CHAPTER 3

SPEECH AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF

CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
1. give a brief picture of the speech and mental development of
children and adolescents;
2. characterize elementary pupils and high school students in terms
of mental behaviors;
3. explain the educational implications of the Piaget’s theory of
cognitive development; and
4. discuss the effect of the different factors to speech and cognitive
development.
Lesson 1. Speech and Language Development
How do speech and language develop?
The first 3 years of life, when the brain is developing and
maturing, is the most intensive period for acquiring speech and
language skills. These skills develop best in a world that is rich with
sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of
others.

There appear to be critical periods for speech and language

development in infants and young children when the brain is best able
to absorb language. If these critical periods are allowed to pass without
exposure to language, it will be more difficult to learn.

What are the milestones for speech and language

development?
The first signs of communication occur when an infant learns that
a cry will bring food, comfort, and companionship. Newborns also begin
to recognize important sounds in their environment, such as the voice of
their mother or primary caretaker. As they grow, babies begin to sort
out the speech sounds that compose the words of their language. By 6
months of age, most babies recognize the basic sounds of their native
language.

Children vary in their development of speech and language skills.

However, they follow a natural progression or timetable for mastering
the skills of language.
What is the difference between a speech disorder and a
language disorder?

Children who have trouble understanding what others

say (receptive language) or difficulty sharing their thoughts
(expressive language) may have a language disorder. Specific
language impairment (SLI) is a language disorder that delays
the mastery of language skills. Some children with SLI may
not begin to talk until their third or fourth year.

Children who have trouble producing speech sounds

correctly or who hesitate or stutter when talking may have a
speech disorder. Apraxia of speech is a speech disorder that
makes it difficult to put sounds and syllables together in the
correct order to form words.

What should I do if my child’s speech or language appears

to be delayed?

Talk to your child’s doctor if you have any concerns.

Your doctor may refer you to a speech-language pathologist,
who is a health professional trained to evaluate and treat
people with speech or language disorders. The speech-
language pathologist will talk to you about your child’s
communication and general development. He or she will also
use special spoken tests to evaluate your child. A hearing test
is often included in the evaluation because a hearing problem
can affect speech and language development. Depending on
the result of the evaluation, the speech-language pathologist
may suggest activities you can do at home to stimulate your
child’s development. They might also recommend group or
individual therapy or suggest further evaluation by an
audiologist (a health care professional trained to identify and
measure hearing loss), or a developmental psychologist (a
health care professional with special expertise in the
psychological development of infants and children).
What are voice, speech, and language?
Voice, speech, and language are the tools we use to communicate with
each other.

Voice is the sound we make as air from our lungs is pushed between
vocal folds in our larynx, causing them to vibrate.

Speech is talking, which is one way to express language. It involves the

precisely coordinated muscle actions of the tongue, lips, jaw, and vocal
tract to produce the recognizable sounds that make up language.
Speech is making the sounds that become words—the physical act of
talking.
Language is a set of shared rules that allow people to express their
ideas in a meaningful way. Language may be expressed verbally or by
writing, signing, or making other gestures, such as eye blinking or
mouth movements. Language is our system of using words to
communicate. It includes using words and gestures to say what we
mean, and understanding what others say.

Your baby’s hearing and communicative development

checklist (https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/speech-and-language )

Birth to 3 Months
Reacts to loud sounds YES  NO 
Calms down or smiles when spoken to YES  NO 
Recognizes your voice and calms down if crying YES  NO 
When feeding, starts or stops sucking in response to sound YES  NO 
Coos and makes pleasure sounds YES  NO 
Has a special way of crying for different needs YES  NO 
Smiles when he or she sees you YES  NO 

4 to 6 Months
Follows sounds with his or her eyes YES  NO 
Responds to changes in the tone of your voice YES  NO 
Notices toys that make sounds YES  NO 
Pays attention to music YES  NO 
Babbles in a speech-like way and uses many different sounds,
including sounds that begin with p, b, and m YES  NO 
Laughs YES  NO 
Babbles when excited or unhappy YES  NO 
Makes gurgling sounds when alone or playing
with you YES  NO 

7 Months to 1 Year
Enjoys playing peek-a-boo and pat-a-cake YES  NO 
Turns and looks in the direction of sounds YES  NO 
Listens when spoken to YES  NO 
Understands words for common items such as “cup,”
“shoe,” or “juice” YES  NO 
Responds to requests (“Come here”) YES  NO 
Babbles using long and short groups of sounds
(“tata, upup, bibibi”) YES  NO 
Babbles to get and keep attention YES  NO 
Communicates using gestures such as waving or
holding up arms YES  NO 
Imitates different speech sounds YES  NO 
Has one or two words (“Hi,” “dog,” “Dada,” or “Mama”)
by first birthday YES  NO 

1 to 2 Years
Knows a few parts of the body and can point to them
when asked YES  NO 
Follows simple commands (“Roll the ball”) and understands
simple questions (“Where’s your shoe?”) YES  NO 
Enjoys simple stories, songs, and rhymes YES  NO 
Points to pictures, when named, in books YES  NO 
Acquires new words on a regular basis YES  NO 
Uses some one- or two-word questions
(“Where kitty?” or “Go bye-bye?”) YES  NO 
Puts two words together (“More cookie”) YES  NO 
Uses many different consonant sounds at the
beginning of words YES  NO 

2 to 3 Years
Has a word for almost everything YES  NO 
Uses two- or three-word phrases to talk about and
ask for things YES  NO 
Uses k, g, f, t, d, and n sounds YES  NO 
Speaks in a way that is understood by family
members and friends YES  NO 
Names objects to ask for them or to direct attention
to them YES  NO 

3 to 4 Years
Hears you when you call from another room YES  NO 
Hears the television or radio at the same sound level as other
family members YES  NO 
Answers simple “Who?” “What?” “Where?” and “Why?”
Questions YES  NO 
Talks about activities at daycare, preschool, or
friends’ homes YES  NO 
Uses sentences with four or more words YES  NO 
Speaks easily without having to repeat syllables or words YES  NO 

4 to 5 Years
Pays attention to a short story and answers simple
questions about it YES  NO 
Hears and understands most of what is said at home
and in school YES  NO 
Uses sentences that give many details YES  NO 
Tells stories that stay on topic YES  NO 
Communicates easily with other children and adults YES  NO 
Says most sounds correctly except for a few
(l, s, r, v, z, ch, sh, and th) YES  NO 
Uses rhyming words YES  NO 
Names some letters and numbers YES  NO 
Uses adult grammar YES  NO 

When do speech and language begin?

