Overview of Pipeline Engineering PDF

Pipeline, riser and
subsea engineering
Overview of
pipeline
engineering
2
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Table of contents
Volume one
FIELD LAYOUTS 7
Expectation 9
Example layouts 10
Pipeline and Cable Uses 16
Subsea equipment 22
Platform and riser configurations 29
ROUTE SELECTION 43
Expectation 45
Survey Techniques 47
Soil Types 56
Routing of pipeline 63
PIPE SIZING 77
Expectation 79
Diameter Sizing 80
Wall Thickness for Bursting 88
Wall Thickness for Hydrostatic Collapse 95
Rigid steel pipe manufacture 101
Buckles 116
4 Overview of pipeline engineering
MATERIALS 127
Expectation 129
Selection for Strength 130
Selection for Corrosion Resistance 134
Clad and Lined pipes 139
Titanium and Composites 143
EXTERNAL COATINGS 151

Expectation 153
External Corrosion Protection 154
Cathodic Protection 160
On-bottom Stability 164
Thermal Insulation 169
Pipe-in-Pipe Systems 182
Active Heating of Lines 193
DESIGN METHODS 199

Expectation 201
Limit State Design 202
Identification of Limit States 202
Derivation of Safety Factors 211
DNV OS-F101 design 220
HP/HT and HIPPS 225
Fishing Interaction 230
Vortex-Induced Vibration 237
COMMON WORK 245

Expectation 247
Construction Survey 248
Route Preparation 252
Welding 258
Non-destructive Testing (NDT) 273
INSTALLATION METHODS 279

Expectation 281
S-Lay 282
J-Lay 291
Reel-lay 295
Bundles and Towed Installations 300
Flexibles and Umbilicals 311
Volume two
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT 317
Expectation 319
Landfalls 320
Trenching and Burial 329
Pre-commissioning 342
TIE-INS, SPOOLS AND RISERS 353

Expectation 355
Tie-ins and Spools 356
Rigid Risers 372
Risers Fixed to Jacket 372
Steel Catenary Risers 375
Top Tensioned Risers 380
Hybrid Risers 382
Flexible Riser Installation 385
Flexible Pipe Manufacture 385
Installation Analysis 391
Riser Configurations and Equipment 395
INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRITY 403

Expectation 405
Failures : Frequency and Incidents 406
PIMS 415
FLOW ASSURANCE 425

Expectation 427
Operational Controls 428
Additives 434
Pigging 437
PIPELINE INSPECTION 449

Expectation 451
Risk-Based Inspection Plan 452
External survey 456
Internal Inspection 460
Anomaly Assessment 470
Spans 470
Pits and Dents 475
Exposure 479
Remedial Works 484
MODIFICATION AND REPAIR 493

Expectation 495
Isolation 496
Tie-Ins 505
Repairs 514
Decommissioning 530
PROFILES 535
ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS 581
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & REFERENCES 589

Field layouts
Field layouts 9
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Worldwide variations in field layout

Depends on:
Product being recovered (gas or oil)
Water depth and environment (waves and current)
Proximity to land or the terminal
Predicted life of reservoirs
Equipment and terminology used
Uses of additional lines and controls
Fluid injection into reservoir or flow
Manifold valve operation and pigging
Different parts of the world take different approaches to offshore hydrocarbon recovery.
This is due to a number of factors, including custom and practice for the region and the
cost and confidence in carrying out a particular solution in that region.
Examples are presented of typical developments, including examples of equipment.
We will introduce some of the common terms that are used in the industry.
It is uncommon to find just a single pipeline running from the field to the land terminal.
We examine the other types of additional lines found in an offshore field.
EXAMPLE LAYOUTS
LAYOUT
Refinery Facility
Crossing
fence
Landline
1st valve at pig trap
Pipework
Landfall /
shore approach
Process
Floating Crossing
platform SPM
hose & tails
Unmanned
Pig launcher platform with
FPSO surface trees
Riser SSIV
PLEM Trunk / export
for gas pipeline to shore
Catenary
riser (gas, condensate or oil)
Z spool
L spool Flowline (oil/gas mix )

