotic pressure of a
solvent depends on many factors such as the characteristics of the
solvent, the dissolved solids concentration, and temperature.
§The osmotic pressure of any solution can be approximated by the
following equation:
π = cRT
Where, c = summation of the molar concentration of the dissolved ions
R = Universal gas constant
T = Temperature in degrees Kelvin.
Figures 5.1 and 5.2 describe this phenomena.
3

Osmosis
Higher Lower
concentration concentration
Semi-permeable
Fig. 5.1 Membrane
4

Osmosis
Osmotic Pressure Level rises
Δπ
Water Flow
Fig. 5.2

B. Reverse Osmosis (RO):
§ Reverse Osmosis is the forced passage of a solvent (e.g. water)
through a membrane against the natural osmotic pressure to
accomplish separation of the solvent from a solution of dissolved
solids.
§ If a pressure equal to the Osmotic pressure ( Δπ ) is applied to
the side of higher salt content, the water flow from lower to
higher salt concentration will stop. If an additional pressure is
exerted the water flow will be reversed and to the direction from
high to low salt concentration producing fresh water.
§ The membrane allow the passage of the solvent while blocking
the passage of salt ions. The salt ions or the dissolved matter are
called Solutes. However, some salts move with water since each
membrane has a rejection efficiency that is less than 100%.
§ Figures 5.3 and 5.4 illustrate the RO process .
6

Reverse Osmosis
Pressure
Can force (reverse)
osmotic flow to
lower-concentration
side
Semi-permeable
Fig. 5.3 Membrane

Reverse Osmosis Applied
Pressure
Feed Water
Concentrate
Flow Fresh water
Semi-permeable
Fig. 5.4 Membrane

H2O H2O
Ca+2 Na+
H2O
H2O
H2O
NO3-
H2O Dissolved Solids
Ca+2
H2O H2O H O
Removal
H2O
Ca+2 2
(>96% Sodium
H2O Rejection)
SO -2 H2O H2O
Na+ 4 H2O
Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Membrane
Fig 5.5

Example 5.1
10

2. Mathematical model
§ Many mathematical models have been developed to describe the
membrane systems including RO.
§ These models describe the solvent (e.g. water) flux and the
solute flux (i.e. dissolved salts) through membrane.
§ Figure 5.5 is a definition sketch of the membrane system.
§ The following pages give the most common model used to

describe the membrane treatment system.
11

Fig. 5.5 Definition sketch for a membrane process such as RO
12

Water flux through the membrane as a function of pressure gradient:
Fw = k w (ΔPa − Δπ ) ................(5.1)
Qp
Fw = ................................(5.2)
A
P + P 
ΔPa =  f c  − Pp ..............(5.3)
 2 
wh ere Fw = water flux rate, kg/m 2 . s
k w = water mass transfer cofficient involving temperature,
membrane charcteristics, and solute characteristics, s/m
ΔPa = averge imposed pressure grdient, kPa
Δπ = osmatic pressure gradient, kPa
Q p = permeate stream flow, kg/s
A = membrane area, m 2
Pf = feed water pressure, kPa
Pp = permeate pressure, kPa
Pc = concentrate pressure, kPa
13

Solute flux through the membrane :

Fi = k i ∆ C i .......... .......... .......... ..( 5 . 4 )
Q pC p
Fi = .......... .......... .......... ..( 5 . 5 )
A
C + Cc 
∆ Ci =  f  − C p .......... .....( 5 . 6 )
 2
Q
r = p X 100 .......... .......... ......( 5 . 7 )
Qf
C f − C p 
R =   X 100 .......... ......( 5 . 8 )
 C f 
where Fi = flux of solute species (i ) , kg/m 2
.s
k i = solute mass transfer cofficient ,m / s
ΔC i = solute concentrat ion grdient , kg/m 3
C f = solute concentrti on in feed stream , kg/m 3
C c = solute concentrti on in concentrat e stream , kg/m 3
C p = solute concentrti on in permeate stream , kg/m 3
r = water recovery rate , %

R = Solute rejection rate , %
14

3. Rejection efficiency of RO treatment

§ Table 5.1 shows the rejection efficiency of two different
RO membranes for various dissolved salts, organic matter and microorganisms.
§ It is noticed that RO has a very high efficiency of inorganic chemicals.
§ However, it also has a very high efficiency in removing dissolved organic
matter as shown in the table 90-99%, but it is preferred to remove these
materials using other methods such as carbon adsorption. This is due to the
fouling nature of organic matter.
§ RO is capable of removing more than 99% of microorganisms.
15

Table 5.1 RO Contaminant Rejection efficiency
Inorganics CTA Rejection TFC Rejection inorganic CTA TFC Rejection
Rejection
Sodium 85-90% 90-95% Fluoride 85-90% 90-95
Calcium 90-95% 93-98% Phosphate 90-95% 93-98%
Magnesium 90-95% 93-98% Chromate 85-90% 90-95%
Potassium 85-90% 90-95% Cyanide 85-90% 90-95%
Iron 90-95% 93-98% Sulfate 90-95 93-98%
Manganese 90-95% 93-98% Boron 30-40% 55-60%
Aluminum 90-95% 93-98% Arsenic+3 60-70% 70-80%
Copper 90-95% 93-98% Arsenic+5 85-90% 93-98%
Nickel 90-95% 93-98% Selenium 90-95% 93-98%
Zinc 90-95% 93-98% Radioactivity 90-95% 93-98%
Strontium 90-95% 93-98% Biological&Particles
Cadmium 90-95% 93-98% Bacteria >99% >99%
Silver 90-95% 93-98% Protozoa >99% >99%
Mercury 90-95% 93-98% Amoebic Cysts >99% >99%
Barium 90-95% 93-98% Giardia >99% >99%
Chromium 90-95% 93-98% Asbestos >99% >99%
Lead 90-95% 93-98% Sediment/Turbidity >99% >99%
Chloride 85-95% 90-95% Organics
Bicarbonate 85-90% 90-95% Organics MW>300 >90% >99%
Nitrate 40-50% 85-90% Organics MW<300 0-90% 0-99%
CTA- Cellulose Membrane , TFC- Thin Film Composite, All rejections nominal for 60 psi net pressure and at 77oF
16