Infants start learning in the womb, where they hear and respond
to familiar voices. The fastest learning occurs from ages 2 to 5 years.
Speech and language milestones help tell whether a child is
developing as expected. Milestones are certain skills, such as babbling,
saying "mama" or "dada," or putting two words together. Usually, a child
needs to master one milestone before reaching the next.
 Babies usually start cooing at around 2 months and are babbling
by about 6 months. A child usually speaks in gibberish, called jargon,
by the first birthday. At 15 to 18 months, a typical toddler understands
much more than he or she is able to put into words. Starting around 18
months, many children have a burst in talking. By 24 months, children
tend to use at least 50 words and are also starting to use two-word
phrases.
Keep in mind that the age at which children reach milestones
varies from child to child. Some children, especially girls, are advanced.
Others develop more slowly.
What helps a child learn speech and language?
A child who is surrounded by speech and language all the time
usually learns language skills faster. Talking to and reading to your
child will have a big effect on how well your child is able to
communicate later. Children who are seldom spoken to or read to
usually learn to talk later than other children their age.
Why do speech and language problems develop in some children?
Sometimes there is a reason that a child has a speech and
language problem. For instance, a child may have a language
delay because of trouble hearing or because of a developmental disorder
such as autism. Often, there is not a clear cause.
It's important to track your child's speech and language
development. A child can overcome many speech and language
problems with treatment, especially when you catch problems early.
Language and Speech Disorders
We can have trouble with speech, language, or both. Having
trouble understanding what others say is a receptive
language disorder. Having problems sharing our thoughts, ideas, and
feelings is an expressive language disorder. It is possible to have both a
receptive and an expressive language problem.

When we have trouble saying sounds, stutter when we speak, or

have voice problems, we have a speech disorder.

Maryam has a receptive and expressive language disorder. She

does not understand what words mean and has trouble using words to
talk to others.

Vicki also has a language disorder. Reading and writing are

language skills. She could also have problems understanding others
and using words well because of her learning disability
Speech and Language Development Milestones
What should my child be able to do? (Birth to One Year)
Hearing and Understanding
Birth–3 Months
 Startles at loud sounds.
 Quiets or smiles when you talk.
 Seems to recognize your voice.
Quiets if crying.
4–6 Months
 Moves her eyes in the direction of
sounds.
 Responds to changes in your tone of
voice.
 Notices toys that make sounds.
 Pays attention to music.
7 Months–1 Year
 Turns and looks in the direction of
sounds.
 Looks when you point.
 Turns when you call her name.
 Understands words for common
items and people—words
like cup, truck, juice, and daddy.
 Starts to respond to simple words
and phrases, like “No,” “Come
here,” and “Want more?”
 Plays games with you, like peek-a-
boo and pat-a-cake.
 Listens to songs and stories for a
short time.
Talking
Birth–3 Months
 Makes cooing sounds.
 Cries change for different needs.
 Smiles at people.
4–6 Months
 Coos and babbles when playing alone or
with you. 
 Makes speech-like babbling sounds, like 
pa, ba, and mi.
 Giggles and laughs.
 Makes sounds when happy or upset.
7 Months–1 Year
 Babbles long strings of sounds, like 
mimi upup babababa.
 Uses sounds and gestures to get and keep
attention.
 Points to objects and shows them to others.
 Uses gestures like waving bye, reaching for
“up,” and shaking his head no.
 Imitates different speech sounds.
 Says 1 or 2 words, like hi, dog, dada, mama,
or uh-oh. This will happen around his first
birthday, but sounds may not be clear.
What can I do to help?

 Check if your child can hear. See if she turns to noises or looks at
you when you talk. Pay attention to ear problems and infections,
and see your doctor.
 Respond to your child. Look at him when he makes noises. Talk
to him. Imitate the sounds he makes.
 Laugh when she does. Imitate the faces she makes.
 Teach your baby to imitate actions, like peek-a-boo, clapping,
blowing kisses, and waving bye-bye. This teaches him how to take
turns. We take turns when we talk.
 Talk about what you do during the day. Say things like “Mommy
is washing your hair”; “You are eating peas”; and “Oh, these peas
are good!”
 Talk about where you go, what you do there, and who and what
you see. Say things like, “We are going to Grandma’s house.
Grandma has a dog. You can pet the dog.”
 Teach animal sounds, like “A cow says ‘moo.’”
 Read to your child every day.
 Talk to your child in the language you are most comfortable
using.

What should my child be able to do? (1 to 2 years)

Hearing and Understanding Talking

 Points to a few body parts when you
ask.
 Follows 1-part directions, like "Roll
the ball" or "Kiss the baby."
 Responds to simple questions, like
“Who’s that?” or “Where’s your
shoe?”
 Listens to simple stories, songs, and
rhymes.
 Points to pictures in a book when
you name them.
 Uses a lot of new words.
 Uses p, b, m, h, and w in words.
 Starts to name pictures in books.
 Asks questions, like “What's that?”,
“Who’s that?”, and “Where’s kitty?” 
 Puts 2 words together, like "more apple,"
"no bed," and "mommy book."

What can I do to help?

