LECTURE 3

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS; WATER & ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• Functional groups are any combinations of atoms that form parts of chemical
molecules.
• Undergo characteristic reactions and influence the reactivity of the remainder of
each molecule.
• A useful a basis for classification of large numbers of compounds according to their
reactions in organic chemistry
• Functional groups in biological molecules play an important role in the formation of
molecules like DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
• common functional groups: hydroxyl, present in alcohols and phenols; carboxyl,
present in carboxylic acids; carbonyl, present in aldehydes, ketones, and quinones;
and nitro, present in certain organic nitrogen compounds.
• Hydroxyl in alcohols
and phenols;
• Carboxyl in carboxylic
acids;
• Carbonyl in aldehydes,
ketones, and
quinones;
• Nitro in certain
organic nitrogen
compounds.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• The main functional group in carbohydrates is the alcohol group.
• Amino acids have both a carboxylic acid group and an amino group
• Proteins also contain the amide group to link amino acids together.
• In fats and proteins there is the carboxylic acid group.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Hydroxyl group
• The hydroxyl group is a functional group that has one hydrogen atom bonded to an
oxygen atom
• Alcohols are organic compounds that have the hydroxyl group attached to a carbon
atom.
• Ethyl alcohol is often used in foods.
• Rice, corn, wheat and barley can be used to obtain alcohol
• Alcohol is an ingredient in alcoholic beverages and is also used to flavour biscuit, vanilla
and
• Acts as a solvent for natural and artificial flavours
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Carboxyl groups
• Carboxyl group consist of a carbon double bonded to a single oxygen atom and to a
hydroxyl group by a single bond
• Carboxylic aids are characterised by the carboxyl group
• organic acids that contain a carbon atom that participates in both a hydroxyl and a
carbonyl functional group.
• used as precursors to form other compounds such as esters, aldehydes, and ketones.
• esters have a carbon bound to three other atoms: a single bond to a carbon, a double bond to an
oxygen, and a single bond to an oxygen.

• Lemon has high amounts of citric acid, star fruit has oxalic acid, vinegar is diluted
acetic acid, milk has lactic acid
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
• Carbonyl group
• Aldehydes and ketones are classes of organic compounds that contain a carbonyl
(C=O) group.
• Aldehydes have carbonyl group -CHO attached to carbon atom at the end of carbon chain.
• found in essential oils and give a pleasant odour e.g. vanillin, cinnamaldehyde , furfural (coffee)
• Most sugars are derivatives of aldehydes
• Ketones contain the carbonyl inside the compound
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Amine
• Ammonia derivatives; an amine is a nitrogen atom with a lone pair of electrons and
three substituents.
• May be 1o, 2o or 3o
• Act as bases.

• Amino acid breakdown releases amines (trimethylamine in decaying fish)

• Proteins consist of one or more chains of amino acids which may have three dimensional
structure
WATER IN FOOD
SYSTEMS
WATER
• Water is essential for life
• Water is the most abundant component of food
• It is abundant in all living things and is in almost all foods, unless steps have been taken to
remove it.
• Fruits and vegetables may contain 90% -95% water.
• Cooked meat which has some of the water removed still contains ~60% water.

• Water is technically not a nutrient; does not provide energy, isn’t a building block
• Nutrient in the sense that it accounts for ¾ lean body weight

• Water is a good dispersion medium

• The “universal solvent” since most other classes of food chemicals are dissolved in it

• Water has high specific and latent heats

WATER
• The water molecule contains strong covalent bonds that hold two hydrogen
atom to an oxygen atom H2O
• Oxygen is at the center of a tetrahedron, with a bond angle of 105 between the
two hydrogen atoms in liquid water and a larger angle of 109_ 6 between the
hydrogens in ice
• Molecule is dipolar
• Forms Hydrogen bonds
WATER
Water present in foods occur in 3 main forms
1. Bound water
• Part of molecular structure; chemically bonded as water of crystallization or hydrates
• Does not freeze

2. Adsorbed water
• Physically bound as a monolayer on surface of food monomers,

3. Bulk/ free water

• Easily removed by pressure

• Availability of water depends on the form it is in

DETERMINATION OF WATER IN FOOD
• Water content (moisture) – determines the portion of water in bulk of the food
• Gravimetric and volumetric methods; Carl Fisher titration method, instrumental methods
(NMR)

