The branch of physics, which deals with the investigation of wavelengths and intensities of electromagnetic radiations

emitted or absorbed by atoms, is called spectroscopy.

Normally three kinds of spectra are emitted i.e.
❖ Continuous spectra
❖ Band spectra
❖ Discrete or Line spectra
Continuous spectra:
A spectrum which consists of continuously frequency region with out broken up into lines or band is known as
continuous spectrum.
Example: The black body spectrum is an example of continuous spectra.
Band spectra:
A spectrum which consists of groups or bands of closely spaced lines is known as band spectrum.
Example: Molecular spectra are the examples of band spectra.
Discrete or Line spectra:
A spectrum which consists of isolated sharp parallel lines, each line corresponds to a definite wave length and frequency
is called discrete or line spectrum.
Example: Single atom emits discrete or line spectra.

|20.1 ATOMIC SPECTRA • • • y y ____________________ :____________ - •________________ 1

When an atomic gas or vapour is excited by passing an electric current through it, at pressure lower than atmosphere
pressure. The emitted radiation has a spectrum, which contains certain particular wavelengths. Better result is obtained
with spectrometer using diffraction grating.
If a narrow rectangular slit is in front of the source S
the light after passing through the prism has
impression in the form of lines on the plate. That is
why the spectrum is called line spectrum.
The spectrum of any element contains a set
of particular wavelengths that show definite
regularities. This fact is used in identifying different
elements in the second half of the 19th century.
These regularities were classified into certain groups
called spectral series.
CO LLEGE PHYSICS XII 380 ATOMIC SPECTRA

Balmer Series
In 1885 JJ Balmer identified the first such series in spectrum of hydrogen. This series is called Balmer series. It is in the
visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. In 1896 J.R Rydberg expressed the Balmer results in the mathematical form as

1 . 4 4 - 4 1
A \ 2 2 n 'J
Where R H =1.0974 x107n?'1 and n = 3,4,5.........
R h is called Rydberg's constant. This formula is known as Empirical Formula. Later on,
many series have been discovered and they help in predicting the arrangement of the
electrons in different atoms. The Balmer series contain wavelengths in the visible Red Blue Blue Violet UV
region of the hydrogen spectrum. Green
The spectral lines of Hydrogen in the ultraviolet and infrared regions fall into several other series.

Lyman Series
The series which contains the wavelengths in the ultra violet region is called Lyman series. The empirical
formula for Lyman series is given by
1 ( 1 ■n
T = r h Z T -— \ Where n = 2,3,4......
k Vi n j
In infrared region following three spectral series have been found.

Paschen Series
The wavelengths of spectral lines in Paschen series is given by the formula

Where n = 4,5,6.

Brackett Series
The wavelengths of spectral lines in Brackett series is given by the formula

7 = ......
Pfund Series
The wavelengths of spectral lines in Pfund series is given by the formula.
1 ( 1 1
* = R hI 5 w J Where n = 6,7,8......
The existence of these regularities in the hydrogen spectrum shows that these regularities are also present in
the spectrum of other complex elements. This
proposes that atoms of different elements have definite regular structure.

Wavelength. X
Line spectrum of atomic
hydrogen only the Balmer
series lies in the visible
region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Lyman Balmer series Paschen series

series

Helium was identified in the sun using spectroscopy before its was discovered on earth.
 COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 381 ATOMIC SPECTRA

20.2 BOHR'S MODEL OF HYDROGEN ATOM

Semi Classical Theory:
In 1913 Neils Bohr, devised a model of hydrogen atom by making use of Plank's quantum theory and classical
ideas. This theory is rather semi classical because it is not totally developed using the modern concepts.
Following are the three postulates of Bohr's theory.

Postulate I:
Electrons are moving around the nucleus in circular orbits. As long as an electron remains in any of the
permitted orbit, no energy is radiated. These orbits are called discrete (quantized) stationary states of the atom.