  Talk to your child as you do things and go places. For example,
when taking a walk, point to and name what you see. Say things
like, “I see a dog. The dog says ‘woof.’ This is a big dog. This dog is
brown.”
 Use short words and sentences that your child can imitate. Use
correct grammar.
 Talk about sounds around your house. Listen to the clock tick,
and say “t-t-t.” Make car or plane sounds, like “v-v-v-v.”
 Play with sounds at bath time. You are eye-level with your child.
Blow bubbles, and make the sound “b-b-b-b.” Pop bubbles, and
make a “p-p-p-p” sound. Engines on toys can make the “rrr-rrr-
rrr” sound.
 Add to words your child says. For example, if she says “car,” you
can say, “You're right! That is a big red car.”
 Read to your child every day. Try to find books with large pictures
and a few words on each page. Talk about the pictures on each
page.
 Have your child point to pictures that you name.
 Ask your child to name pictures. He may not answer at first. Just
name the pictures for him. One day, he will surprise you by telling
you the name.
 Talk to your child in the language you are most comfortable
using.

What should my child be able to do? (2 to 3 years)

Hearing and Understanding Talking

 Understands opposites, like go–stop, big–
little, and up–down.
 Follows 2-part directions, like "Get the
spoon and put it on the table."
 Understands new words quickly.
 Has a word for almost everything.
 Talks about things that are not in the room.
 Uses k, g,  f,  t,  d, and n in words.
 Uses words like in, on, and under.
 Uses two- or three- words to talk about
and ask for things.
 People who know your child can understand
him.
 Asks “Why?”
 Puts 3 words together to talk about things.
May repeat some words and sounds.

What can I do to help?

 Use short words and sentences. Speak clearly.

  Repeat what your child says, and add to it. If she says, “Pretty
flower,” you can say, “Yes, that is a pretty flower. The flower is
bright red. It smells good too. Do you want to smell the flower?”
 Let your child know that what he says is important to you. Ask
him to repeat things that you do not understand. For example,
say, “I know you want a block. Tell me which block you want.”
 Teach your child new words. Reading is a great way to do this.
Read books with short sentences on each page.
 Talk about colors and shapes.
 Practice counting. Count toes and fingers. Count steps.
 Name objects, and talk about the picture on each page of a book.
Use words that are similar, like mommy, woman, lady, grown-
up, adult. Use new words in sentences to help your child learn the
meaning.
 Put objects into a bucket. Let your child remove them one at a
time, and say its name. Repeat what she says, and add to it. Help
her group the objects into categories, like clothes, food, animals.
 Cut out pictures from magazines, and make a scrapbook. Help
your child glue the pictures into the scrapbook. Name the
pictures, and talk about how you use them.
 Look at family photos, and name the people. Talk about what they
are doing in the picture.
 Write simple phrases under the pictures. For example, “I can
swim,” or “Happy birthday to Daddy.” Your child will start to
understand that the letters mean something.
 Ask your child to make a choice instead of giving a “yes” or “no”
answer. For example, rather than asking, “Do you want milk?”
ask, “Would you like milk or water?” Be sure to wait for the
answer, and praise him for answering. You can say, “Thank you
for telling mommy what you want. Mommy will get you a glass of
milk.”
 Sing songs, play finger games, and tell nursery rhymes. These
songs and games teach your child about the rhythm and sounds
of language.
 Talk to your child in the language you are most comfortable
using.

What should my child be able to do? (3 to 4 years)

Hearing and Understanding Talking

 Responds when you call from  Answers simple who, what, and where questions.
 Says rhyming words, like hat–cat.
 another room.
 Understands words for some colors,
like red, blue, and green.
 Understands words for some shapes,
like circle and square.
 Understands words for family,
like brother, grandmother, and aunt.
 Uses pronouns, like I, you, me, we, and they.
 Uses some plural words, like toys, birds, and buses.
 Most people understand what your child says.
 Asks when and how questions.
 Puts 4 words together. May make some mistakes,
like “I goed to school.”
 Talks about what happened during the day. Uses
about 4 sentences at a time.

What can I do to help?

 Cut out pictures from old magazines. Make silly pictures by gluing
parts of different pictures together. For example, cut out a dog
and a car. Glue the dog into the car as the driver. Help your child
explain what is silly about the picture.
 Sort pictures and objects into categories, like food, animals, or
shapes. Ask your child to find the picture or object that does not
belong. For example, a baby does not belong with the animals.
 Read, sing, and talk about what you do and where you go. Use
rhyming words. This will help your child learn new words and
sentences.
 Read books with a simple story. Talk about the story with your
child. Help her retell the story, or act it out with props and dress-
up clothes. Tell her your favorite part of the story. Ask for her
favorite part.
 Look at family pictures. Have your child tell a story about the
picture.
 Help your child understand by asking him questions. Have him
try to fool you with his own questions. Make this a game by
pretending that some of his questions fool you.
 Act out daily activities, like cooking food or going to the doctor.
Use dress-up and role-playing to help your child understand how
others talk and act. This will help your child learn social skills
and how to tell stories.
 Talk to your child in the language you are most comfortable
using.

What should my child be able to do? (4 to 5 years)

Hearing and Understanding Talking

 Understands words for order,  Says all speech sounds in words. May make
 like first, next, and last.
 Understands words for time,
like yesterday, today, and tomorrow.
 Follows longer directions, like “Put
your pajamas on, brush your teeth, and
then pick out a book.”
 Follows classroom directions, like
“Draw a circle on your paper around
something you eat.”
 Hears and understands most of what
she hears at home and in school.
mistakes on sounds that are harder to say,
like l, s, r, v, z, ch, sh, and th.
 Responds to “What did you say?”
 Talks without repeating sounds or words
most of the time.
 Names letters and numbers.
 Uses sentences that have more than 1 action
word, like jump, play, and get. May make
some mistakes, like “Zach gots 2 video
games, but I got one.”
 Tells a short story.
 Keeps a conversation going.
 Talks in different ways, depending on the
listener and place. Your child may use short
sentences with younger children. He may talk
louder outside than inside.

What can I do to help?

