j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l .

2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

www.jmrt.com.br

Original Article

Characterization of cellulosic fibre from Phoenix

pusilla leaves as potential reinforcement for
polymeric composites

P. Madhu a , M.R. Sanjay b,c , S. Pradeep a , K. Subrahmanya Bhat d,∗ , B. Yogesha a ,

Suchart Siengchin c
a Department of Mechanical Engineering, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan, Visvesvaraya Technological University,Belagavi, India
b Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ramaiah Institute of Technology, Bengaluru, Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi,
India
c Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering, The Sirindhorn International ThaiGerman Graduate School of Engineering (TGGS),

King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Bangkok, Thailand

d Department of Chemistry, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal, Karnataka, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Phoenix pusilla fibres (PPFs) were extracted from the leaves of a plant belonging to the
Received 21 June 2018 family of Arecaceae, which is widely grown in Sri Lanka and Southern parts of India for
Accepted 20 March 2019 some medicinal purposes. Their use as possible reinforcement in hydrophobic polymeric
Available online 27 May 2019 matrix composites is yet to be studied and for this reason, the better understanding of
their microstructure, chemical composition, and mechanical properties becomes essential.
Keywords: In this view, the present investigation deals with the study on the effect of various chemical
Chemical analysis treatments on the mechanical, chemical structure, thermal and morphological behaviour
FTIR of PPFs. The chemical treatment of fibres was initially involved with NaOH and then fol-
XRD lowed by benzoyl peroxide, potassium permanganate and stearic acid solution at different
SEM concentrations for the suitable time interval. The results revealed that chemical treatments
TGA help in diminishing the amorphous content from the fibres, while the FTIR analysis clearly
Phoenix pusilla L. fibres indicates the removal of many polar impurities. The increase in crystallinity index and
crystallite size was seen in all the modified fibres when compared with the raw ones. The
improved thermal stability behaviour in all the chemically treated fibres was demonstrated
by thermogravimetric and differential scanning calorimetry analysis. The tensile properties
of the fibres were analyzed through ASTM standard and finally, the surface morphology was
analyzed using scanning electron microscopy. All the favourable results indicated that the
PPFs could be used in the applications of natural fibre composites.
© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail: sbkjrf@yahoo.co.in (K. Subrahmanya Bhat).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2019.03.006
2238-7854/© 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
2598 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604
1. Introduction
The present world scenario, where the petroleum resources
get depleted at a rapid rate and also the need of more eco-
friendly materials has made the investigators, scientists and
industrialists to substitute the traditional man-made materi-
als by sustainable natural fibres to be used as reinforcement
in polymer matrix composites [1,2]. There occurs a large
number of different lignocellulosic plant species that offer
potential fibre and very few among them find utilized as rein-
forcements in composites [3]. Some of the fibres that have
been successfully characterized by the researchers include
bamboo, jute, banana, sisal, hemp, kenaf, century plant,
date palm, needles grass and many others [4–7]. The mer-
its of these natural fibres which have made them replace
synthetic fibres, such as glass and carbon to be used as
reinforcing agents in composites are their low cost, avail-
ability in abundance, biodegradability, fracture resistance,
minimal health hazards and moderate mechanical proper-
ties [8–10]. Although the above-said advantages make natural
fibres to be attractive materials, their lack of interfacial bond-