Postulate II:
Only those orbits are allowed in which the angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of — i.e.
2n

where n = 1, 2, 3,... and n is called the principal quantum number, m and v are the mass and velocity of the orbiting
electron respectively and h is the Plank's constant.
Postulate III:
Whenever an electron jumps from a high energy state E n to a lower energy state E p , a photon of energy h f is
emitted, such that
hf = E n - E p

The orbital electrons have specific amount of energies where as free electrons may have any
I amount of energy.

e-Broglie's Interpretation of Bohr's Orbits:

When Bohr gave this model in 1913, there was no explanation of the first and second postulates. The third one can be
explained on the basis of Plank's theory. Later on, after the emergence of Broglie's theory, the.second postulate can be
justified as follows.
Consider a string of length I. If the stationary waves are set on it, they will follow the following equation.
/ = n\ ---------------------- ( a )
Here n is an integer. Suppose that this string is bent into a circle of radius r. According to the above equation we have
/ = 2m ---------------------- (b)
CPLL59E PHYSIC? Xli 382 ATOMIC SPECTRA

Comparing (a) and (b) we have

2 m = nA .
Or / m 2" n r (c)
n
From the Broglie's hypothesis we have
■ (d)
mv
Comparing (c) and (d) we get
2n r h
n mv
On rearranging we get
nh
mvr
2TT
This is 2nd postulate.
igffflflffffiLfllffl
Consider electron of charge -e is revolving around the stationary positively charged nucleus of charge Ze. Where Z is the
atomic number of the atom.
Coulomb's law gives the electrostatic force of attraction between the positively charged nucleus and electron as
Ze.e
F . - K .-2

Since for Hydrogen atom Z= 1 so the above equation will become

_ , ee , e2 ...
F, = k —2 2 ----------------- (!)
rn r„
Here k is a constant having value9x109 Nm2C -2 .
If V„ is the speed of electron in the nth orbit of radius r„,
then the centripetal force required to move electron in circular orbit is
m v„‘
rc ~ ,(2)
Since this force is provided by Coulomb's attractive force hence
FC = F .
m v.2; 1,-2
ke4
(3)

ke2
Or (4)
m v:
In order to find vn we will use the'2nd postulate i.e.
h
mv" rn mn 2tt
_ nh
putting in equation (4)
0r V"” 2
ke
nh
m\
2nmr„
4 TT2km 2e 2r*
mn2h 2
n 2h 2
(4b)
4 n 2m e2k
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 383 ATOMIC SPECTRA

Or « rn = n 2r, --------- -------------(5)

h2
Here r, - ---------- -------------(6)
A n2me2k

AS h = 6.63x10'34J.S
m ■ 9.1x10"31K g
e = 1.6x10-19C
k = 9x10® Nm2C -2
Putting all these values In equation (5) we get
_____________ (g.63x1Q-34y ________
1 4xnr2 x 9.1 x 10_31x (i .6 x 10‘ 19/ x 9 x 109
r, - 0.053x1 O'9m
r, * 0.053 nm
so equation (5) can be written as
r„ * n 2 x 0.053 nm ------------------ (7)

Now for the first radius putting n = 1

r, ■ (1)1 x 0.053 nm
r, - 0.053 nm
is called the Bohr's first radius of Hydrogen atom and agrees with the experimentally measured value. Equations (5) and
(7) show that the radii of the electrons around the nucleus are quantized.
By using equation (5) putting n* 2, 3, 4,5, 6... we can find the radius of 2nd, third and other orbits l.e.
r„ - r 1p4 ^ 0 ^ 1 6 ^ ..........
Velocity:
Since from the 2nd postulate we have
nh
V - a --------------
2rrmrn
2 2
Putting the value of r„ rn = — n. h ,
4 TT*m9*k
nh
-
n*h
2nm
Air2m92k
in k * 2
Or Vn nh

uantized Energies
According to Bohr's second postulate, as long as an electron remains In any of the permissible orbit Its total energy
remains constant.
Since the total energy E n of electron In any orbit Is the sum of Its K.E and P.E so
£„ ■ K .E + P .E ---------------------- (8)

As K .£ -im v 2 ------------------ (a)