 Talk about where things are in space, using words

like first and last or right and left. Talk about opposites,
like up and down or big and little.
 Give your child clues, and have him guess the object.
 Talk about categories, like fruits, furniture, and shapes. Sort
items into categories. Have your child tell you which item does not
belong. Talk about why it doesn’t belong.
 Let your child tell you how to do something.
 Pay attention when your child speaks. Respond, praise, and
encourage him when he talks. Get his attention before you speak.
Pause after speaking, and let him respond to what you said.
 Keep teaching your child new words. Define words, and help your
child understand them. For example, say, “This vehicle is on the
highway. It is a car. A bus is another kind of vehicle. So are a
train and an airplane.”
 Teach your child to ask for help when she does not understand
what a word means.
 Point out objects that are the same or different. Talk about what
makes them the same or different. Maybe they are the same color.
Maybe they are both animals. Maybe one is big and one is little.
 Act out stories. Play house, doctor, and store using dolls, figures,
and dress-up clothes. Have the dolls talk to each other.
 Read stories that are easy to follow. Help your child guess what
will happen next in the story. Act out the stories, or put on
puppet shows. Have your child draw a picture of a scene from the
 story. You can do the same thing with videos and TV shows. Ask
who, what, when, where, or why questions about the story.
 Play game like “I Spy.” Describe something you see, like, “I spy
something round on the wall that you use to tell the time.” Let
your child guess what it is. Let your child describe something he
sees. This helps him learn to listen and to use words to talk about
what he sees.
 Give your child 2-step directions, like “Get your coat from the
closet and put it on.” Let your child tell you how to do something.
Draw a picture that he describes. Write down your child’s story as
she tells it. Your child will learn the power of storytelling and
writing.
 Play board games with your child. This will help him learn to
follow rules and talk about the game.
 Have your child help you plan daily activities. For example, have
her make a shopping list for the grocery store. Or, let her help you
plan her birthday party. Ask her opinion, and let her make
choices.
 Talk to your child in the language you are most comfortable
using.
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

What is Cognitive Development?

Children grow and develop rapidly in their first five years across
the four main areas of development. These areas are motor (physical),
language and communication, cognitive and social/emotional.
 
Cognitive development means how children think, explore and figure
things out. It is the development of knowledge, skills, problem solving
and dispositions, which help children to think about and understand
the world around them. Brain development is part of cognitive
development.
 
As a parent, it is important to foster your child's cognitive development
as soon as he/she is born because doing so provides the foundation for
your child's success in school and later in life. For example, research
shows that children who can distinguish sounds at six months of age
are better at acquiring the skills for learning to read at four and five
years of age.
 
To promote your child's cognitive development, it is important that you
actively engage in quality interactions on a daily basis. Examples
include:

 Talking with your baby and naming commonly used

objects.
 Letting your baby explore toys and move about.
 Singing and reading to your baby.
 Exposing your toddler to books and puzzles.
 Expanding on your child's interests in specific learning
activities. For example, your toddler might show an early interest in
dinosaurs, so you can take him/her on a trip to the natural history
museum to learn more about the time that these creatures roamed the
earth.
 Answering your child’s “why” questions.

 
Another way that you can foster your child's cognitive development is to
provide him/her with choices and prompt him/her to make thoughtful
decisions. You should also allow your child to explore different ways of
solving problems. While you may want to provide some gentle guidance
and encouragement, allow your child some time to figure out things, like
a new puzzle. This may require some patience on your part, but it will
ultimately help him/her to learn.
 The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that

children move through four different stages of mental development. His
theory focuses not only on understanding how children acquire
knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. 1
Piaget's stages are:

 Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years

 Preoperational stage: ages 2 to 7
 Concrete operational stage: ages 7 to 11
 Formal operational stage: ages 12 and up

Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning

process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments,
make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the
world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate
new information.

How Piaget Developed the Theory

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious

student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years
old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came
when he worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as
they worked to standardize their famous IQ test.

Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was

inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These
observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds
were not merely smaller versions of adult minds.

Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as

smaller versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the
way that children think is different from the way adults think.

Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops

through a series of stages. Older children do not just think more quickly
than younger children, he suggested. Instead, there are both qualitative
and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children
versus older children.

Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less

intelligent than adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein
called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of
it."

Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of

children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process
and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves
processes based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental
operations.

The 4 Stages

1. The Sensorimotor Stage – birth to 2 years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant knows the world through their movements and

sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around
them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them

During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers

acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating
objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage
occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.

It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of

dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment,
they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.

The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place

over a relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth.
Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as
crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal about language from
the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage down
into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.

Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy,

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot
be seen, was an important element at this point of development.

By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they
have an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children
are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

2.The Preoperational Stage – 2 to 7 years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and

pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see
things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.

The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the
major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. 3

Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world
around them. 

At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also often
struggle with understanding the idea of constancy. For example, a
researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One
piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into
a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the
preoperational child will likely choose that piece even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.

3. The Concrete Operational Stage – 7 to 11 years

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

  During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about
concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very
concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle

While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this
point in development, they become much more adept at using logic. 2 The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.

While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete

operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in
development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.

During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to
think about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete
operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are
unique to them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their
thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

4.The Formal Operational Stage – 12 years and up

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think

abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. 3 At
this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.

The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key
hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The
ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about
hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this
stage. 

It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual

development as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add
more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get
older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how
children think as they gradually process through these four stages. 4 A
child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than
he did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about
the world.

Important Concepts

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive

development, it is important first to examine a few of the important
ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.

The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn
and grow:

Schemas

A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in

understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that
help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and
the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this
new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing
schemas.

For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such
as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child
might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose
then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in
this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to
include these new observations.

Assimilation

The process of taking in new information into our already existing

schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective
because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in
with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and
labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog
schema.

Accommodation

Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing

schemas in light of new information, a process known as
accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas,
or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New
schemas may also be developed during this process.