Tie-in
Subsea
SSIV Manifold wellheads
(cluster) Jumper (trees)
We differentiate between flowlines, trunk pipelines and pipework.
Wellheads may either be on an unmanned platform with surface trees, or with subsea
wellheads around a manifold cluster. This slide shows the recovery of hydrocarbons
from the wellheads through a FLOWLINE and RISER to the FPSO or platform, from
where it leaves through a TRUNK or EXPORT PIPELINE to the landfall. Normally,
the fluid from the wells (gas, oil, water and sand plus any injected chemicals) would be
separated into two commercial streams at the facility (two out of oil, gas and
condensate), which are delivered to shore down separate pipelines. Sometimes, the gas
condensate is injected into the oil export line.
In deep water, the processing facilities are on a FPSO (Floating Production, Storage and
Offloading) vessel, with the product being shuttled to a SPM (Single Point Mooring)
system and a pipeline to shore. In shallower water, it is possible to use a fixed process
platform on a jacket with a pair of permanent pipelines to shore. The trunklines
continue as LANDLINES to the refinery, where heavier wall PIPEWORK is used.
PIPEWORK is also used on the process facility.
This course provides an overview of the design, installation and operation of pipelines.
Field layouts 11
GULF OF THAILAND
Shallow water
Dry trees on
unmanned platforms
Process platforms
In many areas of the world, oil and gas is found in relatively shallow water depths of up
to 100 m (330ft).
Developments often take the form of unmanned platforms with ‘dry’ trees fitted on top.
These can be easily serviced – unlike the deeper water wet trees which are fitted to the
top of wells at seabed level. (We will examine dry and wet trees later: a dry tree is above
the sea surface and can be easily maintained whereas a wet tree is located at the seafloor.)
The flowlines link the unmanned platforms to the manned process platform. Export
lines send the gas, oil or condensate to shore or to a tanker from a buoy or floating
storage unit (FSU).
MORPETH - GULF OF MEXICO
Two extremes of field layout show how different deeper water developments vary.
British Borneo’s Morpeth development is a small field and a neat layout, and was
completed in 1998. It is located in 520 m (1700ft) of water, in the Gulf of Mexico
Ewing Bank (EW) blocks 921, 964 and 965, off the shore of Louisiana.
The Morpeth deck is 34 m (110ft) square and the facilities are spread over two levels.
The process equipment has a design throughput of 6100 m³ (38 500bbl) per day and 1.2
million m³ (42 million scf) per day of gas. It was the first tension leg platform (TLP)
without surface completions.
There are three production wells and an adjacent water injection tree located some 460
m (1500ft) from the Atlantia Seastar TLP. The production flowlines can be pigged back
to the wells using loops at the wellheads. Well fluids and water injection lines are
brought into I tubes below the waves using six flexible lines. Strakes on the 219.1 mm
and 323.8 mm (8in and 12in) rigid export steel catenary risers (SCRs) are used to prevent
vortex-induced vibration (VIV). The pipeline system was designed to handle throughput
volumes of twice the Morpeth peak production rates.
The two export lines deliver the processed oil and gas to the Grand Isle 115 platform
lying in 112 m (366ft) of water near the continental shelf margin, some 35 km (19 miles)
from Morpeth. From Grand Isle 115, the oil continues through the main Amberjack
pipeline system to the Clovelly onshore terminal in Louisiana. The gas and gas liquids
go through Texaco’s Discovery pipeline system.
Field layouts 13
FOINAVEN - WEST OF SHETLANDS
The Foinaven gas and oil development, shown above (based on as-built survey data), is a
very different story.
It is a far more complicated arrangement with further flowlines and risers having been
added since the original installation was completed in 1997. Water depth at the field is
around 500 m (1640ft) reducing to around 450 m (1500ft) at the floating production
storage offloading (FPSO) unit.
The pliant wave configuration for the risers was developed for this installation, making
use of their flexibility to connect to the flowlines. This is not quite as straightforward as
it sounds and was designed to avoid clashing of the risers and umbilicals.
The two drill centres to the left (orange) and foreground (cerise) north and west of the
FPSO are served by 219.1 mm to 355.6 mm (8in to 14in) rigid lines bringing the well
fluids to flowline termination assemblies (FTAs) which are connected to flexible risers
(green). Lines to both fields provide injection from the rear cluster. The grey lines show
submerged buoys supporting the anchor cables that maintain the FPSO on station. The
length of these can be adjusted at the vessel to move within a predefined envelope so
balancing out fatigue damage of the anchor cables.
Process facilities consist of two parallel oil separation and gas compression trains with a
combined liquid handling capacity of 23 000 m³ (145 000 bbls) per day and 3.2 million
m³ (114 million scf) per day of gas. Gas compression capacity is shared approximately
50:50 between export and providing artificial lift to oil production wells (gas-lift).
Currently around 15% of produced gas is used as fuel.
The gas is exported through the lines to the right (salmon pink) first through
Schiehallion and on to Sullom Voe before being sent offshore again to the Magnus EOR
project to increase recovery from that reservoir.
Where
■ EOR = enhanced oil recovery
FPSO AND SHUTTLE TANKER
Floating production storage and offloading