2
From equation (4)
CO LLEG E PHYSICS XII 384 ATOMIC SPECTRA

ke*
r. =
m vn
ke2
Or m v2
n=

Putting this value in equation (a)

ke2
K .E (9)
2 rn

As the potential at any distance rn from nucleus of hydrogen atom = —

And as by definition the potential energy is

P.E = Potential x charge of electron
_ _ ke ( \
Or P.E. = — x ( - e)

kei
P.E. = - ( 10 )

Putting the value of equation (8) and (9) in equation (7)

ke ke2
£ =
2r.n 'n
ke‘2
E = -
2r„
Putting the value of rn from equation (4b)
ke2
En = - 2*,2
n*h
" < 4/r 2m e2k
4 n 2e Ak 2m
E„=-
2n2h 2
r 2 n 2m k2e*
Or 1 ( 11)
n2 , h2 ,
2 n 2m k2e*
Let e0 = (c)

So E =-— (d)
n n2

As h = 6.63 x 10_34J .S
m = 9.1x1 O'31K g
e = 1.6 x 10_19C
k = 9 x 1 0 9 Nm2C -2

Putting all these values in the equation (c), the value of f „ can be calculated
2tt2 x 9.1x 10~31 x(9x10s ]f x (l.6 x 10~,9)f
(6.63 x 10-34)2
Or £ 0 =2 .1 7 x1 0 18J
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 385 ATOMIC SPECTRA

2.17 x 10-18 „
E 0 = -------------* T eV
1.6 x 10-19
E 0 = 13.6el/
Putting this value in equation (11)
En = - For n = 1,2,3...----------(12)
rr
The negative sign shows that much energy is required to remove the electron from the given orbit.
For n = 1 from equation (12)
13.6
= -13.6eV
(1f
This is called the normal or ground state energy of the H-atom. Similarly we can find the energies of the other orbits.

ixcitation Energy and Excitation Potential:

In order to move electron from the ground state to any required state we have to supply energy which is equal
to difference of energies between the two levels by some external source.
The atom is now said to be in excited state. So "the energy in electron volt required to raise an atom from its normal
state into a given excited state is known as excitation potential for that state".
So if V is the applied potential to accelerate the electron of charge e to required state. Then the potential difference V is
called the excitation potential. For example in case of Hydrogen atom
V,e = E 2 - E ,
Vye = -3.4 - (-13 .6) = 10.2e V
V, = 10.2V
Similarly the second and third excitation potential can be calculated.

ionization Energy and Ionization Potential:

The removal of an electron from the atom is called ionization. "The amount of energy required to remove an electron
from the ground state of an atom completely is called the ionization energy".
In case of Hydrogen atom
E, = Energy of electron in ground state = -1 3.6eV
E„ = Energy of the electron at infinity (ionized state) = 0 eV
So the required energy for ionization = £ „ - E ,
=0 - (-13.6)
= 13.6 eV

So the ionization energy of H- atom is 13.6 eV. And "the potential which causes the electron to move from the ground
state of an atom to infinite (ionized) is known as the ionization potential".
If we apply V volts to an electron of charge 'e' so that it escapes from its atom then
Ve = ionization energy = E „ - £.,
Ve = 0 -(-1 3 .6 )e V
Ve = 13.6eV
V = 13.6 Volts

Photon must have energy exactly equal to the energy difference between the two shells for excitation of an
atom but an electron with K.E. Greater that the required difference can excite the gas atoms.
CO LLEGE PHYSICS XII 386 ATOMIC SPECTRA

ydrogcn Emission Spectrum;

From the Bohr's postulate we know that when an electron jumps from the nth state (with higher energy) to the pth
state (with lower energy), the energy difference is emitted in the form of photon of energy hf j.e .
Since

2rr2m k2e*
Where
h2
And

Then from the postulate

hf = E n - E p

since f- ~ so
A E \ev)
he £0 (E o )
T n2 Ip2 J o n ■*
■0.28 n* 7
he ' 1 1 -0.38 n ■6

A E0 --- -T +- 7 - 0.54 n *5
L 0 P -0.85 n**
\
_1 E0 f'1 1
•1.51 n*3
A he
U 2 " 2J Patchin