Example 5.2
17

Example:5.2..cont’d
18

Example 5.3
19

Example 5.3.. Cont’d
20

4. Checking the need for pretreatment:

§ As mentioned in the previous lecture, a very high quality feed water is required
for efficient operation of RO.
§ RO membrane may be fouled by many ways, such as colloidal
mater, bacterial activity, iron and manganese, chlorine, scale for chemical
precipitation such as calcium carbonate.
§ Many parameters have been used to assess the need for pretreatment of feed
water before the RO units. The most common indexes are the silt density index
(SDI), and the modified fouling index (MFI).
§Fouling indexes are determined from simple membrane tests. The samples are
passed through a 0.45µm Millipore filter at a gage pressure of 210 kPa . The time
needed for the test varies between 15min-2hr depending on the fouling nature of
the water. The same equipment is used for the two indexes.
§ The equation of the SDI :
21

 t  §Approximate values for fouling
100 1 − i
 
indexes:
 t 
SDI =  f 
t Fouling index
whre t = time to collect initial sample of 500 ml Membrane SDI MFI,s/L2
i
t = time to collect final sample of 500 ml RO hollow fiber 0-2 0-2
f RO spiral wound 0-3 0-2
t = total time for running the test
§ The equation of the MFI :

1
= a + MFI X V
Q
where Q = averageflow, L/s
a = constan
MFI = modifiedfoulingindex , s/L2
V = volume of water filterd in the test
§ see example 5.4

22

Example 5.4
23

Electrodialysis treatment (ED)
1. Principles of Electrodialysis:
• Electrodialysis is a membrane treatment method in which the driving force
is electromotive force. This is the main difference between this technology
and other technologies such as RO,MF,UF, and NF in which hydrostatic
pressure is the driving force.
• In electrodialysis ionic components of a solution are separated through the
use of a semipermeable ion-selective membranes.
• Figure 5.6 illustrates the configuration of a one cell stack electrodialysis
unit.
• The cell has two membranes one is cation permeable and the other is anion
permeable. The cell is placed inside the stack in addition to two electrodes
are on is Anode(+) and one is Cathode (-).
• The water is introduced to the cell and to the Anode and Cathode
compartments.
• When a Direct Current (DC) power supply is connected to the electrodes, a
direct current passes through water between the electrodes.
• Positively charged ions (cations) migrate towards the Cathode, and
negatively charged ions (anions) migrate towards the Anode.
24

§ The cations can pass through the cation-permeable membranes but they are
rejected by the anion-permeable membrane.
§ In a similar manner, the anions can pass through the anion-permeable
membranes but they are rejected by the cation-permeable membrane.
§ As a result the water in the treatment cell is cleared from most of the ions,
and the resulting product is called the treated water stream. The removed
ions are concentrated in the adjacent compartments or concentrate cells and
the resulting product is called the concentrate or brine stream.
For stacks with more than on treatment cell as in Figure 5.7, alternate cells or
compartments are formed. Each treatment cell is surrounded by adjacent
concentrate cell. In Figure 5.7 we have 3 treatment cells and 4 concentrate
cells. So the number of concentrate cell is always one cell more than the
treatment cells. The number of membranes used in one electrodialysis stack
is twice as the number of cells. Half of the membranes is anion-permeable
and the other half is cation-permeable.
§ Treatment cells in one stack is connected in parallel to meet the flow
requirements. Electrodialysis stacks maybe connected in series to increase
the treatment efficiency.
25

Cathode
(-)
Mg2+ Na+ Ca2+ K+
Feed
Water concentrate Water
Cl- SO4- NO3-
Ca2+ Mg2+ Cation-permeable Membrane

Na+
Feed
Water Treated Water
NO3- Cl- HCO3-
Anion-permeable Membrane
Mg2+ Na+ Ca2+
Feed concentrate Water
Water Cl- SO4- CO3- HCO3-
Anode
(+)
Fig. 5.6 Schematic of Electrodialysis process
26

Fig. 5.7 Schematic diagram of Electrodialysis process with three cells
27

2. Electrodialysis system layout:

§ Figure 5.8 shows a typical layout of electrodialysis water treatment system.
§As shown in the figure, the raw water may need a pretreatment before pumping
it to the ED system.
§The ED stack is connected to a DC power supply system.
§ The disposed concentrate water stream Qc is in the range of 10-20%, which
leaves a treated water stream Qp of 80-90% of the feed flow (Q). Some of the
concentrate steam is internally recycled (Qr) to the concentrate cells so that the
system can work . Part of the raw feed flow (Qm) is added to the recycled
concentrate stream (Qr) to makeup for the disposed Qc. The remaining part of
the feed flow (Q – Qm) inters to the treatment cells only.
§The salts removal efficiency for one pass in one stalk is in the range of 40-60%
according to the contact time in each treatment cell which is in the range of 10-
20 seconds.
§To increase the efficiency ED stacks are connected in series.
§Typical ED stacks has from 100 to 250 treatment cells (200-500 membranes).
28

Pretreatment
Q
Feed Qm
pump DC -
Source
Electrodialysis
Recycle Stack
Q = feed water pump +
Qc = concentrate water
disposed
Qm = make up water = Qc Qr
Qp = product water= Q-Qc
Qr = concentrate water recycled QC QP
Fig. 5.8 Typical flow diagram for Electrodialysis treatment process
29

Electrodialys
is treatment
(ED)
3. Current requirements and design equations of ED:

§The electric current required in ED stack is calculated using the faraday’s laws
of electrolysis. One faraday (F) of electricity (96,500 Ampere. second or
coulombs) will cause 1 g-eq of charged substance from one electrode to another.
The number of g-eq removed per unit time from an electrolytic treatment cell is
given by equation 5.9:
G = QNη ................(5.9)
G = grame quivalents removed from water per unit time , eq / s
Q = Solution flow rate, L / s
N = normality of the solution , eq / L
η = electrolyte removal as a fraction
30

§ The electric current required in ED stack for an (n) number of treatment cells is
thus given by equation 5.10:
FQNη
I= ................(5.10)
nEc
I = current, amp
F = Farady,s constant
= 96,485 amp . s/(grame quivalent) = 96,485 A . s/eq
n = number of treatment cells in stack
E c = current efficiency expressed as fraction
31

§ The power and voltage required in ED stack can be calculated from given by
equation 5.11:
P = E (I ) = R (I ) ................(5.1 1)
2
P = power, w att
E = voltage, V
I = current, amp
R = resistance of the membrane to electric current, ohm (Ω )
32

§ An important parameter in the design of the ED system is RCD/N which is the

ratio between the electric current density (CD) and the normality (N) of the water
solution under treatment. This parameter is given in equation 5.12:
CD
RCD/N = .......... ......(5.1 2 )
N
R CDN = ratio of current density to normality of feed solution
CD = current density, amp/cm 2
N = normality of the feed solution, eq / L
§ Table 5.2 gives typical values of many of the parameters needed in equations
5.9 to 5.12.
§ Example 5.5 illustrates the design procedure for ED system.
33

Table 5.2
Seconds
34

Example: 5.4
Solution:
35

Example: 5.4 ..cont’d
4. If the detention time is 10 s, what is the volume and the width of one cell?
Q *θ ( 43.3 L / s ) *10 s V 1.804 L 1000 cm3
V= = = 1.804 L and Width of the cell = = * = 0.87 cm
n 240 A 2068 cm2 1L
36

