Biochemical and Molecular Roles of Nutrients
Thermogenic Capacity of Brown Adipose Tissue Is
Reduced in Rats Fed a High Protein,
Carbohydrate-Free Diet1
MARCIA N. BRITO,2 NILTON A. BRITO* AND RENATO
Departments of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Medicine,
Uniuersidade de Sao Paulo, 14049 Ribeirà o Preto, Sâo Paulo, Brazil
ABSTRACT The functional state of interscapular
brown adipose tissue (IBAT) was examined in rats fed
for 20-30 d a high protein, carbohydrate-free diet [70%
(wt/wt) protein, 8% fat] or a balanced diet (66% carbo
hydrate, 17% protein, 8% fat). In rats fed the high
protein diet, body weight did not differ from that of
control rats, but relative IBAT weight (grams per 100 g
body wt) and lipid concentration (per gram of tissue)
were 37% and 14% lower, respectively. In vivo rates of
lipogenesis in IBAT, epididymal and retroperitoneal
adipose tissue of rats fed the high protein diet were 20,
30 and 40%, respectively, of control values. Mitochon
dria! protein and cytochrome oxidase activity per total
IBAT were significantly lower in rats fed the high protein
diet than in controls; GDP binding was lower even when
expressed per total tissue or per milligram of mitochon
dria! protein. The increase of IBAT temperature following
norepinephrine infusion was significantly smaller than in
controls. It is suggested that the decrease in IBAT ca
pacity in the rats fed the high protein diet was due, at
least in part, to a sustained reduction of sympathetic
activity. J. Nutr. 122: 2081-2086, 1992.
INDEXING KEY WORDS:
•cytochrome oxidase •GDP binding
•fatty acid synthesis •norepinephrine
•rats
Brown adipose tissue (BAT) has been shown to be a
major contributor to nonshivering thermogenesis
during.cold acclimation (Foster and Frydman 1978) as
well as to diet-induced thermogenesis in small
mammals (Rothwell and Stock 1979). The partici
pation of BAT in diet-induced thermogenesis has been
clearly demonstrated in hyperphagic rats fed a varied
and palatable (cafeteria) diet, in which the marked
increase in energy intake induces an increase in total
body thermogenesis that is paralleled by hypertrophy
and increased thermogenic capacity of BAT (Rothwell
and Stock 1979). Conversely, BAT thermogenesis is
reduced by fasting and chronic food restriction
0022-3166/92 $3.00 ©1992 American Institute of Nutrition.
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H. MIGLIORINI3
(Hayashi and Nagasaka 1983, Rothwell and Stock
1982). Notwithstanding the important role played by
the total energy intake, the functional state of BAT
also seems to be influenced by the macronutrient
composition of the diet, particularly the protein
content. Thus, in rats fed a low protein diet, hyper
trophy of BAT may occur without an increase in
energy intake (Teague et al. 1981). Enhanced GDP-
binding activity and increase in BAT mass have been
found in rats fed low protein diets, despite relatively
small increases in energy intake, which differed from
control values only when corrected for body weight
(Rothwell et al. 1983, Swick and Gribskov 1983).
Also, in experiments with rats fed hyperenergetic,
cafeteria diets of various protein concentrations (7, 23
or 37%), all groups of animals showed the expected
increases in BAT mass and protein content, but the
largest changes occurred in the rats fed the low
protein diet (Rothwell et al. 1982). The effect on BAT
activity of diets rich in protein but of normal energy
density has not been hitherto investigated.
In previous studies from this laboratory, several
aspects of carbohydrate and fat metabolism have been
investigated in rats adapted to a high protein, carbo
hydrate-free purified diet (Botion et al. 1984, Ket
telhut et al. 1980 and 1985, Schmid et al. 1984). In thè
course of these studies it was found that the amount
of interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) was
reduced in these animals, when compared with
1Supported by grants from the Fundaçaode Amparo à Pesquisa
do Estado de Sao Paulo (FAPESP 90/0944-5), from the Conselho
Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃ-fico e Tecnológico (CNPq
400804/90), and Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP
43.87.0656.00).
^During this study M. N. Brito and N. A. Brito received fellow
ships from the Coordenaçao de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de
Nivel Superior (CAPES).
3To whom correspondence should be addressed.
Received 3 March 1992. Accepted 25 June 1992.
2081
 2082 BRITO ET AL.