 Equilibration

Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between

assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a
mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the
stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance
between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration
helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the
next.

A Word From Verywell

One of the most important elements to remember of Piaget's theory is

that it takes the view that creating knowledge and intelligence is an
inherently active process.
"I find myself opposed to the view of knowledge as a passive copy of
reality," Piaget explained. "I believe that knowing an object means acting
upon it, constructing systems of transformations that can be carried out
on or with this object. Knowing reality means constructing systems of
transformations that correspond, more or less adequately, to reality."

Piaget's theory of cognitive development helped add to our

understanding of children's intellectual growth. It also stressed that
children were not merely passive recipients of knowledge. Instead, kids
are constantly investigating and experimenting as they build their
understanding of how the world works.

Cognitive Development in Childhood

Nature and Nurture

The most basic question about child development is how nature and
nurture together shape development. Nature refers to our biological
endowment, the genes we receive from our parents. Nurture refers to
the environments, social as well as physical, that influence our
development, everything from the womb in which we develop before
birth to the homes in which we grow up, the schools we attend, and the
many people with whom we interact.

The nature-nurture issue is often presented as an either-or question: Is

our intelligence (for example) due to our genes or to the environments in
which we live? In fact, however, every aspect of development is produced
by the interaction of genes and environment. At the most basic level,
without genes, there would be no child, and without an environment to
provide nurture, there also would be no child.

The way in which nature and nurture work together can be seen in
findings on visual development. Many people view vision as something
that people either are born with or that is purely a matter of biological
maturation, but it also depends on the right kind of experience at the
right time. For example, development of depth perception, the ability
to actively perceive the distance from oneself to objects in the
environment, depends on seeing patterned light and having normal
brain activity in response to the patterned light, in infancy (Held, 1993).

A child that is perceived to be attractive and calm may receive a

different sort of care and attention from adults and as a result enjoy a
developmental advantage.
Adding to the complexity of the nature-nurture interaction, children’s
genes lead to their eliciting different treatment from other people, which
influences their cognitive development. For example, infants’ physical
attractiveness and temperament are influenced considerably by their
genetic inheritance, but it is also the case that parents provide more
sensitive and affectionate care to easygoing and attractive infants than
to difficult and less attractive ones, which can contribute to the infants’
later cognitive development (Langlois et al., 1995; van den Boom &
Hoeksma, 1994).

Also contributing to the complex interplay of nature and nurture is the

role of children in shaping their own cognitive development. From the
first days out of the womb, children actively choose to attend more to
some things and less to others. For example, even 1-month-olds choose
to look at their mother’s face more than at the faces of other women of
the same age and general level of attractiveness (Bartrip, Morton, & de
Schonen, 2001). Children’s contributions to their own cognitive
development grow larger as they grow older (Scarr & McCartney, 1983).
When children are young, their parents largely determine their
experiences: whether they will attend day care, the children with whom
they will have play dates, the books to which they have access, and so
on. In contrast, older children and adolescents choose their
environments to a larger degree. Their parents’ preferences largely
determine how 5-year-olds spend time, but 15-year-olds’ own
preferences largely determine when, if ever, they set foot in a library.
Children’s choices often have large consequences. To cite one example,
the more that children choose to read, the more that their reading
improves in future years (Baker, Dreher, & Guthrie, 2000). Thus, the
issue is not whether cognitive development is a product of nature or
nurture; rather, the issue is how nature and nurture work together to
produce cognitive development.

Applications to Education

Understanding how children think and learn has proven useful for
improving education. One example comes from the area of reading.
Cognitive developmental research has shown that phonemic awareness
—that is, awareness of the component sounds within words—is a
crucial skill in learning to read. To measure awareness of the
component sounds within words, researchers ask children to decide
whether two words rhyme, to decide whether the words start with the
same sound, to identify the component sounds within words, and to
indicate what would be left if a given sound were removed from a word.
Activities like playing games that involve working with numbers and
spatial relationships can give young children a developmental advantage
over peers who have less exposure to the same concepts.
Another educational application of cognitive developmental research
involves the area of mathematics. Even before they enter kindergarten,
the mathematical knowledge of children from low-income backgrounds
lags far behind that of children from more affluent backgrounds.
Ramani and Siegler (2008) hypothesized that this difference is due to
the children in middle- and upper-income families engaging more
frequently in numerical activities, for example playing numerical board
games such as Chutes and Ladders. Chutes and Ladders is a game
with a number in each square; children start at the number one and
spin a spinner or throw a dice to determine how far to move their token.
Playing this game seemed likely to teach children about numbers,
because in it, larger numbers are associated with greater values on a
variety of dimensions. In particular, the higher the number that a
child’s token reaches, the greater the distance the token will have
traveled from the starting point, the greater the number of physical
movements the child will have made in moving the token from one
square to another, the greater the number of number-words the child
will have said and heard, and the more time will have passed since the
beginning of the game. These spatial, kinesthetic, verbal, and time-
based cues provide a broad-based, multisensory foundation for
knowledge of numerical magnitudes (the sizes of numbers), a type of
knowledge that is closely related to mathematics achievement test
scores (Booth & Siegler, 2006).

Playing this numerical board game for roughly 1 hour, distributed over
a 2-week period, improved low-income children’s knowledge of
numerical magnitudes, ability to read printed numbers, and skill at
learning novel arithmetic problems. The gains lasted for months after
the game-playing experience (Ramani & Siegler, 2008; Siegler &
Ramani, 2009). An advantage of this type of educational intervention is
that it has minimal if any cost—a parent could just draw a game on a
piece of paper.

Understanding of cognitive development is advancing on many different

fronts. One exciting area is linking changes in brain activity to changes
in children’s thinking (Nelson et al., 2006). Although many people
believe that brain maturation is something that occurs before birth, the
brain actually continues to change in large ways for many years
thereafter. For example, a part of the brain called the prefrontal cortex,
which is located at the front of the brain and is particularly involved
with planning and flexible problem solving, continues to develop
throughout adolescence (Blakemore & Choudhury, 2006). Such new
research domains, as well as enduring issues such as nature and
nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and how to apply cognitive
development research to education, insure that cognitive development
will continue to be an exciting area of research in the coming years.

