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Avian Candidiasis: A Review

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 ISSN 0975-2366
DOI:https://doi.org/10.31838/ijpr/2020.12.01.199
Research Article

Avian Candidiasis: A Review

ZAID YASEEN IBRAHIM1, BALQEES HASSAN ALI2, RAFID KHALID ALI3, AHMED SAMI JARAD4, WALEED
HAMID FARHAN5AND MUSTAFA SALAH HASAN6
1
University of Fallujah, College of Veterinary Medicine.
2
University of Baghdad, College of Veterinary Medicine.
3
University of Fallujah, College of Veterinary Medicine.
4
University of Fallujah, College of Veterinary Medicine.
5
University of Fallujah, College of Veterinary Medicine.
6
University of Fallujah, College of Veterinary Medicine.
Received: 25.11.19, Revised: 27.12.19, Accepted: 15.01.20

ABSTRACT
Candidiasis is a fungal disease that is caused by members of the genus candida, mainly C. albicans. These are
polymorphic fungi forming budding yeast, hyphae or pseudophyphae depending on the growth environment.
They are normal inhabitant in the host and cause disease in animals and human beings when there are immune
suppression or debilitating diseases. In poultry, they cause infections in the upper digestive system or in the
skin mainly in the comb. Crop mycosis is the most common type of candida-related infections in poultry. It
occurs after long-term use of antimicrobial therapy which leads to disruption of the normal bacterial flora
giving the mycelial yeasts a chance to penetrate the mucosa and cause a clinical disease. Clinically, crop
candidiasis is characterized by low morbidity and mortality and nonspecific signs of depression and stunted
growth. On gross examination, lesions are crud-like pseudo membrane that are whitish to yellowish in color
and easy to remove revealing an eroded mucosal epithelium. Infections can be prevented by good sanitary
conditions. Clinical candidiasis can be treated by 0.05% copper sulphate in the drinking water for seven days.
Key Words: Candidiasis, Thrush, Poultry, Crop Mycosis, Fungal Infection.

INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITION (Dykstra et al., 2017), C. zeylanoides (Deak,

Chen, & Beuchat, 2000), and C. galli (Péter,
Candidiasis is a sporadic disease caused by a
Dlauchy, Vasdinyei, Tornai-Lehoczki, & Deák,
yeast belongs to the genus Candida. The member
2004). In a mycological survey of the microbial
of this genus C. albicans is the main species
contents of broiler intestine in Babylon, Iraq, four
causing candidiasis in poultry but it can be
species were isolated including C. glabrata, C.
caused by other candida species. There are more
tropicalis, C . albicans, and C . fmata (AL-
than one symptom associated with infection with
Shimmery, 2011). In Baghdad, an investigation
candida (Dykstra, Charlton, Chin, & Barnes,
of the mycological contents of the avian dropping
2017). Crop candidiasis is the most common
found that candida species are found in 6% of the
candiada-caused disease in poultry. These
farms (Abbas, Yassein, & Khalaf, 2017). In
infections are called crop mycosis, thrush,
Kenya, a similar study was conducted on local
moniliasis or sour crop (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017).
chickens in a village where C. albicans was
There are about 200 species of candida and only isolated from 41% of the samples (Kemoi,
few of them are pathogenic. Candida albicans Okemo, & Bii, 2013). Candida albicans has also
can infects and cause disease in many types of been isolated from chicken meat (Sharma,
animals and humans. The disease usually occurs Chattopadhyay, & Naskar, 2017).
when the hosts immune system is compromised
Predisposing Factors
(McVey, Kennedy, & Chengappa, 2013; Mendes
Giannini, Bernardi, Scorzoni, Fusco-Almeida, & Candida species is an opportunistic pathogens
Sardi, 2013; Wyatt, 2008). and in a healthy bird they are found in small
numbers. When bird’s body suffers from a
ETIOLOGY
stressful conditions, the immune system will be
Classification compromised. This conditions will provide a good
chance for candida species to grow and cause a
The main species that are commonly isolated
clinical disease (Kuldeep Dhama et al., 2013).
from clinical crop candidiasis is C. albicans which
The cell mediated immunity is the main defense
cause about 95% of clinical cases (Wyatt &
against candida infection and a defect in this
Hamilton, 1975). Other candidas that are also
immunity will predispose to the disease. Other
isolated include: C. ravautii, C. salmonicola, C.
than a compromised immune system,
guilliermondii, C. parapsilosis, C. catenulata, C.
predisposing factors include: concurrent disease
brumptii C. rugosa, C. famata, C. tropicalis
especially debilitating diseases such as