Putting | ± m R H Rydberg's Constant = ^.097 x107m"1

-3.40 n* 2
Balmar
So

Where p* 1,2,3,4... *
This equation shows that whenever an electronic jump (transition) takes place, result
Serial Limit
Is the emission of radiation. These emitted radiations of different wavelengths
constitute different spectral lines, which is the characteristic of the atom.
This energy level diagram Is made on scale by keeping lower energy (more negative)
at the bottom and higher energy at the top by using the equation
E .--^ e V For n ■ 1, 2, 3,4... 13.80
Lyman
n* 1
n*
The vertical lines between energy levels simply indicate the permissible electron jump
from one level to another.

THE X MEANS UNKNOWN:

Roentgen named his discovery X-strahlen strahlen being German for "beam" or "ray,"
ONE OF THE EARLIEST X-RAYS WAS OF THE DISCOVERER'S WIFE'S HAND:
Like many scientists, Roentgen started out by experimenting on his wife. One of his first x-rays was of
his wife Anna Bertha's hand with her wedding ring on her finger
THEY ALLOWED US TO FIND THE STRUCTURE OF DNA:
Our understanding of the double-helix shape of DNA was provided in part by x-ray crystallography. A
technique In which x-rays bounce off the three-dimensional pattern of atoms within a crystal lattice to
form a shadow image of Its structure.
THEY CAN KILL CANCER:
Early experimenters with x-rays noticed that the rays had a tendency to burn skin.
 CO LLEGE PHYSICS XII 387 ATOMIC SPECTRA

20.3 INNER SHELL TRANSITIONS AND CHARACTERISTIC X-RAYS

Roentgen discovered X-rays in 1895. X-rays are electromagnetic waves of short
eltctron
wavelength in the range of 10A° to 0 .5 A °.
Energy Differences:
The transitions of electrons in the hydrogen atom or other light elements result in the
emission of spectral lines which lie in the infrared or visible or ultraviolet region. This is
due to the fact that the energy differences in the lighter elements are very small and
the emitted radiations are less intense. But if the electronic transitions take place in the
inner shells of heavy elements, radiations of high energy are emitted called X-rays.
Origin of X-Rays:
In heavy atoms there are many shells i.e. K, M, N etc which are occupied by the
electrons and the electrons which are in the outer orbits have greater energies as
compared to the inner shell electrons i.e. K, -L, M etc. A small amount of energy is
required to excite them or remove them and as a result radiations of large wavelengths high *r
(small energy) are emitted and they usually fall in the visible region.
But when the electrons from the inner most shells are excited or knocked off by a fast moving electron then the
radiations of very high energy are emitted (x-rays) and mathematically we can write them as
K.E of the accelerated electron =eV = />fmax
Where fmax is the frequency of the x-rays emitted with maximum energy. The two types of x-rays i.e. characteristic and
continuous depends whether the fast moving electron knocks off the inner electron or the electron just suffer
retardation in the given material. ,

■ROniJCriON nr X-RAYS I
An arrangement of producing X-rays is shown. It
consists of following important components.
Vacuum Tube:
A highly vacuumed tube is used to
envelope all the components inside it and is Low
called the X-rays tube. volUge

Cathode:'
Here the cathode Is heated by a filament
F, It emits electrons and they are accelerated
towards the anode T.
Anode:
The anode Is basically the target material which emits X-rays. Since during X-ray production, the anode is
heated to high temperatures so anode is made up of a metal of high melting point like cadmium, tungsten or
molybdenum. The usual method is to mount the target material on a hollow copper tube through which cold water Is
continuously circulated. Sometime air cooled target fitted with aluminum is also used.
High PD: A high potential difference (25 to 100 kV) Is maintained between cathode and anode.
If V is the potential difference between C and T, the kinetic energy with which the electron strike the target Is given by
K .E. ■ Ve ----------(1)
It Is possible that in a collision, the electrons in the innermost shell like K or L will be knocked out. Suppose that
one electron In the K shell is removed by producing a vacancy there. The electrons from the higher shell like L or M etc
Jump to fill this vacancy by emitting the energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations of very short wavelength (x-
rays). If the electron from L shell Jumps to K shell, then the K 0 X-rays photon is emitted with energy
hfk a ~ E L - E K ---------- ( 2 )
It is also possible that the electron from the M shell might also Jump to occupy the hole In the K-shell by emitting
a photon of energy
i -&K (3)
 COLLEGE PHYSICS XII ATOMIC SPECTRA