ing with polymer matrix may result in poor adhesion when
used as reinforcements and which inturn would affect the
mechanical properties of the composites [11,12]. The polymer
matrix offers high resistance and interfacial bonding prop-
erties to natural fibres while helping them to sustain their
mechanical and chemical characteristics. Also, they help to
keep the fibres in the desired orientation as well as pro-
tects them from any type of environmental damages [13]. The
solution for this problem is to improve the bonding compat-
ibility between hydrophilic fibres and hydrophobic matrices
through fibre surface pretreatment techniques and/or cou-
pling agents such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH), acrylates,
peroxides, permanganates, silanes, stearic acid or acetylating
reagents [14–16].
The main aim of the present study is to identify chemi-
cal composition, mechanical properties and microstructural
behaviour of a new kind of fibres extracted from the leaves
of Phoenix pusilla (P. pusilla) plant of the Arecaceae family.
The P. pusilla plant is widely found in southern India (East-
ern Ghats of Tamil Nadu and southern region of Kerala),
Srilanka and grows in the lowlands, ridges, and hills. Their
stem usually grows up to 6 m height and are covered with
persistent leaf bases vertically oriented on the trunk. Leaves
are of 1.5 m long with their leaflets being very sharp leaflets
stiff with very sharp needle-like apices, arranged at a dis-
tance of 2–5 cm, 16.5–20 × 1.5–2 cm, grouped into 4, basal
leaflets spiny, not grouped, arranged in one or more planes
of orientation; leaf sheath with fibres. Their distinguished
trunks which are covered with distinct leaf-base scars have
made them be one of the most popularly cultivated flower-
ing plants. They possess some features like drought tolerance,
slow-growing and could be used in some medicinal appli-
cations such as burning sensations, cardiac debility, peptic
ulcer, and general weakness. The leaflets are used in mak-
ing mats [14–19]. Fig. 1 shows a P. pusilla plant and their leaf
fibres.
In spite of the above mentioned medicinal usage of P. pusilla
plants, hardly any literature exists on the fibres extracted
from these plants. All plant materials invariably possess cel-
lulosic content but a systematic analysis of them will help
in identifying proper fibre source especially when required
in large quantities for industrial scale applications. Moreover,
such readily available data may find use as a quick refer-
ence for commercial level screening from fibres of different
sources. Hence, in this study, an effort has been made to
carry out four different chemical treatments of raw fibres
like sodium hydroxide (NaOH), benzoyl peroxide, potassium
permanganate, stearic acid on the surfaces of fibres and to
understand the chemical composition, microstructure, ther-
mal behaviour, mechanical properties, crystallinity index and
crystallite size through various characterization techniques.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials and extraction of P. pusilla L. fibres
The P. pusilla plant leaves were collected from a village in
Virudhanangar district near Madurai road, Tamil Nadu, South-
ern India. The district has a humid climatic conditions and
receives annual rainfall in the range of 780 mm approximately.
The extracted fibres from the matured and fallen leaves of P.
pusilla plant were initially soaked in water for three weeks,
later the top and bottom layers from the leaf fibres were sep-
arated using a smooth brush. Then these separated fibres
were thoroughly cleaned using purified water and dried in
the sunlight for 7 days. Finally, the dried fibres were placed in
an oven for a day to eradicate the residual moisture content
[20,21]. The various chemicals used for surface modification
were purchased from Sri Raghavendra Chemicals, Bengaluru,
Karnataka, India.
2.2. Chemical modifications of PPFs
PPFs were chemically treated with four different solutions
and treatment was carried out at the Department of Chem-
istry, Malnad College of Engineering, Hassan. The treatments
applied for fibres are as below.
2.2.1. Alkali-treated PPFs
The treatment of natural fibres by NaOH is the most com-
