LECTURE 8 POPULATION ECOLOGY
reproduction, a genetic individual
What makes up a population?
 A group of individuals of the same
species living in each area
o Interbreeding of the same
species
o Spatial concept – requires a
bound spatial boundary
 Have structure which relates to
characteristics of the collective,
including density, spacing and
proportion in the age distribution
 Are dynamic – a pattern of
continuous change through time that
results from birth, death, movement
of individuals, changing over time
UNITARY VS. MODULAR ORGANISMS
Unitary nature – form, development, growth,
and longevity are predictable and
determinate from conception on
 Plants produce a variety of forms
through modular growth
 Some may spread modules laterally
as well as vertically
o Stolons – specialized stems
that grow above the ground
surface
o Rhizomes – specialized
stems that grow below the
ground surface
 These lateral structures can then
produce vertical stems and a root
system
 Suckers – new stems that sprout
from surface roots and may appear
to be individuals
 Genet – plant produced by sexual
 Ramet – module produced asexually
by a genet (a clone)
 A clonal colony is a group of ramets
 By producing ramets the genets
cover a large area, and its life is
extended
 Other examples of modular
organism are corals, sponges,
bryozoans, many protists, and fungi
The Distribution of a Population Defines
Its Spatial Location
 Determine areas where
individuals are present and
where they are absent
 Map the position of each
individual
 Draw a line around these
positions, defining the
distribution
 Ubiquitous species have a
geographically widespread
distribution
 Endemic species have a
geographically restricted
distribution
o Many endemic species
have specialized habitat
requirement
*individuals occupy only those areas that
can meet their requirements = habitat is
suitable for them
*most populations are divided into
subpopulations, each occupying suitable
habitat patches of various shapes and sizes
within the larger landscape of unsuitable
habitat
*metapopulation – collective of local
subpopulations
Abundance Reflects Population Density and
Distribution
 Abundance defines the size of a
population
o The number of individuals
 Abundance is a function of
population density and the area over
which the population is distributed
 Crude density – the number of
individuals per unit area
o Square meter (m2), square
kilometer (km2)
 Or the number of individuals per unit
volume
o Kiloliter (m3) or liter (.001 m3)
 Place a grid over a population
distribution and calculate the density
for a given grid cell
 To account for the patch
distributions of some species,
ecologists may use
 Ecological density – the number of
individuals per unit of available living
space
 However, it can be difficult to
determine what part of a habitat is
living space for a particular species
There are three distribution patterns that are
seen in organisms
a.) Random – if each individual’s
position is independent of those of
the others
b.) Uniform – usually results from some
form of negative interaction among
individuals, such as competition,
which functions to maintain some
minimum distance among members
of the population
a. Common in animal
populations where individuals
defend an area for their own
exclusive use
b. Or in plant populations where
severe competition exists for
belowground resources such
as water or nutrients
c.) Clumped – individuals occur in
groups
a. Results from a variety of
factors
Determining Density Requires Sampling
 Population size (abundance) is a
function of population density and he
area that is occupied (geographical
distribution).
 A complete count may be possible if
both the abundance and area
occupied are small, or if an area is
very open so that all individuals can
be seen
 If an organism is sessile (attached),
such as a plant or a coral, sampling
can be done using
quadrats/sampling units
 The accuracy of estimates of density
derived from population sampling
can be influenced by the manner in
which individuals are spatially
distributed within the population
 The estimate of density can also be
influenced by the choice of
boundaries or sample units
 Mark-recapture is the most
commonly used technique to
measure animal population size
o This method is based on
 Capturing a number
of individuals in a
population
 Marking them with a
mark that will not be
lost during the course
of the study
 Releasing a known
number of marked
individuals (M) back
into the population (N)
the value being
estimated
  After an appropriate
period of time,
recapture a number of
individuals in the
population
 Lincoln – Peterson Index is also
known as the single mark – single
recapture
o Depends on the number of
assumptions
 Assumes that the
sampling is random,
each individual in the
population has an
equal probability of
being captured
 Marked individuals
must distribute
themselves randomly
throughout the
population so that the
second sample will
accurately represent
the population
 The ratio marked and
unmarked individuals
must not change
between the sampling
periods.
How is the age structure of a population
*indices of abundance – number of
determined?
individuals seen per kilometer or heard per
hour
- can not function alone as estimates
of actual density
Measure of Population Structure Include
Age, Developmental Stage, and Size
 Abundance does not approve any
information the characteristics of
individuals within a population
 A population with non-overlapping
generations does not have an age
structure
o Individuals reproduce and ide
within a single season
 Annual plants and
some insects
 A population with overlapping
generations has and age structure
o There are individuals in
different age classes
 Reproduction is
restricted to certain
age classes
 Mortality is more
common in certain
age classes
 Populations can be divided into
three ecologically important age
classes
o Pre-reproductive
o Reproductive
o Post-reproductive
 How long an individual is in each
age class depends on the
organism’s life history
o Some organisms, such as
mice, have a very shot span
of time between generations
o Other organisms, such as
elephants, have a very long
span of time between
generations
 The most accurate method is to
mark young individuals in a
population and follow their survival
through time
 Examining a sample of bodies of
individuals that have died and
determine their ages at death
 Look for characteristics that indicate
age
o Wear and replacement of
teeth
o Growth rings in the teeth or
horns
o Plumage changes and wear
in birds
 o Annual growth rings on
scales and ear bones in fish
It can be more challenging to estimate age
structure in plants

 Trees with seasonal growth produce

annual growth rings
 Dendrochronology – counting annual
growth rings to determine the age of
a tree
 Size of the tree based on diameter
at breast height (dbh) can also be
used
o However, growth conditions
can strongly affect this
measurement