Why it is called Characteristic:

This x-rays photon is called K p X-rays. The photons in such transitions i.e. inner shell transitions are called
characteristic X-rays because their energies depend upon the type of target material.
Further Transitions:
The holes created in the L and M shells are occupied by the transitions of electrons from higher states creating
more x-rays.

HARACTERISTIC X-RAYS
Few of the fast moving electrons may strike the tightly bound electrons of the target atoms and their velocities are so
high that it may knock off the electron even from the inner most shell e.g. K shell, L shell etc. The electrons from the
higher shells may fill up vacancies so created by bombarding electrons.
Hence due to these electronic transitions the energy difference is radiated in the form of x-rays of very small but of
definite wavelengths (or frequencies). X-ray so produced have wavelengths depending
upon the target materials. The x-ray spectra in this case, consists of sharp lines which
are the characteristic of the target material and hence called the characteristic spectra
or line spectra. Let a high velocity electron knock off an electron from K-shell and
vacancy so created is being filled up by an electron of a nearer L-shell by emitting an x-
ray photon. This corresponds to K a line of K series. If the electronic jump occur from M-
shell, N-shell etc, then respectively K p,K r lines will be emitted.
Similarly if electrons jumps from higher shells to L-shell,
M-shell etc, then L-series [La,L p ,L Y—) M-series
(Af0,/lf/3)M(,...)will be emitted.

U l E CONTINUOUS X-RAY SPECTRUM

When few of the fast moving electrons from cathode strike the target and penetrate deep inside the aioms 01 ihe target
material an<fare attracted by attractive forces of their nuclei. While passing inside (close to the nucleus) attractive force
of nucleus of an atom, an electron gets deflected from its original path and faces retardation.
Therefore, the sudden changes in the velocity of electron due to deflection in the strong field of nuclei or collision with
nuclei give rise to loss of energy. Thus the loss of energy during retardation is emitted in the form of electromagnetic
radiations (x-rays). The x-rays so emitted from the target consist of a continuous range of frequencies up to maximum
frequency and is called as continuous x-ray spectrum. This effect is known as bremsstrahlung or breaking radiation.
Maximum Energy:
In this case when the electrons lose all their kinetic energy in the first collision, the entire kinetic energy appears as a x-
ray photon of energy hfmax i.e.
K .E. = hfmax
The wavelength ^mln in the given spectrum corresponds to frequency fmax . Other electrons do not lose all their energy in
the first collision. They may suffer a number of collisions before coming to rest. This will give rise to photons of smaller
energy or x-rays of longer wavelength. Thus the continuous spectrum is obtained.

ROPERTIES AND USES OF X-RAY:

X-rays are mostly used in medical diagnostics and treatment. They can pass through flesh but
not through bones so they are used to find fractures inside the bones. Their industrial use involves the
visualization of interiors of the materials opaque to ordinary light e.g. to see the defects in structural
steel.
The object to be visualized is placed between an x-ray source and a large sheet of photographic film.
The darkening of the film is proportional to the radiation exposure. A crack or air bubble allows greater
amount of x-rays to pass. This appears as a dark area on the photographic film. Shadow of bones
appears lighter than the surrounding flesh. It is due to the fact that bones contain greater proportion of
elements with high atomic number so they absorb greater amount of x-rays as compared to flesh or blood
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 389 ATOMIC SPECTRA

It is a special technique developed on x-rays and is called computerized axial

tomography and the corresponding instrument is called CAT-Scanner. The x-ray
source produces a thin fan-shaped beam that is detected on the opposite side of the
subject by an array of several hundred detectors in a line. Each detector measures
absorption of x-rays along a thin line through the subject. The entire apparatus is rotated
around the subject in the plane of the beam during a few seconds. The changing
reactions of the detectors are recorded digitally. A computer processes this information
and reconstructs a picture of different densities over an entire cross-section of the
subject. Density differences of the order of one percent can be detected with CAT-Scans.