mon. The PPFs were treated with alkali using a 6% (w/v) NaOH
solution for 45 min of soaking time. Later, the treated PPFs are
washed with deionized water, followed by the addition of a few
drops of 0.1 N hydrochloric acid to remove excess impurities
[15].
2.2.2. Benzoyl peroxide-treated PPFs
For treatment with benzoyl peroxide, the PPFs were immersed
in 6% benzoyl peroxide in acetone for 30 min. The treated PPFs
were washed and air-dried for 24 h [15].
2.2.3. Potassium permanganate-treated PPFs
For potassium permanganate treatment, the PPFs were
immersed in 0.5% potassium permanganate in acetone for
30 min. The treated PPFs were washed and air dried for 24 h
[15].
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604
Fig. 1 – P. pusilla plant and leaf fibres.
2.2.4. Stearic acid-treated PPFs
For stearic acid treatment, Initially, 1% of stearic acid was liqui-
fied in ethyl alcohol. Then this solution was added drop by
drop on PPFs which were placed in a stainless steel container
through continuous stirring method. Later, the treated fibres
were dried in an oven at 80 ◦ C [15].
2.3. Chemical analysis of PPFs
The cellulose and amorphous (hemicellulose and lignin) con-
tents were estimated using standard analytical methods. The
wax content was measured using the Conrad method, while
the moisture content was determined using Sartorious MA45
electronic moisture analyzer. The ash content was quantified
using the standard ASTM E 1755-01 method and density of
PPFs was determined as per the literature method [22,23]. For
each test, five PPF samples were considered and average values
have been reported.
2.4. Fourier transform-infrared spectrometry (FTIR)
analysis
FTIR analysis was carried out on raw and chemically modified
PPFs using Shimadzu (FTIR-8400S, Japan) spectrometer in the
frequency range 4000–400 cm−1 . A total of 32 scans were taken
for every sample with a resolution of 2 cm−1 and to record FTIR
spectra, two mg of finely powdered fibres were mixed with KBr
to form pellets.
2.5. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis
The phase changes in raw and modified PPF fibres in terms
of crystallinity index and crystallite size can be analyzed by
powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) technique. X’Pert-Pro diffrac-
tometer with a current flow of 30 mA with 40 kV and with
a copper terminal material maintained at a temperature of
25 ◦ C is utilized in the present XRD analysis. The diffracted
intensity of Cu K␣ radiation with a wavelength of 0.154 nm
operating in the range of 10◦ ≤ 2 ≤ 80◦ (step size = 0.05)
2599
condition is retained throughout the analysis. The crystallinity
index (CI) was assessed by Eq. [1] [24]:
I200 − IAM
CI = (1)
I200
where I200 indicates the maximum intensity of 200 lattice
plane at a 2 angle between 22◦ and 23◦ and IAM indicates the
minimum intensity of amorphous material taken at an angle
of 2 at 180. While the crystallite size was estimated consid-
ering the crystallographic plane (2,0,0) and using Scherrer’s
expression as mentioned in Eq. [2] [25]:
k
CS200 = (2)
ˇ200 cos 
where K = 0.89, is the Scherrer’s constant,  = 0.1541 nm is the
wavelength of the radiation, ˇ represents the peak’s full-width
at half-maximum in radians and  is the corresponding Bragg
angle.
2.6. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
TGA was performed to identify the thermal stability of PPFs
and was carried out using Jupiter simultaneous thermal ana-
lyzer (model STA449 F3, Netzsch, Germany). The analysis was
recorded under the nitrogen atmosphere and maintained at
a heating rate of 10 ◦ C/min and temperature ranging between
25 ◦ C and 700 ◦ C [26].
2.7. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis
The thermal transitions of raw and modified PPFs were studied
by DSC using a Mettler-model DSC 822. Two to three grams of
fibre samples in each treatment group were enclosed in an alu-
minium pan. The samples were heat scanned at a temperature
ranging from 50 ◦ C to 700 ◦ C with a heating rate maintained at
10 ◦ C/min in this analysis [27].
2.8. Tensile testing
Fibre diameters were measured using a polarized light micro-
scope (Nikon Eclipse LV 150, 50× magnification). The tensile
2600 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604