control rats fed a balanced, approximately isoener- were performed between 1400-1600 h. Care and
getic diet (unpublished observations). In the experi treatment of experimental animals received prior in
ments described in the present report, the effect of the stitutional approval.
high protein diet on the functional state of IBAT was In vivo lipogenesis and IBAT lipid content. Rats
investigated by determining the tissue weight, the were injected intraperitoneally with 3H2U (148 MBq;
rate of fatty acid synthesis, the mitochondrial protein Amersham International, Amersham, U.K.) in 0.75
content, cytochrome oxidase activity and GDP- mL of saline and killed by decapitation 60 min after
binding, as well as the response of IBAT temperature radioisotope injection. The IBAT was removed, care
to norepinephrine infusion. fully cleaned of adhering fat and muscle, and weighed.
Tissue lipids were extracted from the central part of
IBAT, as well as from samples of epididymal and
MATERIALS AND METHODS retroperitoneal adipose tissue laying over the psoas,
using the procedure of Folch et al. (1957). For iso
Animals and treatment. Rats of Wistar origin were lation of 3H-labeled fatty acids, the lipid extract was
obtained from the Faculty colony, which has re saponified with ethanolic KOH, washed three times
mained closed for -40 y. Male rats initially weighing with petroleum ether to remove nonsaponifiable
60-80 g were individually housed in suspended, wire- lipids, acidified with sulfuric acid and then extracted
bottom cages in a room maintained at 23 ±2°Cwith a
with chloroform. A sample of the chloroform extract
12-h lightrdark cycle. The animals were adapted for was evaporated under nitrogen and the 3H-labeled
20-30 d to a high protein, carbohydrate-free purified fatty acids dissolved in toluene-diphenyloxazole for
diet or to a balanced, control diet (Table 1). As in counting in a LS 7000 Beckman spectrometer
previous experiments with the same diets (Kettelhut (Beckman Instruments, Palo Alto, CA). The specific
et al. 1980), after an initial adaptation period of a few radioactivity of body water was determined directly
days, the amount of food ingested and the rate of body in aliquots of plasma (10 uL of a 1/20 dilution) dis
weight gain were similar for the two groups of rats. solved in toluene-Triton-diphenyloxazole. Rates of
Rats weighed 180-230 g when used for the experi fatty acid synthesis in tissues were calculated fol
ments. All experiments were conducted between lowing the assumptions of Windmueller and Spaeth
0800-1100 h, except for the measurements of IBAT (1966).
temperature after norepinephrine infusion, which For the gravimetric determination of IBAT fat
content, tissue lipids were extracted by the procedure
of Folch et al. (1957).
Measurement of cytochrome oxidase and GDP
binding. IBAT mitochondria were isolated as
TABLE 1 described by Cannon and Lindberg (1979) and sus
pended in 0.25 mol/L sucrose to a final protein con
Composition of diets centration of 8-10 g/L. The activity of cytochrome
oxidase (EC 1.9.3.1) was determined spec-
protein
dietg/100g86——8
ComponentCasein1CornstarchSucroseCorn diet2033338 trophotometrically by the procedure of Cooperstein
and Lazarow (1951), after previous treatment of
mitochondria with 1 g/L Triton X-100. The
cytochrome C used in the enzyme assay was prepared
by dithionite reduction of a cytochrome C from horse
oil heart (Type III, Sigma Chemical, St. Louis, MO) fol
Salt mixture^ 5 5117.29 lowed by filtration through Sephadex G-25 columns
mixture3Energy
Vitamin 115.69High equilibrated with nitrogen-saturated buffer (Yonetani
density,4 kf/g dietControl and Ray 1965). Binding of purine nucleotide to iso
'Casein contained 82% protein (N x 6.25), 7% water, 1.23% fat lated mitochondria was measured with [3H]GDP
and 6.4% ash. (Amersham) as described by Nicholls (1976), except
2Salt mixture contained |g/kg|: KH2PO4, 389; CaCO3, 381.4; that [14C]inulin (NEN Products, Du Pont, Boston,
NaCl, 139.2; MgSO4-7H2O, 57.3; FeSO4-7H2O, 27; MnSO4-H2O, MA) was used to correct for the amount of [3H]GDP
4.01; KI, 0.79; ZnSO4-7H2O, 0.548; CuSO4-5H2O, 0.477;
CaCl2-6H2O, 0.023.
in the trapped medium. Mitochondrial protein was
3Vitamin mixture contained (g/kg|: retinyl palmitate, 0.1; determined by the method of Lowry et al. (1951), with
cholecalciferol, 0.002; all-rac-a-tocopherol acetate, 1.0; p- bovine serum albumin as the standard.
aminobenzoic acid, 10; inositol, 10; niacin, 4; calcium pan- Response of IBAT temperature to norepinephrine
tothenate, 4; riboflavin, 0.8; thiamin hydrochloride, 0.5; pyridoxine injection. Animals were anesthetized with pentobar-
hydrochloride, 0.5; menadione, 0.5; folie acid, 0.2; biotin, 0.04; bital (40 mg/kg, i.p.), and a catheter was inserted into
cyanocobalamin, 0.003; choline chloride, 200; glucose, 768.35.
^he energy density was estimated applying the coefficients (kf/
the right jugular vein using a Silastic tubing (no.
g) 16.51, 17.34 and 37.56 for carbohydrate, protein and fat, respec
602-135, Dow Corning, Midland, MI). The IBAT tem
tively. perature was measured by making a small surgical
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 HIGH PROTEIN DIET AND BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE 2083