Due to their immense energy the x-rays can cause damage to living tissue. The absorbed x-rays break molecular
bonds and create highly reactive radicals (such as H and OH), which in turn can disturb the molecular structure of the
proteins and especially the genetic material. Young and rapidly growing cells are particularly affected. Due to this reason
x-rays can also be useful for selective destruction of cancer cells.
On the other hand a cell may be damaged due to x-rays bombardment, continue dividing and produces generation of
defective cells. Thus x-rays can cause a cancer. Excessive exposure to the x-rays can cause more serious damage to the body.

❖ X-rays are widely used in industry. They are used to detect defects in radio valves, tennis balls, rubber tyres and
presence of pearls in oysters.
❖ They are also used to test the uniformity of the insulating materials and quality of oil paintings.
❖ For engineering purposes they are used to check the cracks in the structure of metals.
❖ They are used to test the quality of welding, moulds and metal cuttings.
❖ They are also used to check the cracks in the boy of aeroplane and cars.
❖ For research purposes they are widely used to st-udy the structure of crystals, arrangements of atoms and molecules
in matter.
❖ X-rays are commonly used to detect the smuggling of precious metals, explosives and other contraband goods like
opium etc sealed in parcels and leather cases at the airports and custom posts.

This two-dimensional CAT scan of a brain

reveals a large intracranial tumor colored
purple.) (B) Three-dimensional CAT scans
are now available and this example reveals
an arachnoid cyst (colored yellow ) within
a skull. In both photographs the colors are
artificial having been computer generated
to aid in distinguishing anatomical features.

In CAT scanning a fanned-out array of X-ray beams is directed through the

patient from a number of different orientations
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 390 ATOMIC SPECTRA

20.4 UNCERTAINTY WITH IN THE ATOM

One of the characteristic of dual nature of matter is a fundamental limitation in the accuracy of the
simultaneous measurement of the position and momentum of the particles and is given by uncertainty principle as
ApAx mh
(1)

In Atoms:
In atoms these limitations are much significant. To show this let us find that whether the electrons is present
inside the nucleus of the atom or not. To solve this we make use of equation (1) in a way to find the velocity of the
electron with in the nuclear dimensions i.e. 10~u m , Equation (1) can be written as
m AvAx m h
a h
Or mAx .............................. (2)
The constant values are given by
h = 6.63 x 10-34 J .s
m = 9.1.x 10~31/tg

Velocity of electron in Nucleus:

The velocity of the electron inside the nucleus can be calculated by using the nuclear diameter as the
uncertainty in the position, so equation (2) becomes
A h
ft)A x
A 6,63 x 10~34
9.1x10 31 x10 '14
Or Av * 7.3 x 1Q10ft7*"1
This means that the velocity of the electron inside the nucleus is even much greater than the velocity of light. But as the
electron is a material particle which can not exceed the speed of light hence we can conclude that the electron can not
reside with In the nucleus.

Velocity of electron outside the Nucleus:

The velocity of electron outside the nucleus can be calculated by using the distance to the radius of the
hydrogen atom I.e. 5 x 10“11/n. Equation (2) can be written as

. 6.63 x10~34
AV m------------rr------------ rr
9.1 x 1 0 '31x 5 x 10‘ 11
Av * 1 .4 6 x1 0 7ft)«-1
Note:
This speed of the electron Is less than the speed of light; therefore, It can exist In the atom but outside the nucleus.