Table 1 – Chemical composition of raw and modified PPFs.

Fibre Cellulose (wt.%) Hemicelluloses (wt.%) Lignin (wt.%) Wax (wt.%) Ash (wt.%) Density (g/cm3 ) Other content (%)

Raw 59.46 18.56 8.28 0.33 4.56 0.211 8.45

NaOH 72.14 2.32 5.14 0.18 4.65 0.323 3.46
SA 75.37 2.76 4.06 0.11 5.56 0.346 4.42
BP 73.24 2.14 3.92 0.22 4.83 0.362. 6.43
PP 72.88 2.98 4.26 0.26 5.01 0.228 4.31

strength of the fibres was determined by selecting atleast 20

samples in each group using a computer interfaced INSTRON
universal testing machine (ASTM D 3379) of the crosshead
speed 1 mm/min. The entire analysis has been carried at a rel-
ative humidity of 65% and the temperature maintained around
24 ◦ C.

2.9. Surface morphological analysis by SEM

The microstructure and morphology of the PPFs were exam-

ined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using VEGA 3
TESCAN. All the samples were coated with a thin gold covering
to improve the image resolution as well as to avoid accumu-
lation of electrostatic charge during analysis. Fig. 2 – FTIR spectra of raw, NaOH, SA, BP and PP treated
PPFs.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Chemical analysis of PPFs
The chemical composition as well as the density of raw and
various chemically treated PPFs are shown in Table 1. The
chemical constituents and physical properties of any natural
fibre depend upon the climatic conditions and the charac-
teristics of soil regions on which they grow, plant age and
the extraction methods employed for their separation from
plants [28]. The cellulose content plays an important role
in contributing to the enhancement of mechanical proper-
ties of the fibres and various chemical treatments employed
in the present analysis show that upon surface modifica-
tion there was a vast increase in cellulose wt.% in the PPFs
when compared to untreated fibres. On the other hand,
hemicellulose and lignin are accountable for poor moisture
absorption, thermal degradation, and rigidity respectively.
The lower hemicellulose and lignin wt.% in all the mod-
ified PPFs compared to raw fibres confirms that chemical
treatment helps in reducing the hydrophilic behaviour of
fibres. The diminished moisture and wax content in all mod-
ified PPFs confirms that there would be improved bonding
between the fibre and matrix when used in composites [29,30].
The descending ash wt.% in treated fibres will have a direct
impact on the mechanical properties. The raw PPFs were
found to have a density of around 0.211 g/cm3 , while the
various chemically treated fibres showed improved density
values ranging from 0.228 to 0.362 g/cm3 . The slight improve-
ment in the density values of chemically treated PPFs may
be due to partial removal of hemicelluloses and lignin from
the fibres and also could be attributed to the densification of
fibre cell walls and filling up of pores by grafted molecules
[31,32].
3.2. FT-IR analysis
Fig. 2 shows the FTIR spectrum of raw and modified PPFs, in
which only the most interesting absorbance peaks have been
identified and highlighted. A broad absorption peak in the
region 3454–3100 cm−1 is attributed to the characteristic O H
stretching vibration and hydrogen bond of the hydroxyl groups
[33]. The broad peak at 2928 cm−1 corresponds to C H stretch-
ing vibration from CH and CH2 in cellulose and hemicellulose
components [34]. The absorbance band at 2347 cm−1 relates to
C C stretching of wax and is seen in raw PPFs, which demon-
strates the existence of waxy and other impurities in them.
The two peaks observed at 1760 and 1566 cm−1 is ascribed to
C O stretching vibration of the amide group in hemicellulose
and lignin respectively. A noticeable peak at 1028 cm−1 in raw
and modified PPFs is attributed to C OH stretching of lignin
and confirms that the surface modification helps in elimi-
nating hydroxyl and carboxyl groups from the fibres, thereby
making them have good adhesion properties [4,16]. The peak
positions and their possible allocations are depicted in Table 2.
3.3. XRD analysis
The X-ray diffraction patterns of raw and modified PPFs are
illustrated in Fig. 3. As seen in Fig. 3, the main characteristic
peak occurred at 2 = 15.07◦ and 2 = 16.09◦ and correspond to
(002) crystallographic plane. While the main and least crys-
talline peaks were experienced at 2 = 22.67◦ and 2 = 18.12◦
respectively. The CI of fibres were quantified using Eq. [1] and
are tabulated in Table 3. The improved CI values in all the
modified PPFs validate that the chemical treatment essentially
results in better packing of cellulose chains in the fibres by
removal of amorphous contents and increasing the cellulose
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604 2601

Table 2 – Peak positions and assignments of chemical groups in raw and modified PPFs.
Peak positions (wavenumber (cm−1 )) Possible allocations

Raw PPF (Ca.) NaOH (Ca.) SA (Ca.) BP (Ca.) PP (Ca.)

3454 3454 3454 3454 3454 OH-stretching

2928 2928 2928 2928 2928 CH stretching
2347 – – – – C C stretching
1760 1760 1760 1760 1760 C O stretching (Amide)
1566 1566 1566 1566 1566 C O stretching
1028 1028 1028 1028 1028 C OH stretching

Fig. 3 – X-ray diffractograms of raw and modified PPFs.

Fig. 4 – TGA curves of raw and modified treated PPFs.