Example: 5.5
For an ED stack Calculate the following: 1) salts concentration in the product water, 2) the salts
concentration in the disposed concentrate water, 3) recycled concentrate water and recycle ratio
given the following data:
Qf = 4000 m3/d ( feed flow), Cf = 5000 mg/L

Qc = 20 % of Qf ( disposed concentrate stream flow)
η = 60 % salt removal percent .
Treatment cells = 240 (i.e concentrate cells = 241)
From mass balance application on the ED stack equations 5.13 and 5.14 are derived:
Q f * C f − Qp * C p
Cc = .......... .......... ...5.13
Qc
Q f * C f [1 − η ]
Cp = .......... .......... ........ 5.14
Qp
37

Example: 5.5 Qf , Cf
Solution:
Qc = 0.20*4000 = 800 m3/d
Qp = 4000-800 = 3200 m3/d ED
stack
1- Q f * C f [1 − η ] 4000 * 5000 [1 − 0.6]
Cp = Cp = = 2500 mg / L
Qp 3200
Qc , Cc Qp , Cp
Q f * C f − Qp * C p
2- Cc =
4000 * 5000 − 3200 * 2500
Qc Cc = = 15000 mg / L
800
3- The flow in the concentrate cell should be equal to the flow in the treatment cell. The flow per
treatment cell is:
Q f − Qm 4000 − 800
Qcell = = = 13.33 m3 / d = 0.154 L / s
n 240
38

Example: 5.5
The concentrate flow for the 241 concentrate cells is:
Qconcentarte cells = Qcell * 241 = 13.33 * 241 = 3213.33 m3 / d
From figure 5.8 Q concentrate cells is:

Qconcentarte cells = Qr + Qm
then,
Qr = Qconcentarte cells − Qm
Qr = 3213.33 − 800 = 2413.33 m3 / d

Qr 2413.33
Re cycle ratio = = = 0.603
Qf 4000
39

4. Applications of ED units:
§ ED removes IONS from water , it does NOT remove bacteria (Crypto,
Giardia), viruses, uncharged molecules, suspended solids etc.
§ ED is particularly adapted for deionization of brackish waters of 5000 mg/L
dissolved solids (TDS) or less to produce a product water with TDS of about
500 mg/L.
§ Electrodialysis is not well suited to the deionization of sea water because of
the very high energy consumption , since from equation 5.10 the electrical
energy required is directly proportional to the amount of salts removed.
§ Since RO desalts at a comparable cost and gives other pollutants removals, it
has a greater potential in water treatment than ED.
§ Electrodialysis can be less expensive for low TDS waters or when a 50%
removal is adequate.
40

Lecture 6: Adsorption

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Adsorption
1. Principles of Adsorption
A. Definition of Adsorption:
- Adsorption is a natural process by which molecules of a dissolved
substance collect on and adhere to the surface of an adsorbent solid.
- The adsorbent is the solid material onto which the adsorbate
accumulates.
- The adsorbate is the dissolved substance that is being removed from
liquid phase to the solid surface of the adsorbent.
- Adsorption may occur at the outer surface of the adsorbent and
in the macropores, mesopores and micropores in the inner cracks
of the adsorbent see Figures (6.1) and (6.2).
macropores >25 nm ( 1 nm = 10-6 µm)
mesopores >1 nm and < 25nm
micropores >1 nm
2

Adsorption
Figure 6.1 Pores inside an activated carbon particle

Adsorption
Figure 6.2 Pores inside an activated carbon particle

Adsorption
B. Use of adsorption in water treatment:
Adsorption is used in water treatment to remove dissolved organic
chemicals such as:
- taste and odor causing chemicals
- synthetic organic chemicals
- color forming organics
- some disinfection organic by-products
Some of the organic chemicals that can be removed by adsorption is
given in Table 6.1.
• Forces affecting adsorption:
The principal forces leading to sticking the adsorbate to the surface of
the adsorbent solid are:
- Van der Waals forces
- Hydrogen bonding
- Dipole-dipole interactions

Adsorption
Table 6.1 Readily and poorly adsorbed organics

Adsorption
D. Types of Adsorbents:
The following are the main materials that are used as adsorbents:
- Activated carbon
- Silica
- Synthetic polymers
Activated carbon (AC) is the mostly used adsorbent in water treatment,
that’s why we will limit our study to Activated Carbon Adsorption.

Adsorption
2. Activated Carbon Characteristics:
A. Production of activated carbon:
i) Activated carbon is prepared by two steps:
a) Carbonization: carbonaceous material such as wood, almond, coal,
coconut shells, is first heated to red heat (to less than 700 oC) to
produce char. Heating is applied under controlled oxygen supply to
prevent the destruction of the carbonaceous material.
b) Activation: the carbonized material is exposed to steam or hot CO2
to cause pores and cracks to form.
ii) After the preparation of (AC) , it is produced in two diameter sizes:

a) Powdered activated carbon (PAC): particles size < 0.074 mm
b) Granular activated carbon (GAC): particles size > 0.1 mm
the characteristics of PAC and GAC are in Table 6.2. see also
Figures 6.3 , 6.4, and 6.5 showing photos of GAC and PAC.

Adsorption
activated carbon
Figure 6.3 Granular and powdered activated carbon

9

Adsorption
Figure 6.4 Granular activated carbon
10

Adsorption
Figure 6.5
Microscopic photo showing the pores at the surface of GAC particle
11

Adsorption
Figure 6.6
Microscopic photo showing the surface of an exhausted GAC particle
12

Adsorption
Table 6.2 Comparison between granular and powdered activated carbon
13

Adsorption
B. Regeneration of activated carbon:
- After using the activated carbon for adsorbing the dissolved organic
matter it eventually reaches its maximum adsorptive capacity. It is
called in this state as spent activated carbon.
- To recycle the spent activated carbon its adsorptive capacity should be
first restored by a process called regeneration.
- Regeneration is achieved by taking the spent activated carbon out of
the treatment tanks and exposing it to different materials such as:
i) Adding oxidizing chemicals to oxidize the adsorbed organics.
ii) Steam to drive off the adsorbed materials.
iii) Some solvents. See a typical regeneration facility in Figure 6.7.
- After regeneration, the spent carbon is reactivated by the same way by
which the original carbonaceous was activated.
- Some of the adsorptive capacity (2-5 %) of the AC is lost permanently
during regeneration. Some carbon (4-8 %) is lost due to mishandling.
So a makeup amount of carbon should be added to the system.
14