20.5 LASER

The term LASER stands for Light Amplification By Stimulated Emission of Radiation. The laser Is a device which
produces very narrow beam of radiations having following properties.
❖ Intense
❖ Unidirectional
❖ Coherent
❖ Monochromatic
Laser of different power and application can be produced by using different materials.
CO LLEGE PHYSICS XII 391 ATOMIC SPECTRA

PONTANEOUS AND STIMULATED EMISSION:

Three kinds of transitions involving electromagnetic radiations are possible between two energy levels
E 1 an d E2 in an atom.
1. If the atom is initially in the lower state £ 1, it can be raised to E 2 by absorbing a photon of energy.
E2- E , = h f
This process is called induced absorption or stimulated absorption. — j ---- E,
2. If the atom is initially in the excited state E 2, it can drop to E , by emitting a
---- *---- E,
photon of energy hf. This is called spontaneous emission. Usually an excited
(a) Induced absorption
electron takes 10"8 sec to come to its original state.
3. The process in which de-excitation of an atom is caused by an incident photon
with the emission of a second photon of same energy and in phase with the
-----------E,
incident photon is called stimulated emission.
(b) Spontaneous amission
Einstein suggested that under certain conditions it is possible to force an excited atom
to emit a photon by an other matching photon. According to Einstein an atom in
excited energy state may, under the influence of the electromagnetic field of a photon W-wA—>
of frequency f incident upon it, jump to a lower energy state emitting an additional
photon of same frequency f. This is known as stimulated emission of radiation. The (c) Induced emission
result is an enhance beam of coherent light.

OPULATION INVERSION AND LASER ACTION

The laser principle simply involves the de-excitation of an atom to lower energy state, under the influence of
electromagnetic field of a photon of frequency f. During this de-excitation, the excited electron emits a photon in
addition to the incident photon having the same frequency f. Thus now two photons move instead of one. In short, the
excited atom emits light waves in steps with the incoming wave and increases its intensity. The radiated light waves are
exactly in phase with the incident ones. So the result is an enhanced beam of light.

a) Normal Population
A normal population of atomic energy (Thermal Equilibrium)
states, with more atomic in the lower
energy state E1; than in the excited state E2. -----------— --------- e 3
----- --------------------Ej
-E,
A population inversion, in which the higher
b) Population Inversion
energy state has greater population than
the lower energy state. Ea---------
E 2----------- --------------
Ei ...................... ....

yA.-UrlaUdiJMsK
The key to laser is the presence of one or more excited
energy levels in many atoms whose lifetime may be
10~3 sec or more instead of usual 10'* sec. Such relatively
long lived states are called metastable states.
A medium which may be solid, liquid or gas is introduced
In a chamber. The chamber consists of two parallel
mirrors facing each other called optical cavity. One of the
mirrors is only partially silvered to allow the beam to
Fig 20.10
CO LLEG E PHYSICS XII 392 ATOMIC SPECTRA

Under normal conditions there are mostly few excited states in an atom, so special methods are used to increase the
number of excited states. This process is called the population inversion. A number of ways exist to produce a
population inversion. One of them is called Optical pumping. Here an external light source is used; some of whose
photons have the right frequency to raise the atoms to excited states that decay spontaneously into the desired
metastable state.
E 2 is the metastable state and transition from or to this state is difficult as compared to other excited states.
Hence instead of direct excitation to this state, the electrons are excited to higher level for spontaneous fall to
metastable state. t
In order to excite the atom to higher excited state (E3), let a photon of energy hf = E 3 - E , is incident on the atom so
that the electron moves from the first to the third energy state. Now the electron may decay directly to the ground state
but mostly it first decays from E 1to £ 2 (which is a metastable state). This eventually leads to the situation that the state
E 2 contains more atoms than state E , . This situation is called population inversion.
a) Normal Population
(Thermal Equillibrium) b) Population Inversion

------------- ------ ----------- c 3 e3

.................... ..... ........... e 2 p.
—2
Ei

A normal population of atomic energy states, with moraHA population inversion, in which the higher energy state
atomic in the lower energy state El, than in the excitedBhas greater population than the lower energy state,
state