Table 3 – Crystalline characteristics of the raw and

modified PPFs.
Sample Crystalline index (%) Crystallite size CS(0 Table 4 – TGA summary of raw and optimally treated
(Ca.) 0 2) (nm) (Ca.) PPFs.
Sample T20% (◦ C) Tmax (◦ C) Yc (%)
Raw PPF 42.6 7.98
NaOH 46.68 9.09 Raw PPF 182 217 14.1
SA 50.66 13.11 NaOH 186 219 13.2
BP 55.76 15.97 SA 232 268 6.1
PP 58.78 16.77 BP 216 255 8.8
PP 210 252 9.6

crystallinity in treated fibres [35]. Furthermore, CS was also

determined by using Eq. [2] and the values are tabulated in
Table 3. The increased CS values in all modified fibres indi-
cate the improvement in moisture and chemical resistivity
properties of fibres. The large CS in modified fibres represents
condensed surface areas due to lower chemical and water
absorption behaviour in these fibres [36].
3.4. Thermogravimetric analysis
The main factor that is responsible in any natural fibre for
limiting its use as reinforcement in biocomposites is its low
thermal stability. In order to study the thermal stability of
PPFs, thermogravimetric analysis was carried out and high-
temperature degradation of this fibre was studied using TG
curves, as portrayed in Fig. 4. The degradation occurred in
three stages with initial weight loss of around 4–8% observed
below 100 ◦ C. The first stage of thermal degradation was visible
at the temperature range 50–190 ◦ C (weight loss of around 15%)
and represented the elimination of volatile content, moisture
and some waxy substances from the fibres [37–39]. The second
stage of degradation was observed at the temperature range
from 230 to 350 ◦ C (weight loss of around 50% for raw and

Table 5 – Tensile properties of raw and optimally treated PPFs.

Parameters Raw PPFs APPF SPPF BPPF PPPF

Diameter(␮m) 40 35.43 34.75 36.76 35.85

Tensile strength (MPa) 660 ± 7.5 740 ± 5.54 756 ± 5.65 752 ± 3.87 742 ± 3.87
Young’s modulus (GPa) 4.76 ± 0.6 5.81 ± 0.8 6.93 ± 0.4 6.90 ± 0.1 5.85 ± 0.1
Elongation at break (%) 0.44 ± 0.11 2.43 ± 0.05 3.36 ± 0.07 2.67 ± 1.12 1.65 ± 0.75
2602 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604

Fig. 5 – DSC curves of raw and modified PPFs.

NaOH treated PPFs and 55–60% for SA, BP and PP treated PPFs)
and shows the degradation in ␣-cellulose and hemicellulose
contents. The third and final degradation stage occurred at
390–510 ◦ C and corresponded to the degradation of lignin and
other non-cellulosic substances in the PPFs. The TG curves
in Fig. 4 confirm the better thermal stability characteristics
of PPFs. Table 4 summarizes the detailed T20% (Decomposition
temperature at 20% weight loss), Tmax (Decomposition temper-
ature at the maximum decomposition rate), and Yc (Residual
yield at 600 ◦ C) values.

3.5. DSC analysis

The DSC curve of raw and modified PPFs is shown in Fig. 5. Two
endothermic peaks were observed in the temperature range
of 330–490 ◦ C and may be attributed to the loss of moisture
from the fibres. The peaks seen in the DSC profile are in good
agreement with the mass loss seen in this temperature range
in TG analysis of common natural fibres [40].