Conclusion

Research into cognitive development has shown us that minds don’t just
form according to a uniform blueprint or innate intellect, but through a
combination of influencing factors. For instance, if we want our kids to
have a strong grasp of language we could concentrate on phonemic
awareness early on. If we want them to be good at math and science we
could engage them in numerical games and activities early on. Perhaps
most importantly, we no longer think of brains as empty vessels waiting
to be filled up with knowledge but as adaptable organs that develop all
the way through early adulthood.

Cognitive Milestones in Children

Milestones help you understand how your child learns and grows. Cognitive
development is critical to a child’s growth. It describes how a child’s brain 
develops, and includes skills such as thinking, learning, exploring and problem
solving. It also affects other areas of a child’s development, including language and
social skills.

NEWBORN

 Sees objects that are eight to 12 inches away from his/her face.
 Is sensitive to sounds close by.
 Startles to loud noises by arching back, kicking legs and flailing
arms.

1 MONTH

 Watches objects and faces briefly and follows moving object with eyes.
 Startles to loud noises by arching back, kicking legs and flailing arms.
 2 MONTHS

 Follows moving object, such as rattle or toy, with eyes.

 Recognizes familiar people at a distance.
 Cries or fusses if bored.
 Startles to loud noises.

3 MONTHS

 Recognizes breast or bottle.

 Follows movement by turning head.
 Startles at loud noises.

4 MONTHS

 Watches moving objects, moves eyes from side to side to watch.

 Communicates if happy or sad.
 Watches faces and looks at your face while feeding.
 Reaches for toys and brings toys to mouth.

6 MONTHS

 Uses hands and mouth to explore the world.

 Transfers objects from hand to hand.
 Tries to get things that are out of reach.
 Looks around at things.

9 MONTHS

 Watches an object as it falls.

 Looks for objects that he/she saw you hide.
 Transfers things smoothly from hand to hand.
 Plays "peek-a-boo."
 Uses thumb and index finger to pick things up, such as cereal Os.
 Turns pages in a book.
 Puts things in mouth.

12 MONTHS

 Puts objects in and out of containers.

 Looks at the correct picture when it's named.
 Bangs things together.
 Begins to use common objects correctly (drinks from a cup, brushes
hair).
 Follows simple directions, such as “pick up your book.”
 Explores things by banging, shaking or throwing.
 Pokes with index finger.
 Lets go of things without help.

18 MONTHS

 Scribbles with crayon or pencil.

 Points to at least one body part.
 Follows one-step directions without any gestures (for example, sits
when you say “sit”).
 Knows what common objects are for, such as a phone, brush or
spoon.
 Points to get the attention of others.
 Shows interest in a stuffed animal or doll, and plays pretend.
 Enjoys books, stories and songs.
 Turns pages of a book.

2 YEARS

 Builds a tower of four or more blocks.

 Finds things even when hidden under two or more covers.
 Explores how things work by touching them and trying them out.
 Begins to sort shapes and colors.
 Follows two-step directions such as, “pick up your truck and put it on
the shelf.”
 Plays simple pretend or make-believe games.
 Names items in a book such as a dog, cat, car or baby.
 Completes sentences and rhymes in familiar books.

3 YEARS

 Does puzzles with three or four pieces.

 Draws or copies a circle with crayon or pencil.
 Plays make-believe with dolls, animals and people.
 Uses imagination to create stories or play.
 Matches and sorts objects by shape and color.
 Works toys with buttons, levers and moving parts (for example,
makes mechanical toys work).
 Knows what “two” means.
 Turns pages one at a time.
 Knows common colors.
 Screws and unscrews jar lids, and turns door handles.

4 YEARS

 Copies simple shapes.

 Understands the concepts of “same” and “different.”
 Follows instructions with two or three steps.
 Understands the concept of counting and may know numbers.
 Draws a person with two to four body parts.
 Begins to understand time.
 Knows basic colors.
 Uses scissors.
 Copies letters.
 Plays board games or card games.
 Tells you what he thinks will happen next in a story.
 5 YEARS

 Counts 10 or more objects.

 Names at least four colors correctly.
 Understands items used every day such as food or money.
 Draws a person with at least six body parts.
 Copies a triangle and other geometric shapes.
 Understands the concept of time.
 Prints some letters and numbers.
 Recognizes own printed name and may be able to write name.
Cognitive Development in the Teen Years

Cognitive development means the growth of a child’s ability to think and

reason. This growth happens differently from ages 6 to 12, and from
ages 12 to 18.

Children ages 6 to 12 years old develop the ability to think in concrete

ways. These are called concrete operations. These things are called
concrete because they’re done around objects and events. This includes
knowing how to:

 Combine (add)
 Separate (subtract or divide)
 Order (alphabetize and sort)
 Transform objects and actions (change things, such as 5 pennies
= 1 nickel)
Ages 12 to 18 is called adolescence. Kids and teens in this age group
do more complex thinking. This type of thinking is also known as
formal logical operations. This includes the ability to:

 Do abstract thinking. This means thinking about possibilities.

 Reason from known principles. This means forming own new
ideas or questions.
 Consider many points of view. This means to compare or debate
ideas or opinions.
 Think about the process of thinking. This means being aware of
the act of thought processes.

How cognitive growth happens during the teen years

From ages 12 to 18, children grow in the way they think. They move
from concrete thinking to formal logical operations. It’s important to
note that:

 Each child moves ahead at their own rate in their ability to think
in more complex ways.
 Each child develops their own view of the world.
 Some children may be able to use logical operations in schoolwork
long before they can use them for personal problems.
 When emotional issues come up, they can cause problems with a
child’s ability to think in complex ways.
  The ability to consider possibilities and facts may affect decision-
making. This can happen in either positive or negative ways.