Central turret
Weathervanes
Shuttle tankers
Connected at
stern of FPSO
Offload every
two days
The Foinaven FPSO has a central turret system permitting the vessel to ‘weathervane’
minimising environmental (wind, waves and current) loading.
Other such vessels may have a forward turret or a fixed orientation depending upon the
environmental forces they must withstand. In Arctic or tropical regions, some FPSOs
can release the attached riser flowlines and cables so that the vessels can steam out of
danger of icebergs or hurricanes/typhoons.
The Petrojarl Foinaven FPSO was one of the first vessels to be used in such extreme
conditions, being exposed to the hostile Atlantic weather and strong seabed currents. It
has an overall length of 240 m (787ft) and an oil storage capacity of around 47 700 m³
(300 000 bbls).
Crude offloading and fiscal metering facilities are installed at the stern of the FPSO and
shuttle tankers hook up and load approximately every two days at current oil production
rates. Two new 95 000 m³ (600 000 bbl) shuttle tankers were commissioned in early
2003 (Petronordic and Petroatlantic) and transport oil primarily to the Flotta oil terminal
in Orkney with a small number to Tranmere on Merseyside.
Field layouts 15
EXAMPLE LAYOUTS - SUMMARY
Three typical layouts

Shallow water
Above water trees on unmanned platforms
Flowlines run to central processing
Deeper water
Subsea trees on wellheads for remote clusters
Connected to floating units
Export to shore
Separate lines for oil, gas condensate and gas
Shuttle tanker to SPM or quayside
Any questions?
Three typical arrangements of offshore field developments have been described.
In shallower water, it is convenient to construct simple un-manned platforms with the

trees out of the water. These make them easy to maintain and operate.
The flowlines run to a central manned process platform.
In deeper water, subsea trees from remote well clusters may connect either to a floating
unit or to a fixed platform. We will see later that tensioned floating facilities may be
fitted with ‘dry trees’ if they are stationed above the drilling centre.
Once treated, the product is sent to shore by separate streams. This may be through
pipelines or shuttle tankers. Some gas may be used as fuel aboard or re-injected to aid
recovery of oil.
PIPELINE AND CABLE USES
IN-FIELD OR FLOWLINES
From wellhead or manifold

to platform or FPSO
Carries a mixture of oil, gas, water and sand
Short lengths
Up to 16 km to 30 km (10 miles to 19 miles)
Small diameter
168 mm to 324 mm (6in to 12in)
Flexible or rigid
Laid by reel, J or S-lay methods
Depends on cost
Water depth, barge availability, diameter and coating
We will be referring to two main types of line – flowlines and trunklines. Some general
rules are shown above. However, diameters and lengths outwith the ranges specified
may be encountered. The type of pipe (rigid or flexible) and methods of installation may
also differ. Installation method is usually determined by cost and is affected by the water
depth, barge availability, diameter and coating type amongst other things.
Notwithstanding this, the rule holds that the flowline takes the mixed fluids to the
processing facility on the platform or FPSO where the oil, gas and condensate are
separated from the water, sand and any chemicals injected into the reservoir. Then, the
individual streams can be sent to shore normally in two export pipelines – for an oil
field, the lines will be for oil and gas, for a gas field, the lines will be for gas and
condensate. It may be that a shuttle tanker is used to transfer oil from a small field to an
SPM ashore – avoiding the need for a large diameter oil export line.
Subsea separation is a new technology that is being proposed for some Norwegian
developments. It will completely eliminate the need on small fields for a platform or
FPSO. The two streams of oil and gas can be sent ashore from an underwater
separation unit controlled and powered using umbilical cables.
Field layouts 17
EXPORT OR TRUNKLINES
From platform or FPSO