3.6. Tensile testing

The tensile properties of raw and various chemically treated

PPFs are tested and tabulated in Table 5. It is observed that
all the diameters of chemically treated fibres were reduced
simultaneously compared to the raw fibres. The concentra-
tion of 6% NaOH was the most effective surface modification
among all the treatments. The average of five samples was
chosen from raw and various treatments for the tensile test,
respectively. The average tensile strength and elongation at
break of chemically treated PPFs are higher than those of raw Fig. 6 – SEM images of Raw and Treated PPFs.
fibres as shown in Table 5. The elimination of hemicellulose
by various chemical treatments can be attributed to the ten-
dency of the fibres to compact closely. It was found that the
Young’s modulus is higher in raw fibres, while there is not a 3.7. Surface morphological analysis
much significant difference between the chemically treated
fibres. The tensile values of PPFs exhibit good properties and The surface morphology of raw and chemically treated PPFs
tend to be adequate reinforcements in polymer composites was examined by SEM. This technique provides an excellent
[37,38]. method to understand the effect of chemical treatments that
 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604
can significantly eliminate impurities due to the reduction
of hydrophilicity in chemically treated fibres [37]. The corre-
sponding SEM images of the raw and chemically treated PPFs
are shown in Fig. 6. The SEM micrograph (Fig. 6(a)) of PPFs
shows the longitudinal surfaces of the raw PPFs. It can be
clearly seen that PPFs consists of a parallel set of microfib-
rils. In addition, there are waxes, oils and other considerable
impurities on the surface of the fibre. In general, it is believed
that chemical treatments remove non-cellulose materials and
impurities from the surface of the fibre. Fig. 6(b)–(e) shows the
micrographs of PPFs treated with sodium hydroxide, benzoyl
peroxide, potassium permanganate, and stearic acid, respec-
tively. It can be seen that several chemical treatments caused
an increase in the number of pores in the surface of the
fibre. It also showed a very clean surface and the absence
of impurities was very obvious. In fact, after treatment with
stearic acid (Fig. 6(c)), it is observed that waxes, oils, and other
impurities are completely removed without damaging the sur-
face of the fibre. In addition, the treatment also damaged the
surface of the fibre; These changes have benefits in the man-
ufacture of composite materials when the natural fibres are
used as reinforcement [35]. The rougher surface improves the
mechanical interlocking adhesion between the fibres and the
matrix. However, when the fibres were treated with potassium
permanganate (Fig. 6(e)), it was discovered that the surface
of the fibre was affected by a high concentration that caused
damage to the surface topography [39,41,42].
4. Conclusions
The leaves from P. pusilla plant were directly extracted by
a combined mechanical and water retting process, sub-
sequently treated with four different chemical solutions
and then distinguished by various means. The microscopy
study carried out using scanning electron microscopy con-
ferred that upon surface modification by various chemical
treatments, the surfaces of PPFs became rough mainly
due to the elimination of hemicellulose and impurities
such as oils and waxes. These microscopic analysis results
were upheld by chemical analysis and FTIR studies. X-
ray diffraction results confirmed the enhanced crystalline
index and crystallite size in modified fibres compared to
untreated fibre. The thermal stability of PPFs was found to be
improved on various chemical treatments and was validated
by thermogravimetric and differential scanning calorimet-
ric studies respectively. The tensile properties of the fibres
were found to increase after various treatments due to
improved fibre structure. Finally, the characterization results
imply the probable usage of PPF fibres for many prospective
applications particularly as reinforcement of polymer com-
posites.
Funding
This research was partly supported by the King Mongkut’s
University of Technology North Bangkok through the PostDoc