Figure 6.7
Typical activated carbon regeneration facility
15

Adsorption
3. Adsorptive capacity of activated carbon:
- The quantity of the adsorbate (i.e. dissolved organics) that can be
taken up by an absorbent (i.e. activated carbon) is a function of the
characteristics and concentration of the adsorbate, characteristics of the
adsorbent and temperature.
- The amount of material adsorbed is determined as a function of the
concentration at constant temperature, and the resulting function is
called adsorption isotherms.
- Many equations (adsorption isotherms) were developed to determine
amount of material adsorbed. The most famous isotherms are:
a) Freundlich isotherm
b) Langmuir isotherm
The following slides will illustrate both of these isotherms.
16

Adsorption
4. Freundlich isotherm
The Freundlich isotherm is presented by the following equations:
x
log  = logK f + logC e ..............................(6.1)
X 1
qe = = K f C e1 / n , or
m m n
q e = mass of materil adsorbed (X ) per unit mass (m ) of adsobent at equilibrium, mg/g
K f = Freundlich capacity factor, (L/mg)1 / n
C e = equilibrium concentration of adsorbate in liquid phase after adsorption, mg/L
1 /n = Freundlich intensity parameter
This form of the equation log  x  = logK f + 1 logC e is linear.
m n
The constants in the Freundlich isotherm can be determined by plotting
 x  versus logC , the Y-intercept is logK , and the slope is 1 .
log   e f
m  n
The constants in Freundlich isotherm for different organics is in Table 6.3

17

Adsorption
Table 6.3
Freundlich
Adsorption
isotherm
Constant for
Selected
organic
compounds
18

Adsorption
5. Langmuir isotherm
The Langmuir isotherm is presented by the following equations:
........................................(6.2 )
X abC e Ce 1 1
= , or = + Ce
m 1 + bC e (x/m ) ab a
= mass of materil adsorbed (X ) per unit mass (m ) of adsobent at equilibrium, mg/g
X
m
C e = equilibrium concentration of adsorbate in solution after adsorption, mg/L
a, b = empirical constants
This form of the equation Ce 1 1

= + C e is linear.
(x/m ) ab a
The constants in the Langmuir isotherm can be determined by plotting C e
versus C e , the Y-intercept is 1 , and the slope is 1 . (x/m )
ab a
19

Adsorption
6. Laboratory tests for determining the coefficients of
the Freundlich and Langmuir isotherms:
- The coefficients in the isotherms are found using batch tests.
- Typically more than ten beakers (with one liter volume each) are filled
with polluted water that has an initial concentration of C0 .
- Different masses of GAC or PAC are added to the beakers.
- The test time is at least 7 days after which the concentration of the
pollutant is reduced to an equilibrium concentration of Ce.
- Equilibrium concentration is that concentration after which no more
adsorption is observed.
Example 6.1 illustrates this test and its importance.
20

Adsorption
Example 6.1 :
21

Adsorption
Example 6.1 … Cont’d:
Solution:
1. Derive the values needed to plot the Freundlich and Langmuir adsorption
isotherms using the batch adsorption test data
22

Adsorption
3.85
3.85
23

Adsorption
Freundlich Isotherm
2.5
y = 3.558x + 0.1908
2 R2 = 0.9984
..
Log (x/m)
1.5
1/n = slope = 3.558
Log Kf = 0.1908
1
Kf = 1.55
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Log Ce
x
= 1 .55 C e3 .55
m
24

Adsorption
7. Systems of PAC and GAC in water treatment:
- Powdered activated carbon (PAC) treatment is mostly performed in
contact basins where it is added and continuously mixed for a specified
time then it is allowed to settle and the treated water is withdrawn. The
process is similar to that described in the batch experiments in the lab
mentioned previously and as in Example 6.1.
- Granular activated carbon (GAC) treatment is mostly performed in
cylindrical metallic tanks called columns or bed contactor. Several
types of GAC contactors are used such as Fixed Bed, and Fluidized
Bed Contactors. See Figures 6.8 , 6.9 and 6.10.
The most used type in water treatment is the fixed bed contactor that’s
why the next discussion will concentrate on this type.
25

Adsorption
Figure 6.8
GAC adsorption tank or contactor
26

Adsorption
Figure 6.9
GAC adsorption contactor system
27

28
Figure 6.10 GAC adsorption tanks
Adsorption
8. Fixed bed GAC contactors:
a) Configuration of The GAC contactor (Figures 6.8,6.9 & 6.10):
- The main component of the contactor is a cylindrical steel tank with the
following typical dimensions:
Diameter 1-2 m ( maximum available diameter is 3.7m)
Height 4-5 m
- The GAC bed occupies 2-3 meters of the contactor height and supported
from the bottom with an under drain system.
- The water inters from the top (downflow) by an influent distributor piping
system and applied at the rate of 1.4 to 3.4 L/s.m2 . When the headless in
the contactor becomes excessive due to the accumulation of suspended
solids the tank is taken off-line and backwashed by applying water form
the bottom upwards at the rate of 6.8 to 13.6 L/s.m2 . The same influent
distributor is used to drain the upflow backwash water .
- A surface whishing system is used to clean the surface of the GAC bed.
- An under drain piping system is installed at the bottom to collect the treated
water. This piping system is used to pump the upflow backwash water.
- Piping system to remove the spent GAC and to add the new or regenerated
GAC to the tank.
29

Adsorption
b) Sizing The GAC contactor (Figure 6.7):
- The sizing of the GAC contactor depends on the following factors:
i) Contact time
ii) Hydraulic loading rate
iii) carbon depth
iv) number of contactors.
Table 6.4 shows typical design values for GAC contactors, and
Table 6.5 shows typical specifications of GAC material used in GAC
contactors.
c) Multiple tanks Operation:
- GAC tanks can be operated in parallel or in series. See Figures 6.11
and 6.12.
- A minimum of two parallel carbon contactors is recommended for design.
- Multiple units permit one or more units to remain in operation while one unit
is taken out of service for removal and generation of spent carbon or
maintenance.
30

Adsorption
Table 6.4
Typical
design values
of GAC
contactors
31

Adsorption
Table 6.5
32

Adsorption
Figure 6.11 GAC tanks (contactors) in parallel and in series
33

Adsorption
Figure 6.12 GAC tanks (contactors) in series
34

Adsorption
9. Adsorption process analysis in the Fixed bed GAC
contactors:
a) Mass transfer inside the GAC bed:
When the polluted water is pumped on the GAC bed the, the dissolved
organic matter start to adsorb on the carbon. The area of the GAC bed
in which sorption (adsorption) occurs is called the mass transfer zone (MTZ)
See Figure 6.13.
-No further adsorption occurs below the MTZ and the water leaving the
MTZ zone contains the minimum concentration value of the pollutant that
the bed can produce.
-With time a zone of saturation is created above the MTZ in which the
carbon has reached its maximum adsorption capacity and no further adsorption
occurs. The equilibrium concentration Ce of the pollutant in water in this zone
is the same as C0.
35