to shore or offloading SPM
Carries single product
Oil OR gas OR condensate
Exception Goldeneye – onshore processing
Long lengths
Hundreds of km (miles)
Larger diameters used
Up to 1219 mm (48in)
Rigid lines laid by S-lay
Occasionally, the reservoir product and flow rate is such that unseparated gas is sent to
shore for processing from an unmanned platform (for example, Goldeneye in Scotland).
This decision was taken when the whole-life capital and operating costs (CAPEX and
OPEX) were assessed.
JUMPERS AND SPOOLS
Short lengths around 100 m (328ft)

Accommodate thermal movement
Avoids loads from pipeline being transmitted to end structure
Often L, Z or doglegged shape with flanged ends
Jumpers
Connects between wellhead and manifold
Flexible or rigid spools
Spool piece
Connects from end of pipeline to risers
Rigid or flexible
Other terms for pipelines that may be encountered are jumpers which are used to
connect the wellhead to the manifold and spool pieces which connect between the
pipeline and risers. There is some overlap between these terms. Jumpers tend to refer
to short lengths of flexible lines and rigid spools may be used to connect the wellhead to
the infield line or manifold.
Rigid spools and jumpers are often shaped to allow thermal expansion of the pipeline
itself. This may be of the order of 1 m to 2 m (3ft to 7ft) or even more. These L or Z
shaped connections allow bending to take place at the platform or wellhead, avoiding
loads being transmitted from the pipeline to these structures.
BUNDLES
In-field flowlines
Many small diameter lines in a carrier pipe
Carrier 813 mm to 1219 mm (32in to 48in)
Thin wall – less than 12.7 mm (½in)
Used to gather flow from separate wells
Improved thermal and impact protection
Towed out to field and annulus flooded
Lengths up to 7.5 km (5 miles)
Two lengths connected together using jumpers
Integrated manifolds
In cases where a cluster of wellheads remote from the platform, serves a small field,
instead of running separate flowlines a bundle may be used. This contains a number of
rigid flowlines in a large diameter (but thin-walled) carrier and the whole unit is towed
out to the field in lengths up to 8 km (5 miles) where it is lowered to the seabed by
flooding the annulus.
By gathering all the lines within a carrier, it is possible to provide better thermal
properties and improve on the impact protection.
The manifolds can be integrated within the bundle package to save on the numbers of
offshore spool pieces and installation operations that are required.
Field layouts 19
OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND

CABLES
Fram Vest Development, Norway
The commercially recoverable reserves in Fram Vest are estimated to total 16 million m³
(100 million bbl) of oil and 3.5 billion m³ (120 billion ft³) of gas, with a life of 15 years.
The field commenced production in the autumn of 2003.
It lies some 22 km (14 miles) north of the Troll C facility and is being developed by
Norsk Hydro, taking advantage of the existing infrastructure in the Troll area. This first
development may pave the way for the development of other low volume reservoirs in
the area that are not profitable at present, .
The oil is transported in two 90 km (56 mile) long pipelines from Troll C to Mongstad.
The gas is re-injected as pressure support.
Additional lines in the development include provision for a pigging loop, water injection,
gas injection and gas lift, along with associated umbilicals.
OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND

CABLES
Co-mingled flow pipeline

Gathers flow from a number of wells
Requires test line – may be used as pigging loop
Methanol, glycol and chemical injection
Protects from corrosion or improves flow rate Piggyback
Water or gas injection to field
Helps to recover oil from reservoir