TABLE 2
Weight and lipid content of interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) of rats adapted to the high protein or control diet1

DietControl weightg212 weightmg contentmg/g

wt543 mg/100 g body IBAT604
IBAT mg/total
±3 ±27 256 ±11 ±26 328 ± 4
High proteinBody 207 ±3IBAT 335 ±21*' 161 ±12**Lipid 523 ±27* 175 ±10*
'Values are means ±SEM,n - 14; 'P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 vs. control.

incision above the IBAT and placing a small ther per 100 g body wt) was reduced to 63% of the weight
mistor between the two lobes of the tissue. Core in control rats (Table 2). There was a small (-14%)
(colonie) temperature was measured by inserting a but statistically significant decrease in IBAT lipid
similar thermistor 5 cm beyond the anus. Skeletal concentration (per gram of tissue) in rats fed the high
muscle temperature was monitored through a needle protein diet. When expressed per total tissue, IBAT
thermistor (256S, Dixtal Tecnologia, Ribeiräo Preto, lipid content was reduced to -53% of control values.
S. P., Brazil) inserted into the left quadriceps muscle. It can be estimated that there was 25% less of the
lipid-free mass of IBAT in rats fed the high protein
Norepinephrine was infused through the jugular vein
catheter at a rate of 20 ug/(100 g body wt-min). diet (Table 2).
Statistical analysis. Student's £test was used to The data in Figure 1 show that rates of fatty acid
synthesis in epididymal and retroperitoneal adipose
analyze the results, with P < 0.05 considered sig
tissue were about 30 and 40% of control values,
nificant.
respectively, in rats fed the high protein diet. This
difference was even more marked in IBAT (20% of
RESULTS control values).
The amount of mitochondrial protein did not differ
Adaptation of rats to the high protein diet resulted in the two experimental groups when expressed per
in a decrease of IBAT weight, which (when expressed unit tissue weight, but was significantly less in rats
fed the high protein diet when calculated for total
IBAT (Table 3). Likewise, the activity of cytochrome
oxidase per milligram of mitochondrial protein was
similar in the two groups, but the enzyme activity per
CONTROL total IBAT was significantly less in the rats fed the
high protein diet (Table 3). On the other hand, GDP
HIGH PROTEIN binding was significantly lower in rats adapted to the
o
high protein diet even when expressed per milligram
of mitochondrial protein. When expressed per total
5.
IBAT, GDP binding in the rats fed the high protein
co diet was -40% of that in animals fed the control diet
co
UJ (Table 3).
I The response of IBAT temperature to
I-
z norepinephrine infusion was clearly smaller in the
>
rats adapted to the high protein diet (Table 4, Fig. 2).
After 3 min of infusion, maximal increase in IBAT
temperature in rats fed the high protein diet was
<
<50% of that in control animals. Responses of colonie
V and skeletal muscle temperatures to norepinephrine
infusion were smaller than that of IBAT and did not
differ significantly between the two groups of rats
(Table 4).
EPI RETRO IBAT