Types of cognitive growth through the years

A child in early adolescence:

 Uses more complex thinking focused on personal decision-making

in school and at home
 Begins to show use of formal logical operations in schoolwork
 Begins to question authority and society's standards
 Begins to form and speak his or her own thoughts and views on
many topics. You may hear your child talk about which sports or
groups he or she prefers, what kinds of personal appearance is
attractive, and what parental rules should be changed.

A child in middle adolescence:

 Has some experience in using more complex thinking processes

 Expands thinking to include more philosophical and futuristic
concerns
 Often questions more extensively
 Often analyzes more extensively
 Thinks about and begins to form his or her own code of ethics (for
example, What do I think is right?)
 Thinks about different possibilities and begins to develop own
identity (for example, Who am I? )
 Thinks about and begins to systematically consider possible
future goals (for example, What do I want? )
 Thinks about and begins to make his or her own plans
 Begins to think long-term
 Uses systematic thinking and begins to influence relationships
with others
A child in late adolescence:

 Uses complex thinking to focus on less self-centered concepts and

personal decision-making
 Has increased thoughts about more global concepts, such as
justice, history, politics, and patriotism
 Often develops idealistic views on specific topics or concerns
 May debate and develop intolerance of opposing views
 Begins to focus thinking on making career decisions
 Begins to focus thinking on their emerging role in adult society
How you can encourage healthy cognitive growth

To help encourage positive and healthy cognitive growth in your teen,

you can:

 Include him or her in discussions about a variety of topics, issues,

and current events.
 Encourage your child to share ideas and thoughts with you.
 Encourage your teen to think independently and develop his or
her own ideas.
 Help your child in setting goals.
 Challenge him or her to think about possibilities for the future.
 Compliment and praise your teen for well-thought-out decisions.
 Help him or her in re-evaluating poorly made decisions.

Factors That Affect Growth and Development in Children

1. Heredity
Heredity is the transmission of physical characteristics from parents to
children through their genes. It influences all aspects of physical
appearance such as height, weight, body structure, the colour of the
eye, the texture of the hair, and even intelligence and aptitudes.
Diseases and conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity, etc.,
can also be passed through genes, thereby affecting the growth and
development of the child adversely. However, environmental factors and
nurturing can bring the best out of the already present qualities in the
genes.

2. Environment

The environment plays a critical role in the development of children and

it represents the sum total of physical and psychological stimulation the
child receives. Some of the environmental factors influencing early
childhood development involve the physical surroundings and
geographical conditions of the place the child lives in, as well his social
environment and relationships with family and peers. It is easy to
understand that a well-nurtured child does better than a deprived one;
the environment children are constantly immersed in contributes to
this. A good school and a loving family builds in children strong social
and interpersonal skills, which will enable them to excel in other areas
such as academics and extracurricular activities. This will, of course, be
different for children who are raised in stressful environments.
3. Sex

The sex of the child is another major factor affecting the physical growth
and development of a child. Boys and girls grow in different ways,
especially nearing puberty. Boys tend to be taller and physically
stronger than girls. However, girls tend to mature faster during
adolescence, while boys mature over a longer period of time. The
physical structure of their bodies also has differences which make boys
more athletic and suited for activities that require physical rigour. Their
temperaments also vary, making them show interest in different things.

4. Exercise and Health

The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline
or children deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would
help them grow. Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sports
activities which help the body gain an increase in muscular strength
and put on bone mass. Proper exercise helps children grow well and
reach milestones on time or sooner. Exercise also keeps them healthy
and fights off diseases by strengthening the immune system, especially
if they play outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to
microbes that help them build resistance and prevent allergies.

5. Hormones

Hormones belong to the endocrine system and influence the various

functions of our bodies. They are produced by different glands that are
situated in specific parts of the body to secrete hormones that control
body functions. Their timely functioning is critical for normal physical
growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning of
hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity,
behavioural problems and other diseases. During puberty, the gonads
produce sex hormones which control the development of the sex organs
and the appearance of secondary sexual characteristics in boys and
girls.

6. Nutrition

Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the body needs to

build and repair itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can
cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect the growth and
development of children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to
obesity and health problems in the long run, such as diabetes and heart
disease. A balanced diet that is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins,
carbohydrates and fats is essential for the development of the brain and
body.

7. Familial Influence

Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and

determining the ways in which they develop psychologically and socially.
Whether they are raised by their parents, grandparents or foster care,
they need basic love, care and courtesy to develop as healthy functional
individuals. The most positive growth is seen when families invest time,
energy and love in the development of the child through activities, such
as reading to them, playing with them and having deep meaningful
conversations. Families that abuse or neglect children would affect their
positive development. These children may end up as individuals who
have poor social skills and difficulty bonding with other people as
adults. Helicopter parenting also has negative effects as they render
children dependent on the parents even as young adults and unable to
deal with difficulties in life on their own.

8. Geographical Influences

Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out
to be. The schools they attend, the neighbourhood they live in, the
opportunities offered by the community and their peer circles are some
of the social factors affecting a child’s development. Living in an
enriching community that has parks, libraries and community centres
for group activities and sports all play a role in developing the child’s
skills, talents, and behaviour. Uninteresting communities can push
some children to not go outside often but play video games at home
instead. Even the weather of a place influences children in the form of
bodily rhythms, allergies and other health conditions.

9. Socio-Economic Status

The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the

opportunity a child gets. Studying in better schools that are more
expensive definitely has benefits in the long run. Well-off families can
also offer better learning resources for their children and they afford
special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families may not
have access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their
full potential. They may also have working parents who work too many
hours and cannot invest enough quality time in their development.