Fig 20.11
Laser Action
Once the population inversion has been reached, the lasing action of
laser is simple to achieve. The atoms in the metastable state E 2 are bombarded
by photons of energy hf = E 2 - £ , , resulting the stimulated (induced) emission.
The photons so produced are monochromatic (same frequency) and coherent (in
phase). They are reflected back and forth between the mirrors to stimulate more
and more excited atoms to emit photons. As the process continues, the number
of photons multiplies to produce an intense mono-chromatic beam of radiation.
elium Neon Lase
It is most common type of laser used in physics laboratories. Its discharging tube is filled with 85% helium and 15% neon
gas. Here neon is the lasing or active medium. By chance, helium and neon have nearly identical metastable states,
respectively located 20.61 eV and 20.66 eV level..
The high voltage electric discharge excites the electrons in some of the helium atoms to 20.61 eV level.
Population Inversion:
Neon
In this laser population inversion in neon is achieved by direct collisions Helium
Metastable ■r — Metastable ■ 000^00
with same energy electrons of helium atoms. Thus excited helium atoms collide
'/WiotSn
with neon atoms, each transferring its own 20.61 eV of energy to an electron
along with 0.05 eV of K.E. from the moving atoms. As a result, the electrons in
neon atoms are raised to the 20.66 eV state. In this way a population inversion 20.61 eV 20 66 eV
16.70 eV
is sustained in the neon gas relative to an energy level of 18.70 eV.
Stimulated Emission: Ground
Ground
Spontaneous emission from neon atoms causes the laser action and State State

stimulated emission causes electrons in the neon to drop from 20.66 eV to the
Fig 20.12
18.70eV level and red laser light of wavelength 632.8 nm corresponds to 1.96 eV energy.
 COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 393 ATOMIC SPECTRA

SES OF LASER IN MEDICINE AND INDUSTRY

❖ Laser beams are used as surgical tool for welding detached retinas.
❖ This narrow intense beam of laser can be used to destroy tissue in a localized area.
❖ Using laser tiny organelles in the living cells are destroyed to check the behavior of cell in the absence of organelle.
❖ The narrow intense beam of laser can be used to destroy cancerous and pre-cancerous cell.
❖ The heat of the laser seals off capillaries and lymph vessels to prevent spread of the disease.
❖ A laser beam can also be used to drill tiny holes in the hardest material like steel or diamond.
♦> The precise straightness of laser beam is used to check the lining up of equipment especially in inaccessible
locations.
❖ A high power laser is used to induce nuclear fusion reaction.
❖ Laser can.be used as range finder over large distances.
❖ It can be used for telecommunication along optical fibers.
❖ Laser beam can be used to generate three dimensional images of objects in a process called holography.
k •> Laser is used to break stones in gall blader and kidney. The device is known as Lithotripmeter.

The helium-neon laser beam is being used

to diagnose diseases of the eye.
The use of laser technology in the field of
ophthalmology is widespread.

/
COLLEGE PHYSICS XII 394 ATOMIC SPECTRA

IMPORTANT FORMIJLE
ATOMIC SPECTRA Quantized Radii:
Lyman Series n 2h 2
1 f 1 1 " Atr2m e2k
X * R h I i ’ n’
Balmer Series r< =
4 tr 2me2k
i- R < ' --L ] r0 = n V ,
* - * " ( ¥ n’ j
rn - rn 4r1t 9r1f 16r1t.
Paschen Series
Quantized velocity
l_ o f i 1' 2 trke2
A H 32 n2 Vn ' nh
Brackett Series Quantized Energies
f 1
1] 1 f 2rr2m k 2e 4 )

II
3~l
3n
i - * U2 n2J l h2 j
Pfund Series 2rr2mk 2eA
*„ =
1 -R ( 1 1 '
l M[ ? nJ
Second postulate of Bohr's theory E = ——
n n2
( h ' 13.6
2rr. E„=- eV For n = 1,2,3..,
n*
Third postulate of Bohr's theory Hydrogen Emission Spectrum:
hf = E „ - E p * 1 _1_
X-Rays: a - r * ,P ‘ _2
Mka ~= E,
C L ~- EUK
,
Mkp - Eh E

GLOSSARY
Ionization Potential The energy needed to remove the electron from an atom or molecule to infinite distance
Laser Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Spectroscopy The branch of physics, which deals with the investigation of wavelengths and intensities of
electromagnetic radiations emitted or absorbed by atoms, is called spectroscopy.
Excitation Potential The energy needed to move electron from the ground state to any required state.