Adsorption
-The Zone below the MTZ essentially clean zone and no adsorbed material on it.
-With time the saturation zone depth increases and the MTZ is pushed down
until we reach to a point where the clean zone disappears and breakthrough occurs.
- Breakthrough is said to have occurred when the effluent concentration reaches to 5%
of the influent concentration (i.e, Cb = 0.05C0).
-After additional time the MTZ start to decrease until it disappears and the bed is
called exhausted. Exhaustion of the bed is assumed to have occurred when the effluent
Concentration is equal to 95% of the influent concentration (i.e, C = 0.95C0)
-The length of the MTZ is calculated from the following equation (6.3):
 VE − VB 
H MTZ = Z  ..............................(6.3)
 E
V − 0.5(V E − V )
B 
where H MTZ = length of mass transfer zone, (m )

Z = height of the adsorption column, (m )
VE = throughput volume to exhaustion, m 3
VB = throughput volume to breakthrough, m 3
-The area above the breakthrough curve is equal to the mass of the pollutant
adsorbed in the column and equal to: X = ∫V0 (C0 − C) dV .........(6.4)
36

Adsorption
MTZ = δ
Exhausted
C0
C = 0.95C0 Exhaustion
MTZ
Clean
Cb= 0.05C0
Cb
VB VE
Figure 6.13
37

Adsorption
b) Quantification of the operational performance of the GAC bed:
Many parameters were developed to quantify the performance of the GAC
contactor as follows:
1. Empty bed contact time (EBCT):
Vb A D D
EBCT = = b = .......................(6.5)
Q vf Ab vf
where EBCT = empty bed contact time, (h)
Q = flowrate, (m 3 /h)
A b = cross− sectional area of GAC bed, (m 2 )
D = length of GAC incontactor, (m)
v f = linearapproachvelocity, (m/h)
2. Activated carbon density:

m GAC
ρ GAC = ..........................................(6.6)
Vb
where ρ GAC = density of granular activated carbon, (g/L )
m GAC = mass of granular activated carbon, (g )
Vb = volume of GAC filter bed, (L )
38

Adsorption
3. Specific throughput (ST):
The specific throughput is defined as the volume of water treated per unit
weight of the carbon (m3/g):
Qt Vb t t
specific throughput = = = ...........(6.7)
m GAC EBCT* m GAC EBCT* ρGAC
tis
4. Carbon usage rate (CUR):
The carbon usage rate is the reciprocal of (ST) and is defined the
carbon needed to treat a unit weight of water (g/m3):
m GAC 1
CUR = = ................(6.8)
Qt specific throughput
39

Adsorption
5. Mass of organic material adsorbed at breakthrough:
x xb  C  t
  = = Q C 0 − b  b .....................................(6.9)
 m  b m GAC  2  m GAC
x
wher   = field breakthruogh adsorption capacity, (g/g )
 m b
x b = mass of organic material adsorbed in the GAC column at breakthrough, (g )
m GAC = mass of carbon in the column, (g )
Q = flowrate, m 3 /d( )
C 0 = influent organic concentration, g/m 3 ) (
Cb = breakthrough organic concentration, (g/m ) 3
t b = time to breakthrough, (d )
6. Time to breakthrough:
x
 m  * m GAC
 b
tb = .......... .......... .......... ...(6.10)
 Cb 
Q C 0 −
 2 
40

Adsorption
Example 6.2 :
6.3
6.3
41

Adsorption
Solution:
6.8
From Eq. 6.5 & 6.6

mGAC =
42

Adsorption
43

Adsorption
Example 6.3 :
44

Adsorption
Solution:
m (C 0 − C e ) (C 0 − C e )
= =
V qe K f C e1 / n
45

Lecture 7: Ion Exchange

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Ion Exchange
1. Principles of Ion Exchange

A. Definition of Ion Exchange :
- Ion exchange is a unit process in which ions of a given species are
displaced from an insoluble material (called resin) by ions of a different
species in solution.
- The exchanged ions have the same charge, that’s to say, positive ions
are exchanged for positive ions, for example:
Na+ is exchanged for Mg+2 and Ca+2.

OH- is exchanged for NO3- .
- The exchange resin is either a naturally occurring material such as

zeolite or synthetic organic material . Resins are either cationic or
anionic. The resins are usually beads or granular particles having a size
of about 0.1 to 1.0 mm. See Figures 7.1 and 7.2

3
Figure 7.1 Ion Exchange resin
Figure 7.2 Ion Exchange resin
4

Ion Exchange
- Cationic resins are materials that have reactive groups that can give
up positive ions in exchange of other positive ions from the liquid
phase
- Anionic resins are materials that have reactive groups that can give
up negative ions in exchange of other negative ions from the liquid
phase.
- The exchange of ions is governed by the relative preference and the
strength of ions to replace others. The preference series for the most
common cations and anions is given in the next slide.
- From the cation or the anion preference series, the ion in the upstream
of the series can replace or remove all the ions down stream of the
series. such as Ba+2. For example Ba+2 is able to remove all the ions
lower in the series such as Na+. And SO4-2 is able to remove all the
ions lower in the series such as OH-.

Ion Exchange
Preference series shows which ions exchange
For cation exchangers:
Ba 2+ >Pb 2+ > Sr 2+ > Ca 2+ >Ni +2 >Cd+2 > Cu 2+ > Co 2+ > Zn 2+

> Mg 2+ > Ag + >Cs+ > Rb + > K +> NH4+ > Na + > H +
For anion exchangers:

SO4-2 > CLO4- >I- > NO3- > CrO4-2> CO3-2 > Br ->
CL-> HCO- > F- > OH-

Ion Exchange
B. Types of ion exchange resins:
- Both anion and cation resins are produced from the same basic organic
polymers. They differ in the ionizable group attached to the
hydrocarbon network. It is this functional group that determines the
chemical behavior of the resin.
- Resins can be broadly classified as strong or weak acid cation
exchangers or strong or weak base anion exchangers.
The following are the main materials that are used as ion exchangers:
- Zeolite (natural occurring mineral called greensand).
- Synthetic organic polymers.
Synthetic polymers are the mostly used ion exchange resins in water
treatment.