FIGURE 1 Rates of in vivo fatty acid synthesis in

epididymal (EPI) and retroperitoneal (RETRO) adipose tissue
DISCUSSION
and interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) in rats fed the
high protein or control diet. Data are means ±SEM for seven The data reported here clearly show that adap
animals; 'P < 0.05, **P < 0.01 vs. control. tation of rats to a high protein, carbohydrate-free diet
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 2084 BRITO ET AL.

TABLE 3

Mitochondria! protein, cytochrome oxidase activity and GDP binding in interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT) of rats adapted
to the high protein or control diet1

Diet
ControlBody
gIBATweight,
mgMitochondrial
weight,
proteinmg/g
IBATmg/total
IBATCytochrome
activitymmol/(mg
oxidase
protein-min)mmol/(total
mitochondrial
IBAT-min)GDP
bindingpmol/mg
proteinpmol/total
mitochondrial
IBAT2094798.113.881.054.07138535±±±±±±±±3220.480.250.060.391148High2053207.922.530.992.5090228protein±±±±Â
'Values for mitochondrial metabolic measurements are means ±SEMof seven experiments,- tissues from 2-3 rats were used for each
experiment. Values for body and IBAT weight are means ±SEMof the 17 animals used. 'P < 0.05 vs. control.

results in a reduction of BAT thermogenic capacity. 1984, Young et al. 1985). It was found that the higher
The first indication of a decrease in the amount of the protein concentration of the diet, the lower the
metabolically active tissue was the reduction in IBAT turnover of norepinephrine, even under circum
wet weight and of the tissue lipid-free mass. The stances of equal growth and total energy intake
reduction of tissue weight was accompanied by (Johnston and Balachandran 1987, Kaufman et al.
decreases in active tissue mass and mitochondrial 1986). Also, changing the proportion of protein in the
mass, as evidenced by the reduction in total diet was found to be more effective in altering
mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase activity and norepinephrine turnover than changing the
mitochondrial protein. These findings, together with proportion of carbohydrate (Van der Tuig and Romsos
the decrease in mitochondrial binding of GDP, 1984). It would thus seem that the main factor in the
strongly suggest that the total amount of uncoupling reduction of BAT size and activity in rats fed the high
protein is reduced in IBAT of rats adapted to the high protein diet was a sustained reduction of sympathetic
protein diet. The decrease in thermogenic capacity of activity, induced predominantly by the high concen
BAT is further confirmed by the reduced response of tration of dietary protein. The sympathetic sup
IBAT temperature to norepinephrine infusion. pression induced by dietary protein was probably
It is well established that BAT has a central role in mediated by integrative centers in the central nervous
the adjustment of overall body energy expenditure of system. Numerous studies, reviewed by Himms-
small rodents to the level of energy intake, so as to Hagen (1989), suggest that chemical signals elicited
avoid obesity in case of excess energy intake by qualitative or quantitative changes in the diet
(Rothwell and Stock 1979) or to conserve energy
when the energy intake is reduced (Rothwell and
Stock 1982). However, the marked reduction of BAT
size and functional state here observed in the rats fed
the high protein diet should be attributed to the TABLE 4
composition of their diet and not to a reduced energy
intake. The difference in energy density between the Response of interscapular brown adipose tissue (IBAT), colonie
and skeletal muscle temperature to intravenous infusion of
two purified diets used was <10%, and the rate of norepinephrine ¡20\ig/(100 g-min)] in rats adapted
body weight gain did not differ between the two to the high protein or control diet1
experimental groups, as evidenced by body weights at