1088| International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research | Jan - March 2020 | Vol 12 | Issue 1
 Zaid Yaseen Ibrahim et al / Avian Candidiasis: A Review
coccidiosis, bad flock management such as high
stocking densities, disturbance of the normal flora
by long term use of antimicrobial therapy (Quinn
et al., 2011), hypovitaminosis A (Jeoffery &
Kenzy, 1960), aflatoxicosis (Hamilton & Harris,
1971), and forced hand rearing at early age in
pigeons (Tsat, Yeh, Chi, & Itakura, 1994).
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Natural Habitat
Candida species have been isolated from plants
and plant materials worldwide. In animals and
human beings they are considered commensals
and found in the digestive and urogenital systems
of healthy individuals. Although, they have been
isolated from the environment and botanical
sources, candida species are not considered
saprophytic organism because they are rarely
isolated from those sources. Moreover, they are
more likely parasitic as they are found in most
animal and can cause diseases when there are
predisposing factors (Quinn et al., 2011).
Source and Route of Transmission
Because of candida species are part of the
normal flora, sources of infections are mainly
endogenous (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017). Exogenous
sources of can occur when a non-infected bird
directly contact a diseased bird or indirectly by
contacting the secretions and feces of a bird that
is infected with candida species. Moreover, the
organism can be transmitted through
contaminated drinking water (Samanta, 2015).
Systemic candidiasis has been induced by
injecting candida albicans containing fluid
intravenously. This resulted in localization of the
organism in many organs including the meninges
and the brain (Wyatt, Simmons, & Hamilton,
1975).
Hosts
Candida species causes clinical diseases in most
domesticated animal. Young animal that are
three months old are the most affected by the
disease. Quinn et al., (2011) listed a number of
candida-related clinical condition in bovine,
ovine, caprine, canine, feline, swine, equine and
avian hosts. In chickens, candida infections cause
thrush in crop and esophagus. On the other
hand, in turkey (Mayeda, 1961) and geese, they
cause clinical diseases in cloaca and vent.
Candidiasis also occurs in pigeons, guinea fowl,
pheasants, quail (Asrani, Paul Gupta, Sadana, &
Pandita, 1993), and other avian species (Dykstra
et al., 2017).
Pathogenesis
Pathogenesis and pathogenicity of C. albicans
have been studied more than other species
because it is the primary cause of candidiasis in
animals and humans. The yeast has more than
virulence factor including: integrin-like molecules,
1089| International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research | Jan - March 2020 | Vol 12 | Issue 1
proteases and phospholipases. These help the
organism to attach to and invade host tissues and
cause disease. Other factors that help in evasion
of the animals immune mechanisms include:
biofilm formation and phenotypic switching
(Quinn et al., 2011).
In a healthy animals that have a functional
immune system, infections are prevented by the
activity of phagocytes. In an immune
compromised host, the cells of candida can
attach to mucosal cells and rapidly change their
form from yeast to hyphal form. This form is large
and the phagocytic cells are not able to clear. The
penetration of host mucosal tissue by hyphae is
facilitated by the presence of high concentration
of phospholipase enzymes at the tips of hyphae
(Dykstra et al., 2017).
Clinical Signs
There are little to no clinical signs related to
candidiasis in poultry. Because of the disease
usually occurs after a predisposing situations,
under field conditions the clinical signs of the
underlying disease will be seen. Non-specific
signs can be seen such as stunting, depression
and ruffled feathers (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017;
Dykstra et al., 2017). Enteric infection which is
called crop mycosis is not the only clinical disease
that is caused by candida species. Cutaneous
candidiasis and comb candidiasis are also
important and can lead to feather loss and
considerable morbidity (Dykstra et al., 2017).
Pathology
Grossly at necropsy, lesions start as thickening of
the mucosa due to hyphal growth. Later in the
course of the disease, there are formation of