Ion Exchange
C. Use of Ion Exchange in water treatment:
Ion exchange is used in water treatment for the following two applications:
1. Softening :
The resin used for softening is called the sodium exchanger. In this
exchanger Na+ is changed for polyvalent cations , specially Ca+2 and
Mg+2. The chemical reactions of ion exchange softening is shown in
the following slide. See Figure 7.3
2. Demineralization:
Two resins are used in demineralization the first is called the hydrogen
(H+) exchanger which is used to remove positively charged ions (such
as nickel, copper, and sodium), and the second is called the hydroxyl
(OH-) exchanger which is used to remove negatively charged ions such
as sulfates, nitrates, carbonates, chromates and chlorides). The
chemical reactions of ion exchange softening is shown in the
following slide. See Figure 7.4
8

Ion Exchange
2. Ion exchange chemistry:
A) Sodium cation exchange:
Softening:
Ca+2 + 2Na.R Ca.R + 2Na+
Mg+2 + 2Na.R Mg.R + 2Na+
Regeneration: using strong brine (NaCl)

Mg. R + 2NaCl 2Na.R + MgCl2
Ca. R + 2NaCl 2Na.R + CaCl2
9

10
Figure 7.3 Sodium type ion exchange resin
Ion Exchange
B. Demineralization (Deionization):
i) Hydrogen cation exchange:
M+a + aH.R M.Ra + aH+
Examples: Ca+2 + 2H.R Ca.R2 + 2H+
Na+ + H.R Na.R + H+
Regeneration: using strong acid
Ca. R + H2SO4 2H.R + CaSO4
2Na. R + H2SO4 2H.R + Na2SO4
11

Ion Exchange
Demineralization (Deionization) continued:
ii) Hydroxyl anion exchange:
A-b + bR.OH Rb.A + bOH-

Examples:
NO3- + R.OH R.NO3- + OH-
CO3-2 + 2 R.OH R2.CO3-2 + 2OH-

Regeneration: using strong base (caustic soda)
R.NO3- + NaOH R.OH + NaNO3
R2.CO3-2 + 2NaOH 2R.OH + Na2CO3
12

13
Figure 7.4 Deionizing type ion exchange resin
Ion Exchange
C. Regeneration ion exchangers:
- Each resin has a limited capacity of exchanging ions.
- After a certain time of operation the resin reach its maximum capacity
and no further ions are removed from the liquid phase. At this point is
said to have reached the breakthrough concentration (similar to
adsorption).
- After reaching the breakthrough concentration of the cation or anion
under consideration, the ion exchanger tank is taken off line.
- For sodium exchangers, a strong brine of NaCl is pumped in the resin
bed to add the Na+ ions to restore the exchange capacity of the resin by
replacing the cations (Ca+2 and Mg+2) that were attached to the resin
during the operation. The strength of the brine overcomes the strength
of the bond between the cations (Ca+2 and Mg+2) and the resin.
- For demineralization, a strong acid such as H2SO4 or HCl is used to
regenerate the Hydrogen resin, a strong base such as caustic soda
(NaOH) is used to regenerate the Hydroxyl resin.
14

Ion Exchange
3. The ion exchange system in water treatment:
a) Configuration of the ion exchanger (Figure 7.5):
- The main component of the ion exchanger is a cylindrical steel tank with the following
typical dimensions:
Diameter 1-2 m
Height 3-4 m (typical to the adsorption tanks)
- The ion exchange bed occupies 1-3 meters of the tank height and supported from the
bottom with an under drain system.
- The water inters from the top (downflow) by an influent distributor piping system and
applied at the rate of 0.5 to 7 L/s.m2 .
- When breakthrough is reached the tank is taken off-line and backwashed by applying
water form the bottom upwards to remove any suspended solids.
- After backwashing the regeneration solution is also pumped from the bottom up
wards at the rate of 0.7 to 1.5 L/s.m2 . The same influent distributor is used to drain
the upflow backwash water and the regeneration solution ( brine, acid or base). At
the end of the regeneration the bed is washed with clean water to remove the residual
of the regeneration solution
- An under drain piping system is installed at the bottom to collect the treated water, and
used to pump the upflow backwash water and the regeneration solution.
15

Ion Exchange
Figure 7.5 Typical ion exchange installation
16

Ion Exchange
b) Pretreatment:
- The influent to the ion exchanger should be filtered to remove turbidity.
- Dissolved Organic matter should be removed by GAC before the IE because
the organic may coat th resin and reduce its exchange capacity.
- The IE is efficient for TDS less than 1000 mg/L.
c) Sizing ion exchanger :
- The sizing of the ion exchanger depends on the following factors:
i) Contact time
ii) Hydraulic loading rate
iii) resin depth
iv) number of columns.
d) Multiple tanks Operation:
- Ion exchange tanks can be operated in parallel or in series. Figures 7.6
illustrates the series operation.
- A minimum of two parallel carbon contactors is recommended for design.
- Multiple units permit one or more units to remain in operation while one unit
is taken out of service for backwashing and generation or maintenance.
17

18
Figure 7.6 Ion Exchanger tanks operated in series
Ion Exchange
4. Exchange capacity of ion exchange resins:
- Ion Exchange resins have a limited number of exchange site available, and the
total solid phase concentration “q0” is termed ion exchange capacity.
- For cation exchange resins, “q0” is in the range of 200 to 500 meq/100mg of
resin.
- During the exchange, the resin should be electrically neutral thus the all the
exchange sites should be occupied either by the original ion (such as Na+) or
by the replacing ions ( such as Ca+2 and Mg+2) and the ion exchange
occupancy should be equal to “q0” at any time.
- Many equations were developed to determine exchange capacity. The most
famous equation is the Thomas kinetic equation ( Eq. 7.1). used for ion
exchange columns.
19

Ion
Exchange
Thomas kinetic equation for ion exchange capacity:
C  k q M k C V This equation
ln  0 − 1  = 1 0 − 1 0 .......... .......( 7 . 1) is a linear
 C  Q Q equation in the
C = effluent concentrat ion of the ions, mg/l or meq/l form : y = mx+ c.
C 0 = inffluent concentrat ion of the ions, mg/l or meq/l
k1 C 0
k 1 = rate constant, L/d . eq Slope =
Q
q 0 = maximum solid phase concentrat ion of
k1 q 0 M
exchange solute, eq/kg of resin Intercept =
Q
M = mass of resin, kg
V = throughput volume, L
Q = flowrate, L/d
To apply this equation it is necessary to perform a laboratory column test or pilot

scale column to obtain the breakthrough curve. See Fig. 7.7
20

Ion Exchange
5. Ion Exchange process analysis in the Fixed bed
a) Mass transfer inside the Ion exchange bed:
When the polluted water is pumped on the ion exchange bed the, the pollutant
ions replace the exchangeable ions in the resin. The area of the ion exchange
bed in which the exchange occurs is called the mass transfer zone (MTZ)
See Figure 7.7.
-No further adsorption occurs below the MTZ and the water leaving the
MTZ zone contains the minimum concentration value of the pollutant that
the bed can produce.
-With time a zone of saturation is created above the MTZ in which the
resin has reached its maximum exchange capacity and no further replacement
occurs. The equilibrium concentration Ce of the pollutant in water in this zone
is the same as C0.
21

