Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Lecture File

Subject Teacher: Kazi Farhan Mahi, Chemistry Teacher, Lakehead grammar School.

Fundamentals of Covalent Bonding

 Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are shared between atoms.

 Only non-metal elements participate in covalent bonding.
 As in ionic bonding, each atom gains a full outer shell of electrons.
 Covalent bonds between atoms are strong and the bonded unit of atoms is what is called
a molecule.
 The forces that act between the molecules are weak intermolecular forces and are not
chemical bonds.

Diagram showing covalent bonding in HCl, where each atom donates 1 electron to the
bonding pair of electrons
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 Covalently bonded substances tend to be small molecular structures such as H 2O or CO2.

 These small molecules are known as simple molecules and differ from ionic compounds
which form larger lattice structures.
 Other covalent molecules can be very large, such as polymers or giant covalent structures.

Size of Atoms & Molecules

 Simple molecular substances consist of molecules which contain atoms that are bound tightly
together by strong covalent bonds.
 These molecules are very small but the atoms themselves are smaller than the molecules.
 Even though individual atoms and molecules are extremely small, developments in electron
microscopy can produce images of atoms and simple molecules.

Simple Molecular Substances

Dot & Cross Diagrams

 Dot and cross diagrams are a quick and simple way to illustrate the atoms and
electrons involved in simple covalent compounds.
 Only the outer shells are included and dots and crosses are used to depict electrons donated
from the different atoms.
 If asked to draw a dot & cross diagram, write out the electronic configurations of the atoms
first and count how many electrons there should be in total.
 The bonding electrons should always be placed inside the overlap of the outer electron
shells.
 The nonbonding electrons should be placed in pairs exactly on the outer shells.
 The nucleus of each atom should be represented by the chemical symbol of the element.
 The table shows the names, formulae and dot & cross diagrams for the simple molecules
which you need to know.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Bonding & Structure

 All matter is composed of atoms which are bonded together, either by ionic, covalent or
metallic bonds.
 The identify of the elements and chemical bonding present influences the structure and
physical properties of a substance.
 The vast majority of known substances can be classified by their type of bonding and hence
their structures into four main categories.
 These are:
o Ionic
o Simple molecular (covalent)
o Giant covalent
o Metallic

Ionic compounds

 Bonding

o Ionic compounds consist of a metal bonded to a nonmetal via electron transfer.
o They form regular shaped giant ionic lattices in which strong electrostatic forces act
in all directions.

 Properties

o A lot of energy is required to break so many strong bonds hence they
have high melting and boiling points, so ionic compounds are usually solid at room
temperature and are non-volatile.
o They are usually water soluble as both ionic compounds and water
are polar molecules.
o Ionic compounds can conduct electricity in the molten state or in solutionas they
have ions that can move and carry charge.
o They cannot conduct electricity in the solid state.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Ionic lattice structure of a typical ionic compound

Simple covalent molecules

 Bonding 

o Small covalent compounds consist of non-metal elements which have bonded
together via electron sharing.

 Properties

o They have low melting and boiling points so covalent compounds are
usually liquids or gases at room temperature.
o This is because the weak intermolecular forces are easily overcome, meaning that
these compounds are usually volatile, which is why many covalent organic
compounds have distinct aromas.
o The intermolecular forces increase with molecular size, hence large molecules
have higher melting and boiling points.
o Most covalent compounds are insoluble as they tend to be non-polar but can dissolve
in organic solvents.
o Some do dissolve in water by forming intermolecular attractions between the water
molecules. Examples include sucrose  (common sugar C12H22O11) and CO2.
o They cannot conduct electricity as all electrons are involved in bonding so there are
no free electrons or ions to carry the charge.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Diagram showing simple molecules of water

Giant covalent structures

 Bonding
o Giant covalent structures consist of many non-metals atoms bonded to other non-
metal atoms via strong covalent bonds.

 Properties
o They have high melting and boiling points as they have many strong covalent bonds.
o Large amounts of heat energy are needed to overcome these forces and break down
bonds.
o Most cannot conduct electricity as they do not have free electrons but there are some
exceptions such as graphite.

Silicon dioxide (silica) is a giant covalent lattice where each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen
atoms
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Metals

 Bonding
o Metals consist of metal atoms are held together strongly by metallic bonding. 
o Within the metal lattice, the atoms lose their valence electrons and
become positively charged. 
o The valence electrons no longer belong to any metal atom and are said to
be delocalised, creating what is known as a sea of free electrons.
o The free electrons move freely in between the positive metal atoms.

 Properties
o Metallic bonds are very strong and are a result of the attraction between the positive
metal ions and the negatively charged delocalised electrons.
o Metals thus have very high melting and boiling points.
o They are usually insoluble in water although some do react with water.
o They can conduct heat and electricity due to the delocalised electrons.
o The layers of atoms in metals can slide over each other meaning metals
are malleable and can be hammered and bent into shapes.

Diagram showing metallic lattice structure with delocalised electrons

Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Ionic substances have high melting and boiling points due to the presence of strong
electrostatic forces acting between the oppositely charged ions.
 Ionic substances can conduct electricity when in either the molten state or when dissolved in
solution. In both cases the ions must be able to move and carry the charge.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 In solid ionic substances the ions are in fixed positions and cannot move, hence they do not
conduct electricity.