10. Learning and Reinforcement

Learning involves much more than schooling. It is also concerned with

building the child up mentally, intellectually, emotionally, and
socially so they operate as healthy functional individuals in the society.
This is where the development of the mind takes place and the child can
gain some maturity. Reinforcement is a component of learning where an
activity or exercise is repeated and refined to solidify the lessons
learned. An example is playing a musical instrument; they get better at
playing it as they practice playing the instrument. Therefore, any lesson
that is taught has to be repeated until the right results are obtained.

Although nature contributes much to the growth and development of

children, nurture contributes much more. As mentioned earlier, some of
these factors may not be controllable, and you’ll have to make do with
what you have. But there are certain things you can definitely ensure
for your child. This includes ensuring that your child gets enough rest
every day, because his development is heavily dependent on the amount
of sleep he gets. Pay close attention to your child’s nutritional and
exercise levels, as these too play an important role in promoting your
child’s timely and healthy growth and development.
Name: __________________________ Date: ________
Course & Year: ___________________ Score: _______
ACTIVITY 3.1
Speech and Cognitive Development

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Select the correct or best answer and circle its
corresponding letter.
1. Children have short attention and interest span. Teachers should give
them
a. challenging and interesting activities
b. easy and difficult activities
c. short, varied interesting activities
d. long but interesting activities
2.The pupils are required to attend a practice for a specific co-curricular
activity in school. It so happened that it was scheduled at the time of
their unit test. The teacher should
a. postpone the scheduled test
b. negotiate with the teacher in-charge
c. not allow the students to practice
d. reprimand the students
3.Piaget distributed fruit juices to a group of children. Although the
same amount of juice is poured in two different sets of glasses, the
children selected the juice in the thinner but taller glass. These
children are in what stage of cognitive development?
a. Sensorimotor c. preoperational
b. concrete operational d. formal operational
4.Which of the following is least important in a school environment?
a. multipurpose classrooms c. playground
b. auditorium d. cafeteria
5.Which of the following is a mental characteristic of adolescents?
a. Consciousness b. daydreaming c. moodiness d. playfulness
6.The most important way of developing comprehension among babies
is
a. talking with them accompanied by gestures
b. letting them read words with pictures
c. giving them colorful and sound-producing toys
d. providing them dictionaries for word meanings
7.The following are prespeech forms of communication among babies
except
a. talking b. crying c. gesturing d. babbling
8.Can the type of discipline affect how much young children talk?
a. Yes, children who are trained by autocratic parents talk more.
b. Yes, children of permissive parents are more talkative.
c. Yes, children of democratic parents talk less.
d. No, type of discipline does not affect speech.
9. At these ages, children learn through concrete tangible objects.
a. 1 to 2 b. 2 to 5 c. 6 to 12 d. 12 to 18

10. Which of the following characterizes the preoperations child?

a. He touches, tastes, feels, bangs, and shakes objects in sight.

b. The child imagines possibilities in meeting new situations.
c. The child manipulates data mentally.
d. He learns by asking questions.
11. Children in the elementary are in a stage referred to as the concrete
operations stage. What best strategy can the teacher do to fit into
this stage of elementary pupils?
a. Present lessons through debates and group discussions.
b. Use pictures and actual objects in presenting lessons.
c. Invite resource speakers for certain lessons.
d. Conduct remedial classes for slow learners.
12. The behavioral development that is most characteristic of the
sensorimotor stage is
a. loss of egocentrism c. symbolic ability
b. object permanence d. fixation
13. Should a child in his preoperations age, 2 to 4 years, center
primarily on himself because of his egocentricity, like he likes
everything for himself making his younger sister cry. As a parent,
what should you do?
a. Segregate him from his sister so that there will be no quarrel.
b. Be patient to him because anyway this stage is temporary.
c. Give him what he likes and also give what the sister likes.
d. Whip him so he will not grow spoiled.
14. Which statement does not describe Piaget’s theory of human
cognitive development?
a. There are quantitative changes that occur in behavior from one
stage to the next.
b. Each stage of cognitive development has unique observable
characteristics.
c. Each stage of cognitive development has similar observable
characteristics.
d. Cognitive development passes through four clearly defined stages.
15. Which of the following illustrates the pre-operations child?
a. language skill emerges and children use words to represent
ideas.
b. experiencing conservation and reversibility
c. development of object permanence
d. decrease of egocentricity
16. Zhaira, who is 4 years old, always talks about her new toys and
dresses. She is
 a. exploratory b. egocentric c. troublesome d. sloppy

17. Young children usually prefer coins than paper bills. This is a
manifestation of
a. imagination c. egocentricity
b. irreversibility d. logical thinking
18. The time, according to Piaget, when children learn by asking
questions is
a. concrete operations stage c. preoperational stage
b. sensorimotor stage d. formal operations stage
19. Which of the following illustrates logical memory
a. memorizing addition of numbers
b. summarizing a movie watched
c. reciting a poem entoto
d. copying numbers from the phone book
20. The use of pictures and other audio-visual materials is very
important in teaching
a. sensorimotor child c. concrete operations child
b. formal operations child d. peoperations child
Name: __________________________ Date: ________
Course & Year: ___________________ Score: _______
ACTIVITY 3.2
Mental Characteristics of Children and Adolescents
Enumerate 5 mental characteristics of Elementary pupils (for BEEd)
and High School students (for BSEd). Describe or discuss how they
manifest these characteristics. (5 points each)
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Name: __________________________ Date: ________
Course & Year: ___________________ Score: _______
ACTIVITY 3.3
Cognitive Development

Briefly summarize Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory. Discuss how

you, as a teacher, can apply this theory in the classroom by citing
concrete instances or situations. (25 points)
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Name: __________________________ Date: ________
Course & Year: ___________________ Score: _______
ACTIVITY 3.4
Factors Influencing Speech and Cognitive Development

Explain how the following factors affect speech and cognitive

development. (5 points each)

1. Socio-economic status and Lifestyle

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2. Geographical location

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3. Home environment (family relationship, appliances, neighborhood)

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4. School environment (teachers, classmates, classrooms, libraries etc)

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