Program (Grant No. KMUTNB-61-Post-001 and KMUTNB-62-
KNOW-37).
2603
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Uncited reference
[42].
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to Mr. Senthamaraikannan P and
Mr. Vijay R who has provided advice and assistance in this
research. The authors are also grateful to the National Institute
of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for providing their lab facilities.
references
[1] Fidelis MEA, Pereira TVC, Gomes ODFM, de Andrade Silva F,
Toledo Filho RD. The effect of fiber morphology on the
tensile strength of natural fibers. J Mater Res Technol
2013;2(2):149–57.
[2] Sanjay MR, Siengchin S. Natural fibers as perspective
materials. KMUTNB: Int J Appl Sci Technol 2018;11(4):233.
[3] Sanjay MR, Arpitha GR, Naik LL, Gopalakrishna K, Yogesha B.
Applications of natural fibers and its composites: an
overview. Nat Resour 2016;7:108.
[4] Madhu P, Sanjay MR, Senthamaraikannan P, Pradeep S,
Saravanakumar SS, Yogesha B. A review on synthesis and
characterization of commercially available natural fibers:
Part II. J Nat Fibers 2019;16(1):25–36.
[5] Belouadah Z, Ati A, Rokbi M. Characterization of new natural
cellulosic fiber from Lygeum spartum L. Carbohydr Polym
2015;134:429–37.
[6] Thamae T, Baillie C. Influence of fibre extraction method,
alkali and silane treatment on the interface of Agave
americana waste HDPE composites as possible roof ceilings
in Lesotho. Compos Interfaces 2007;14(7–9):821–36.
[7] Brahim SB, Cheikh RB. Influence of fibre orientation and
volume fraction on the tensile properties of unidirectional
Alfa-polyester composite. Compos Sci Technol
2007;67(1):140–7.
[8] Sanjay MR, Madhu P, Jawaid M, Senthamaraikannan P,
Senthil S, Pradeep S. Characterization and properties of
natural fiber polymer composites: a comprehensive review. J
Clean Prod 2018;172:566–81.
[9] Arpitha GR, Sanjay MR, Senthamaraikannan P, Barile C,
Yogesha B. Hybridization effect of sisal/glass/epoxy/filler
based woven fabric reinforced composites. Exp Tech
2017;41(6):577–84.
[10] Sanjay MR, Arpitha GR, Senthamaraikannan P, Kathiresan M,
Saibalaji MA, Yogesha B. The hybrid effect of
Jute/Kenaf/E-glass woven fabric epoxy composites for
medium load applications: impact, inter-laminar strength,
and failure surface characterization. J Nat Fibers 2018:1–3,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1431828.
[11] Watkins D, Nuruddin M, Hosur M, Tcherbi-Narteh A, Jeelani
S. Extraction and characterization of lignin from different
biomass resources. J Mater Res Technol 2015;4(1):26–32.
[12] Boronat T, Fombuena V, Garcia-Sanoguera D,
Sanchez-Nacher L, Balart R. Development of a biocomposite
based on green polyethylene biopolymer and eggshell. Mater
Des 2015;68:177–85.
2604 j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 9;8(3):2597–2604
[13] Yashas Gowda TG, Sanjay MR, Subrahmanya Bhat K, Madhu
P, Senthamaraikannan P, Yogesha B. Polymer matrix-natural
fiber composites: an overview. Cogent Eng 2018;5(1):
1446667.
[14] Jordá-Vilaplana A, Carbonell-Verdú A, Samper MD, Pop A,
Garcia-Sanoguera D. Development and characterization of a
new natural fiber reinforced thermoplastic (NFRP) with
Cortaderia selloana (Pampa grass) short fibers. Compos Sci
Technol 2017;145:1–9.
[15] Sanjay MR, Siengchin S, Parameswaranpillai J, Jawaid M,
Pruncu CI, Khan A. A comprehensive review of techniques
for natural fibers as reinforcement in composites:
preparation, processing and characterization. Carbohydr
Polym 2018;207:108–11.
[16] Madhu P, Sanjay MR, Senthamaraikannan P, Pradeep S,
Saravanakumar SS, Yogesha B. A review on synthesis and
characterization of commercially available natural fibers:
Part-I. J Nat Fibers 2018:1–3,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1453433.
[17] Sudhersan C. Introduction of a multipurpose palm Phoenix
pusilla in Kuwait. Palms 2004;48:191–6.
[18] Barrow SC. A monograph of phoenix L. (palmae:
Coryphoideae). Kew Bull 1998:513–75.
[19] Riffle RL, Craft P, Zona S. The encyclopedia of cultivated
palms. Timber Press; 2012.
[20] Hulle A, Kadole P, Katkar P. Agave Americana leaf fibers.
Fibers 2015;3(1):64–75.
[21] Reddy KO, Maheswari CU, Reddy DJP, Guduri BR, Rajulu AV.
Properties of ligno-cellulose Ficus religiosa leaf fibers. Int J