yellowish to whitish pseudomembrane. The
appearance of these lesions is often described as
crud-like. Pseudomembranes are easy to peel
and the mucus membrane under these
diphtheritic materials usually eroded. These
lesions are mainly seen in the crop but can be
seen in the oropharynx and the proximal
esophagus (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017).
Histopathology
Biopsy samples or tissue samples collected during
necropsy are preferably stained with Periodic
acid-Schiff or Gomorimethylamine silver. These
stains are the best for visualization of hyphae
under light microscope. These hyphae penetrate
the stratum corneum and the upper parts of the
stratum spinosum of the stratified squamous
epithelium of oral, crop, and esophageal
mucosa. The hyphal growth is perpendicular to
the surface of the mucosa. Candida growth is
usually taking the form of hyphae but
pseudohyphae and budding yeast forms are also
seen especially in the sloughed epithelium. The
mycelial invasion leads to epithelial hyperplasia,
necrosis and necrotic debris form in the lumen of
 Zaid Yaseen Ibrahim et al / Avian Candidiasis: A Review
the ingluvies. Tissue reaction consists of
infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma
cells, and heterophils (Dykstra et al., 2017;
Fletcher & Abdul-Aziz, 2016).
DIAGNOSIS
Microscopic Examination
Wet mount preparations can be prepared from
colonies of culture. Alternatively, wet mount
preparations can be made from the effected
mucus membrane and examined directly or fixed
and stained with simple stains such as Wright’s or
Gimsa stains. On growth mediums candida
abicans take the form of oval budding yeast. On
the other hand, in animal tissues they are known
for their polymorphism forming pseudohyphae or
hyphae. Candida albicans have a helpful
diagnostic feature. When they grow on a specific
growth media, they will form thick walled cells
known as chlamydospores (Quinn, Markey,
Leonard, Fitzpatrick, & Fanning, 2015; Quinn et
al., 2011).
Culture and Isolation
Candida can grow well on Sabouraud dextrose
agar at 37°C for 2 to 5 days. The culture is done
in anaerobic condition and can be selective for C.
albicans by adding cycloheximide to the medium
(Wyatt, 2008).
Speciation
Most Candida species have similar appearance of
colonies on growth media. Some media are
prepared with some indicators for certain species.
Some laboratory tests are used specifically for
species differentiation including carbohydrate
assimilation tests, fermentation tests and
commercial biochemical test kits (Wyatt, 2008).
Candida albicans can be identified by formation
of chlamydospores on certain media such as corn
meal agar and chlamydospore agar (Bernhardt,
1946; Fusillo, Learnard, & Dozier, 1952).
Moreover, when they are incubated in serum at
37°C for two hours, they form germ tubes. Also,
C. albicans is resistant to the fungicide
cycloheximide and when mycological growth
medium contains this drug this candida will grow
but not other species of candida (Quinn et al.,
2011; Wyatt, 2008).
Molecular Diagnosis
Recently, polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
techniques have been widely used in the
diagnosis of poultry candidiasis (Kaab, 2013; El-
Diasty, Ibrahim, & El Khalafawy, 2017; Liu et al.,
2018). Molecular diagnosis is made based on the
25S rDNA genome (McCullough, Clemons, &
Stevens, 1999).
Control
Good sanitary conditions in the flock environment
along with elimination of any predisposing factors
1090| International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research | Jan - March 2020 | Vol 12 | Issue 1
are enough for the prevention of clinical
candidiasis. Infected birds must be removed from
the rest of the flock as they are a potential source
of infection. Fertile eggs should be dipped in an
iodine solution to prevent transmission of the
pathogen on the egg shell from the parent stock
to newly hatched chicks (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017).
Treatment
Copper sulphate of 0.05% concentration in the
drinking water is effective (Asfaw & Dawit, 2017).
Antifungals in the feed or drinking water can be
used such as: nystatin, parconazole (Dykstra et
al., 2017), ketoconazole (Thienpont, Van Cutsem,
& Borgers, 1980) and gentian violet (United
States Patent No. US3916027A, 1975)
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