Ion Exchange
-The Zone below the MTZ essentially clean zone and no adsorbed material on it.
-With time the saturation zone depth increases and the MTZ is pushed down
until we reach to a point where the clean zone disappears and breakthrough occurs.
- Breakthrough is said to have occurred when the effluent concentration reaches to 5%
of the influent concentration (i.e, Cb = 0.05C0).
-After additional time the MTZ start to decrease until it disappears and the bed is
called exhausted. Exhaustion of the bed is assumed to have occurred when the effluent
Concentration is equal to 95% of the influent concentration (i.e, C = 0.95C0)
-The length of the MTZ is calculated from the following equation (6.3):
 VE − VB 
H MTZ = Z   ..............................(7.2)
 E
V − 0.5(VE − V )
B 
where H MTZ = length of mass transfer zone, (m )

Z = height of the adsorption column, (m )
VE = throughput volume to exhaustion, m 3
VB = throughput volume to breakthrough, m 3
-The area above the breakthrough curve is equal to the mass of the pollutant
adsorbed in the column and equal to: X = ∫V0 (C0 − C) dV .........(6.4)
22

Ion Exchange
MTZ = δ
Exhausted
C0
C = 0.95C0 Exhaustion
MTZ
Clean
Cb= 0.05C0
Cb
VB VE
Figure 7.7
23

Ion Exchange
Example 7.1 :
below
24

Ion Exchange
Solution:
-The data obtained from the lab

experiment is summarized in
columns (1) and (2) in the
Table to the right.
-The data in columns
1 and 2 are used to draw the
breakthrough curve as Shown in
figure 7.8.
-The data is arranged in columns
4,5 and 6 in the forms necessary
to plot the Thomas equation as
Shown in figure 7.9.
25

Ion Exchange
k1C 0
- From Fig 7.9 the slope = 0.7583 L-1
Q
Q 1.0428 L / d 1000 meq

k1 = Slope * = 0.7583L− 1 • • = 234.6 L /( d • eq )
C0 3.37 meq / L 1 eq
- From Fig 7.9 the intercept k1 q 0 M = 15.33 L-1

Q
q 0 = intercept •
Q
= 15.33 •
(1.0428 L/d ) •
1000 g
= 2.932 eq/kg resin
k 1M (234.6 L/d• eq) • 23.4 g 1 kg
-Mass of resin needed for the full scale column Can be found from the Thomas
equation :
 C0  k1q 0 M k1C 0 V
ln − 1 = −
 C  Q Q
26

Ion Exchange
 C0   1 
ln  − 1 = ln  − 1 = 2.9444
 0.05 C 0   0.05 
k 1q 0 M 234.6 L /(d • eq )(2.932 eq / kg )( M kg )

=
Q 378500 L / d
k 1C 0 V 234.6 L /(d • eq)(3.37 meq / L) * (1 eq / 1000 meq) (7d • 378500L)

= •
Q 378500 L / d d
-Substitute the three above terms in the Thomas equation and solve for M:
M = 4670 kg dry weight of resin
- Resin volume = (4670 kg)(1/0.56)(716.5 kg/m3) = 11.6 m3
Resin volume = (π/4)(D2)(2D) = 11.6 m3
D = 1.95 m (diameter of the column)
Z = 2D = 3.9 m (depth of the resin bed)
-Since it was assumed that the breakthrough occurs after 7 days ( at C=0.05C0) then the
breakthrough Volume (VB) = 7*378500 = 2.65 X 106 L
-To find (VE) at C= 0.95 C0 apply Thomas equation and solve for V, the result is:
(VE)= 5.47 X 106 L
- Since VB, VE, and Z are known find HMTZ apply equation 7.2, so HMTZ= 2.69 m
27

Ion Exchange
Figure 7.8
28

Ion Exchange
Figure 7.9
29

Ion Exchange
7.10
30

Ion Exchange
Figure 7.10
31

Ion Exchange
resin on a dry weight basis. Determine the kilograms of resin required if

the allowable breakthrough is seven days.
32

Lecture 8: Disinfection

Civil Engineering
ENGC 6305

Disinfection
1. Principles of Disinfection
A. Definition of Disinfection :
- Disinfection is the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms.
- It dose not apply to nonpathogenic microorganisms or to pathogens that
might be in the spore state.
- disinfection should be distinguished from sterilization. Sterilization is
the destruction of all living microorganisms and especially to the spore
forming organisms.
- the chemical used for disinfection is called disinfectant.
B. Disinfection Mechanisms :
- Damage to the cell wall (Ozone, Chlorine)
- Alteration of the cell permeability (phenolic compounds)
- Alteration of the colloidal nature of the protoplasm (heat, radiation)
- Alteration of the organism DAN or RNA ( radiation)
- Inhibition of enzyme activity (oxidizing agents such as chlorine).

Disinfection
C. Factors affecting the disinfection process:
- Contact time between the disinfectant and the microorganisms.
- The concentration and chemistry of the disinfectant.
- The surrounding environment such as pH, temperature, and the existing
of other interfering substances in the water.
- The properties of pathogens
The contact time effect is expressed by the combined Chick’s Watson equation
(8.1): dNt
= − k' C N t .............................................(8.1)
n
dt
dN t
= rate of change in the concentration of organisms with time
dt
k' = die− off constant
C = concentration of didinfectant
n = coefficient of dilution
N t = number of organisms at time (t)
t = contact time

Disinfection
the inegrated form of equation 8.1 is :
Nt
= e − k' C t .............................................(8.2) or :
n
N0
Nt
ln = − k' C n t.......................................(8.3)
N0
The linearized form of equation (8.3) is :
1 1 1  N 
lnC = − lnt + ln   − ln t 
n n  k'  N 0 
The value of (n) can be obtained by plotting (C) versus (t) on log − log paper .
D. Classification of disinfectants :
- Oxidizing agents (ozone, halogens, halogen compounds)
- Organic compounds
- physical agents (heat, UV , pH)
E. Disinfection methods :
- Chlorination
- Ozonation
- Ultraviolet Radiation (UV)
4

Disinfection
Example 8.1

Disinfection

Disinfection

Disinfection

Disinfection

Disinfection by Chlorination
1. Introduction on Chlorination:
-Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant because it is effective at low
concentrations, cheap and forms residual if applied in sufficient dosage.
-The principal chlorine compounds used in water and wastewater treatment
are:
Chlorine (Cl2), sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl), calcium hypochlorite
[Ca(OCl)2], and chlorine dioxide (ClO2).
-Chlorine (Cl2) can be used in gas or liquid form.
-The Cl2 gas is liquefied by high pressure (5-10 atm) to the liquid form.
10

2. Chemistry of Chlorine in water:

-Chlorine gas reacts readily with water to form hypochlorous acid and
hydrochloric acid:
Cl2+H2O → HOCl + HCl
The produced hypochlorous acid then dissociates to yield hypochlorite ion:
HOCl → H+ + OCl
The relative distribution of HOCl and OCl- is a function of pH and temperature
see (Fig 8.1). Both HOCl and OCl- are excellent disinfectants but HOCl is
more effective.
-Both HOCl & OCl- react with ammonia if exists in water to produce chloramines:
NH3 + HOCl → NH2Cl + H2O (monochloramine)
NH2Cl + 2HOCl → NHCl2 + H2O (dichloramine)
NHCl2 + 3HOCl → NCl3 + H2O (Trichloramine)
-Both HOCl & OCl- react with reducing compounds such as Fe+2, Mn+2, NO-2 ,
and the chlorine will be reduced to the non effective chlorid ion Cl- .
11

Figure 8.1 Relative amount of HOCl and OCl- as a function of pH at 20o.