Polym Technol 2010;2(1):28–36.
[22] Ray D, Sarkar BK. Characterization of alkali-treated jute
fibers for physical and mechanical properties. J Appl Polym
Sci 2001;80(7):1013–20.
[23] Sreenivasan VS, Somasundaram S, Ravindran D, Manikandan
V, Narayanasamy R. Microstructural, physico-chemical and
mechanical characterisation of Sansevieria cylindrica fibres
– an exploratory investigation. Mater Des 2011;32(1):
453–61.
[24] Segal L, Creely JJ, Martin AE Jr, Conrad CM. An empirical
method for estimating the degree of crystallinity of native
cellulose using the X-ray diffractometer. Text Res J
1959;29(10):786–94.
[25] Roy A, Chakraborty S, Kundu SP, Basak RK, Majumder SB,
Adhikari B. Improvement in mechanical properties of jute
fibres through mild alkali treatment as demonstrated by
utilisation of the Weibull distribution model. Bioresour
Technol 2012;107:222–8.
[26] Manimaran P, Senthamaraikannan P, Murugananthan K,
Sanjay MR. Physicochemical properties of new cellulosic
fibers from Azadirachta indica plant. J Nat Fibers
2018;15(1):29–38.
[27] Mohan TP, Kanny K. Chemical treatment of sisal fiber using
alkali and clay method. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf
2012;43(11):1989–98.
[28] Baskaran PG, Kathiresan M, Senthamaraikannan P,
Saravanakumar SS. Characterization of new natural
cellulosic fiber from the bark of dichrostachys cinerea. J Nat
Fibers 2018;15(1):62–8.
[29] Akil H, Omar MF, Mazuki AAM, Safiee SZAM, Ishak ZM, Bakar
AA. Kenaf fiber reinforced composites: a review. Mater Des
2011;32(8–9):4107–21.
[30] Prithivirajan R, Balasundar P, Shyamkumar R, Al-Harbi NS,
Kadaikunnan S, Ramkumar T, et al. Characterization of
cellulosic fibers from Morus alba L. stem. J Nat Fibers
2018:1–9, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1426079.
[31] Varma IK, Krishnan SA, Krishnamoorthy S. Effect of
chemical treatment on density and crystallinity of jute
fibers. Text Res J 1989;59(6):368–70.
[32] Sawpan MA, Pickering KL, Fernyhough A. Effect of various
chemical treatments on the fibre structure and tensile
properties of industrial hemp fibres. Compos A: Appl Sci
Manuf 2011;42(8):888–95.
[33] Spinace MA, Lambert CS, Fermoselli KK, De Paoli MA.
Characterization of lignocellulosic curaua fibres. Carbohydr
Polym 2009;77(1):47–53.
[34] Paiva MC, Ammar I, Campos AR, Cheikh RB, Cunha AM. Alfa
fibres: mechanical, morphological and interfacial
characterization. Compos Sci Technol 2007;67(6):1132–8.
[35] Tserki V, Zafeiropoulos NE, Simon F, Panayiotou C. A study of
the effect of acetylation and propionylation surface
treatments on natural fibres. Compos A: Appl Sci Manuf
2005;6(8):1110–8.
[36] Thygesen A, Oddershede J, Lilholt H, Thomsen AB, Ståhl K.
On the determination of crystallinity and cellulose content
in plant fibres. Cellulose 2005;12(6):563.
[37] Manimaran P, Senthamaraikannan P, Sanjay MR,
Marichelvam MK, Jawaid M. Study on characterization of
Furcraea foetida new natural fiber as composite
reinforcement for lightweight applications. Carbohydr Polym
2018;181:650–8.
[38] Manimaran P, Sanjay MR, Senthamaraikannan P, Jawaid M,
Saravanakumar SS, George R. Synthesis and characterization
of cellulosic fiber from red banana peduncle as
reinforcement for potential applications. J Nat Fibers
2018:1–3, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1434851.
[39] Senthamaraikannan P, Sanjay MR, Bhat KS, Padmaraj NH,
Jawaid M. Characterization of natural cellulosic fiber from
bark of Albizia amara. J Nat Fibers 2018:1–8,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1453432.
[40] Seki Y, Sarikanat M, Sever K, Durmuşkahya C. Extraction and
properties of Ferula communis (chakshir) fibers as novel
reinforcement for composites materials. Compos B: Eng
2013;44(1):517–23.
[41] Manimaran P, Sanjay MR, Senthamaraikannan P, Yogesha B,
Barile C, Siengchin S. A new study on characterization of
Pithecellobium dulce fiber as composite reinforcement for
light-weight applications. J Nat Fibers 2018:1–2,
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1492491.
[42] Sanjay MR, Yogesha B. Studies on hybridization effect of
jute/kenaf/E-glass woven fabric epoxy composites for
potential applications: effect of laminate stacking
sequences. J Ind Text 2018;47(7):1830–48.