• Water activity is the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in a food/solution at a to

the vapor pressure of pure water at specified temperature
• determines properties and behaviour of food
• More bound water, then less water activity
• To reduce water activity; Dry, Freeze, Add sugar or salt
WATER

CHEMICAL ROLES OF WATER WATER IN FOOD PREPARATION

• Universal solvent
• Solvent
• Heat transfer medium
• Reaction medium • High specific and latent heat
• Mobiliser of reactants • Freezing
• Reactant • Cleansing agent

• Antioxidant • Promotion of chemical changes

• Ionization of salt
• Prooxidant • Baking powder
• Structural component • Water and pH
• Hydrolysis reactions
ACIDS IN FOOD
SYSTEMS
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
• Ethanoic acid is used to preserve food such as onions by pickling,
• Ascorbic, citric and malonic acids, are naturally found in fruit and vegetables, are
added to food to control enzymatic browning.
• Some weak acids, such as sorbic and benzoic acids, are used as preservatives as they
have little effect on flavour.
• Organic acids are important in respiratory metabolism and as storage compounds in
fruits and vegetables.
• Occur in plants as metabolic intermediates (Krebs cycle, glyoxylate cycle, or shikimic acid
pathways
• Accumulation gives the tart, sour taste or acidic of fresh fruits, vegetables
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
• The most widely occurring & most abundant acids in plants are citric and malic
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
• The total acidity of fruits usually decreases
during ripening
• The organic acids are used in respiration or
their conversion to sugars
• Small quantities of organic acids occur in plants as
metabolic intermediates;
• In Kreb cycle they provide the energy required for
maintenance of cell integrity
• Some specific acids may actually increase.
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Citric acid -2-hydroxypropane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid
• Weak organic acid C6H8O7
• High concentration in lemon (5-6%) and other citrus fruits,
• Most used acid in food and beverage industry

• In the food industry

• it is used as a natural preservative in food industry & gives acidic or sour taste to foods
and drinks
• Used to improve taste in wine making
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Oxalic acid – ethanedioic acid (C2H2O4)
• colourless crystalline solid, water soluble
• Predominant acid in star fruit/carambola, spinach, rhubarb, beet
• Toxic due to chelating properties
• Oxalates bind to calcium & other minerals

• Cause nausea, severe gastroenteritis, vomiting

ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Tartaric acid- 2, 3-dihydroxybutanedioic acid C4H6O6
• occurs naturally in many plants, e.g. grapes, bananas, and tamarinds.
• functions as a leavening agent when added together with baking soda;
• routinely added to wine as the principal acidulant;
• Occasionally replaced by its salt i.e. tartarate.
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Malic acid- 2-hydroxybutanedioic acid (C4H6O5)
• exists in its two stereoisomeric forms (L- and D-enantiomers),
• only the L-isomer is found in nature.

• naturally found in tomatoes, apples, bananas, cherries, etc.

• Similar applications to of citric acid

• Used in low calorie beverages, hard candy, chewing gum, desserts

ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Acetic acid
• Has formula CH3COOH,
• Vinegar has 5-8% acetic acid
• Added to pickles, condiments ( mayonnaise, mustard, ketchup) sauces
• Used as flavour enhancer & flavouring agent
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Lactic acid- 2-hydroxypropanoic acid (C3H6O3 )
• Meat, Poultry and Fish: in the form of its salts sodium or potassium lactate, it is
employed to extend shelf life, control disease-causing bacteria
• Pickled Vegetables:
• Salads and Dressings
• Baked goods
• Savory flavours
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS
Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6)
• Added to fruit juices, cereals, fruit flavoured candies etc. to fortify or add citrus flavour
• Acts as preservative to keep bread, cured meats, jams & jellies
Benzoic acid
• fruit juices, soft drinks, pickles, barbecue sauces and salad dressings as preservative
• inhibits the growth of mold, yeast and bacteria.
Fumaric acid
• mainly used as an acidity regulator.
• It is usually a good alternative acid for tartaric acid and sometimes of citric acid.
• used in cheesecake mixes, dessert powders that contain gelatin, and powdered drinks
ACIDS IN FOOD SYSTEMS