12

-Both HOCl & OCl- react with reducing natural organic maters producing
trihalomethanes (THMs) including:
Chloroform (CHCl3) , bromoform (CHBr3) bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br),
dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2). The THMs are carcinogenic compounds and
their total concentration in drinkingwater should not be more than 0.1 mg/l.
-THMs are one of the disinfection by products DBPs that should be minimized or
removed before supplying the water to the consumers.
-Another dangerous DBPs is the halogenated acetic acids HAAs as it may cause
cancer.
-THMs and HAAs can be minimized by removing the organic matter before
disinfection. THMs and HAAs can be removed from water by GAC.
13

3. Break point chlorination :

-As illustrated in the previous section, chlorine reacts with the substances existing
in water. Figure 8.2 shows the stages of these reactions.
-On Fig 8.2, The chlorine dosage is presented on the x-axis and the residual
chlorine is presented on the y-axis.
-When chlorine is added it reacts first with the reducing compounds such as
Fe+2, Mn+2, NO-2 , and the chlorine will be reduced to the none effective
chloride ion Cl- (from zero to point A on the figure).
- When adding more chlorine it will react with NH3 to form chloramines as shown
in the chlorine chemistry ( from point A to B).
-When adding more chlorine some chloramines are oxidized to nitrogen gas and
the chlorine is reduced to the none effective Cl- ion.( from point B to C).
-Continued addition of chlorine will produced free available chlorine (at point C).
point C is called the break point.
14

Figure 8.2 Break-point chlorination
15

-The chlorine added is called the dosage.
- the amount used to oxidize the materials existing in water is called the demand.
- The residual = dosage – demand
-The residual between points A to C is called combined residual because the
chlorine is in the form of chloramines. From point C and up a free chlorine
residual start to appear in water in addition to the combined residual. The free
Chlorine residual is composed of un-reacted forms of chlorine HOCl and OCl-.
-The total residual after the break point = free + combined.
-Since the free residual is much more effective in disinfection, all the regulations
require a free residual of at least 0.20 mg/l at the farthest tap in the system. The
residual chlorine in the produced water is typically 2 – 5 mg/l.
- since free residual appears only after the breakpoint, so we need to decide the
breakpoint dosage. Thus the required dosage = breakpoint dosage + free residual
16

DISINFECTION
UV APPLICATIONS
How does UV disinfect?
UV light at the 254 nm
wavelength penetrates the
cell wall of the
microorganism
The amount of UV delivered UV Energy
to the organism is called the
intensity.
Cell Wall
The UV energy permanently
alters the DNA structure of
the microorganism in a
process called thymine
dimerization
The microorganism is Cytoplasmic DNA
Nucleic Acid
“inactivated” and rendered Membrane
unable to reproduce or infect
17

DISINFECTION
UV APPLICATIONS
18

19

DISINFECTION
UV APPLICATIONS
Germicidal Effectiveness of UV Wavelengths • Efficiency of UV light
for microbial
disinfection peaks at
the wavelength of 254
nm
• Above and below this
wavelength, the drop-
off in effectiveness is
quite rapid
20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

UV DOSE CALCULATION
UV Dose is a product of:

Intensity (quantity of UV light per unit area falling on a surface) and
Residence Time (contact time in the reaction chamber)
UV = Intensity Residence
X
DOSE Time
UV Dose is expressed in: µWsec/cm2 (Microwatt seconds/cm2)

mWsec/cm2 (Milliwatt seconds/cm2)
mJ/cm2 (Millijoules/cm2 )
29

Required for Inactivation (mJ/cm2)
Average UV Dose Pathogen 2
Average UV Dose mJ/cm required to inactivate
Pathogen 1-Log 2-Log 3-Log 4-Log
Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts 1.3 2.5 4.3 5.7
Giardia lamblia cysts 0.3 0.7 1.3 1.7
Vibrio cholerae 0.8 1.4 2.2 2.9
Shigella dysenteriae 0.5 1.2 2 3
Escherichia coli 0 157:H7 1.5 2.8 4.1 5.6
Salmonella typhi 1.8 - 2.7 4.1 - 4.8 5.5 - 6.4 7.1 - 8.2
Shigella sonnei 3.2 4.9 6.5 8.2
Salmonella enteritidis 5 7 9 10
Hepatitis A virus 4.1 - 5.5 8.2 - 13.7 12.3 - 22 16.4 - 29.6
Poliovirus Type 1 4.1 - 6 8.7 - 14 14.2 - 23 21.5 - 30
Coxsackie B5 virus 6.9 13.7 20.6 30
Rotavirus SA 11 7.1 - 9.1 14.8 - 19 23 - 25 36
30

Disinfection by Ozonation
OZONE is the Strongest oxidant/disinfectant available.

More effective against microbes than chlorination.
But, costly and difficult to monitor and control under different
condition.
Ozonation process:
Ozone (O3) is generated on-site at water

treatment facilities by passing dry oxygen or
air through a system of high voltage
electrodes.
31

Disinfection by Ozonation
32

33

• Percentage Kill
• Initial number = 1,000,000 bacteria
• 90% (1 Log) = 100,000 remain
• 99% (2 Log) = 10,000 remain
• 99.9% (3Log) = 1,000 remain
• 99.99% (4Log) = 100 remain
• 99.999% (5 Log) = 10 remain
34

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Water Treatment Technology

Water Resources Engineering

Dr. Fahid Rabah PhD. PE.

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1.1 Objectives of water treatment

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1.1 Objectives of water treatment..Cont’d

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See the typical composition of water from different sources

See the EPA Primary drinking water standards

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Chlorine Flash Flocculation Sedimentation

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Water Treatment Technology

Dr. Fahid Rabah PhD. PE.

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IONS MOLECULES MACRO MOLECULES MICRO PARTICLES MACRO PARTICLES

Reverse Osmosis Microfiltration

Ultrafiltration CONVENTIONAL FILTRATION

Note : 1 Angström = 10-10 meter = 10-4 micron

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• There are two major forces acting on colloids:

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3. Coagulation (Colloidal Destabilization)

See Figure 2.4 (b): Destabilization caused by counterions of a coagulant which

4. Flocculation ( Forming Flocs)

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