Particles in solution/molten form can move and conduct electricity but in solid form they are in
fixed positions and are unable to conduct

Physical Properties of Simple Covalent Compounds

 Simple covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points as there are

only weak intermolecular forces acting between the molecules which must be overcome for
melting or boiling to occur
 They are poor conductors of electricity as there are no free ions or electrons to move and
carry charge.
 Most covalent compounds do not conduct at all in the solid state and are thus insulators.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 Common insulators include the plastic coating around household electrical wiring, rubber and
wood.

Diagram showing the plastic coating surrounding the conducting metal wires in an
electric cable

Giant Covalent Structures

 Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon which have giant covalentstructures.

 Allotropes are elements which exist in two or more different forms but in the same physical
state. 
 They generally differ in physical properties and may also differ in their chemical properties.

Diamond and graphite are allotropes and are also giant covalent structures
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Structure of Diamond & Graphite

Diamond

 Each carbon atom bonds with four other carbon atoms, forming a tetrahedron.
 All the covalent bonds are identical and strong with no weak intermolecularforces.
 Diamond thus:


o Does not conduct electricity.
o Has a very high melting point.
o Is extremely hard and dense (3.51 g/cm 3).

Diagram showing the bonding arrangement of the carbon atoms in diamond

Graphite

 Each carbon atom is bonded to three others forming layers of hexagonal shapes, leaving one

free electron per carbon atom.
 These free electrons exist in between the layers and are free to move and carry charge, hence
graphite can conduct electricity.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 The covalent bonds within the layers are very strong but the layers are connected to each
other by weak intermolecular forces only, hence the layers can slide over each other making
graphite slippery and smooth.
 Graphite thus:


o Conducts electricity.
o Has a very high melting point.
o Is soft and slippery, less dense than diamond (2.25 g/cm 3).

Uses of Diamond & Graphite

Diamond

 Diamond’s hardness makes it very useful for purposes where extremely tough material is
required.
 It is used extensively in jewellery and in cutting tools. 
 The cutting edges of discs used to cut bricks and concrete are tipped with diamonds. 
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 Heavy-duty drill bits and tooling equipment are also diamond tipped.

Graphite

 Graphite’s weak intermolecular forces make it a useful material.

 It is used in pencils (mixed with clay)  and as an industrial lubricant, in engines and in locks.
 It is also used to make non-reactive electrodes for electrolysis since it can conduct electricity
without participating chemically in the process.

Fullerenes

 Fullerenes are a group of carbon allotropes which consist of molecules made only of carbon
and which form hollow tubes or spheres.
 Fullerenes can be used to trap other molecules by forming around the target molecule and
capturing it, making them useful for targeted drug deliverysystems.
 They also have a huge surface area and are useful for trapping catalystmolecules onto their
surfaces making them accessible to the reactants so catalysis can take place.
 Two important fullerenes are graphene and Buckminsterfullerene.

C60

 C60 is otherwise known as Buckminsterfullerene, commonly referred to as “Buckyballs”.

 The carbon atoms are joined together forming 20 hexagons and 12 pentagons which produce
a hollow sphere.

Diagram showing the structure of the hollow sphere of Buckminsterfullerene

Graphene

 Graphene consists of a single layer of graphite joined together in hexagons, hence it is

essentially a 2D molecule since it is only one atom thick.
 It is extremely strong and has free electrons which are free to move along its surface.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 These properties make it useful in electronics and in making compositematerials.

Diagram showing the 2-dimensional sheet of graphene

 Graphene can also be rolled into a cylinder to produce a nanotube.

 These have high tensile strength and are resistant to breaking or stretching.
 As in graphene, nanotubes can also conduct which makes them useful in composites
and specialised materials, electronics and nanotechnology.

Diagram showing a nanotube produced from a rolled sheet of graphene

Polymers

 Polymers are very large molecules which are built up by linking together 50 or more
smaller molecules called monomers.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

 Each repeat unit is connected to the adjacent units via covalent bonds.

 Some polymers called homopolymers contain just one type of monomer unit. 
 Examples of these include polythene and polychloroethene, commonly known as PVC.

 Others contain two or more different types of monomer units which are
called copolymers which have interesting and useful properties.
 Examples of these include ABS, a copolymer used in producing water pipes and musical
instruments.
 Polythene is a very common type of polymer which is formed from the addition of many
ethene monomers together.
 The intermolecular forces between the molecules in a polymer tend to be strong hence many
of these substances are solid at room temperature.

Polymerisation of ethene monomers produces polythene. The small n signifies that there is a large
number of repeat units
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Metallic Bonding, Structure & Properties

Ionic and Covalent Bonding

Diagram showing the sea of free electrons which moves around the regularly ordered positive
metal atoms

Metals & Non-Metals

Metals and nonmetals

 The Periodic Table contains over 100 different elements.

 They can be divided into two broad types: metals and nonmetals.
 Most of the elements are metals and a small number of elements display properties of both
types. These elements are called metalloids or semimetals.
Ionic and Covalent Bonding

The metallic character diminishes moving left to right across the Periodic Table

Properties of metals

 Conduct heat and electricity.
 Are malleable and ductile (can be hammered and pulled into different shapes).
 Tend to be lustrous (shiny).
 Have high density and usually have high melting points.
 Form positive ions through electron loss.
 Form basic oxides.

Properties of nonmetals

 Do not conduct heat and electricity.

 Are brittle and delicate when solid and easily break up.
 Tend to be dull and nonreflective.
 Have low density and low melting points (many are gases at room temperature).
 Form negative ions through electron gain (except for hydrogen).
 Form acidic oxides.