the time of the experiments (Tables 2 and 3). Diet IBAT Skeletal muscle Colon
It has been shown that the turnover of maximal temperature increase f'C)
norepinephrine in several sympathetically innervated Control 0.96 ±0.07 0.25 ±0.04 0.14 ±0.04
High protein 0.43 ±0.03* 0.13 ±0.05 0.11 ±0.06
organs, including BAT, is influenced by the concen
tration of dietary protein (Johnston and Balachandran 'Values are means ±SEMfor 6 (control diet-fed) or 10 (high
1987, Kaufman et al. 1986, Vander Tuig and Romsos protein diet-fed) animals. 'P < 0.05 vs. control.
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 HIGH PROTEIN DIET AND BROWN ADIPOSE TISSUE
1.0-,
0.6-
CONTROL
uj 0.3-
OL
fNE INFUSION
£0.6 3 min
O3-
HIGH PROTEIN
0.0-
3 min
FIGURE 2 Records of interscapular brown adipose tissue
temperature following a 3-min infusion of norepinephrine
(NE) [20 (ig/jlOO g body wt-min)] in representative rats of
the groups fed the high protein or the control diet.
modulate the activity of sympathetic neurons in the
ventromedial region and in other hypothalamic areas
that control BAT thermogenesis.
Fatty acids are both substrates and uncoupling
messengers for BAT mitochondria, and thermogenesis
is associated with activation of lipid metabolism in
the tissue. The marked reduction of BAT fatty acid
synthesis in rats adapted to the high protein diet can
also be interpreted on the basis of a hypothalamic-
mediated suppression of sympathetic activity. Indeed,
it was found in short-term experiments that electrical
stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus mar
kedly increases lipid synthesis in BAT (Shimazu and
Takahashi 1980) and that this effect is almost com
pletely abolished after sympathetic denervation of the
tissue (Minokoshi et al. 1986). On the other hand,
because rats fed high protein diets have low concen
trations of circulating insulin and high concentrations
of glucagon (Eisenstein et al. 1979, Peret et al. 1981),
the finding that insulin stimulates BAT lipogenesis,
both in vivo (Agius and Williamson 1980 and 1981,
McCormack 1982, McCormack and Dentón 1977)
and in brown adipocytes in vitro (Saggerson et al.
1988), raises the possibility of the reduced lipogenesis
being due, at least in part, to a low insulin:glucagon
ratio at the tissue level. In fact, the contribution of
direct effects due to changes in the circulating levels
of hormones and metabolites on the tissues of rats fed
the high protein diet cannot be excluded for any of
the modifications of BAT metabolism here reported.
In previous studies (Botion et al. 1984, Kettelhut et
al. 1985, Schmid et al. 1984), we showed that adap
tation of rats to the same high protein diet used here
resulted in a marked reduction of overall lipogenic
activity, as evidenced by decreased rates of in vivo
incorporation of label from tritiated water into tria-
cylglycerols in liver, carcass and four types of adipose
tissue depot. Despite the drastically reduced lipo
genesis, body fat stores were well preserved, carcass
fatty acid content being -90% of that in controls after
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2085
30 d (Schmid et al. 1984). Theoretically, the relatively
small loss of body fat in rats fed the high protein diet
could be explained by a more efficient utilization of
dietary lipid for storage purposes and/or by decreased
rates of fat oxidation for energy requirements. If in
fact this occurs, the data in the present work suggest
that in animals fed diets rich in protein a decrease in
BAT thermogenic capacity contributes to a reduction
in the utilization of other energy-yielding compo
nents of the diet. However, further studies on the
energy balance of rats fed high protein diets are
needed to confirm this hypothesis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to thank JoséRoberto de Oliveira, Maria
Antonieta R. Garófalo and Neusa Zanon Resano for
valuable technical assistance.
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