Gas lift at well or riser
Used to lift heavy oils
Production
Umbilical cables from field
Control lines to monitor flow or operate valves
With a number of wells located at a remote site, it may be prudent to gather the product
(oil/gas mix) together in a single, co-mingled flowline to avoid loss of heat and improve
flow rates. However, it is common to provide a smaller diameter test line of to prove
individual down hole conditions.
Alternatively, this may also be configured as a pair of lines which combine the co-
mingled/test line operations with a pigging loop. The pig can be sent down from the
process facility to the wellhead manifold and returned to the platform, sweeping out wax
or hydrates ahead of it.
Some flows need injection from the platform to the well in order either to improve flow
or prevent corrosion. This uses a small diameter – 76 mm (3in) diameter line
piggybacked on the main flowline or it can be pumped through one of the hoses in an
umbilical.
Some fields require water to be injected to improve the recovery of gas from the
reservoir. This is injected through a separate well from the recovery well, driving the
product ahead.
Similarly, gas may be abstracted and re-injected into an oil reservoir to aid recovery. Or
gas may be needed just at the well or riser to help heavy oil flow up through the vertical
section of the flowline.
Control of the valves and manifolds at the field is usually accomplished with a separate
umbilical laid adjacent to flowlines. This may also contain chemical injection lines and
monitoring cables to determine the conditions at the wellhead.
Field layouts 21
PIPELINE & CABLE USES -

SUMMARY
Flowlines or in-field lines

Mixed product from wellhead to process facility
Trunk or export lines
Separated hydrocarbon streams to shore
Jumpers and spools
Bundles
Other lines and cables
Any questions?
Short in-field lines carry mixed product out of the well to the process facility. Separate
streams are then sent to shore through export lines.
The ends of these pipelines are connected to the riser at the platform and the manifold
or wellhead using short lengths of rigid or flexible jumpers or spoolpieces.
Some in-field lines are installed in bundles, possibly incorporating the many other lines
and cables needed for field development.
SUBSEA EQUIPMENT
WELLHEAD TREES
Fits onto drilling template

‘Christmas trees’
Control of flow from well
Control and
choke valves
Workover
operations
Trawling
Impact and
snagging
Once a well has been drilled into the formation, the blow-out preventer (BOP) stack is
replaced with a wellhead tree unit such as shown above. Because of the shape and
structure of early units, they were sometimes fancifully called Christmas trees.
Different configurations are used for various fields depending upon what future work is
envisaged. Operations to carry out repairs or increase flowrates are called well
‘workovers’.
The trees are attached onto the casing tube and control the production rate along the
flowline using valves and chokes.
The right hand picture shows the installation of such a unit through the moonpool for
the Petrobras Roncador project. The operators provide an indication of the equipment’s
size.
Where fishing interaction is likely, a trapezoidal protective structure (not shown) can be
fitted over the wellhead tree.
Field layouts 23
MANIFOLDS
Serve remote well clusters

Connected with jumpers
Rigid or flexible
Pigging loop
Control umbilical
Where a cluster of wells is remote from the platform, as shown on the right, they are
often served by a manifold and are connected using flexible or rigid jumpers .
Added functionality can be provided to control of the wells through an umbilical cable
to the platform, or a pigging loop to flush wax or hydrates on a regular basis (daily or
weekly).
The left photograph shows a manifold with fishing protection structure.
The right photograph shows installation of an FMC-designed manifold (with the

location buckets/guides next to the strop).
TROIKA DEVELOPMENT - GREEN

CANYON
Compact eight slot manifold

Rigid insulated jumpers
Small manifold for installation
Longest multiphase
tie-back in GoM
The Troika oil field development is in 823 m (2700ft) deep water and is located 241 km
(150 miles) offshore Louisiana in Green Canyon 244 unit.
Troika was developed using a compact eight-slot subsea manifold, tied back to Shell’s
Bullwinkle platform 22.5 km (14 miles) away in 410 m (1350ft) of water. This required
the longest multi-phase subsea tie-back system in the Gulf of Mexico.
The Troika field was initially developed using five wells, positioned 15.2 m to 33.5 m
(50ft to 110ft) from the central manifold. The conventional subsea trees are rated at 69
MPa (10ksi), and are dual-bore 102 mm x 51 mm (4in x 2in) configurations, installed
using guidelines.
Thermally-insulated jumpers are used to connect the individual trees to the subsea
manifold. Each jumper is rigid, although normal bends accommodate thermal
expansion. Electrical connections from the manifold to the tree were made with the aid
of an ROV.
The Troika template/manifold system measures 13.7 m long by 9.4 m wide (45ft by
31ft) and reaches a maximum height of 7.9 m (26ft) above the seafloor. This small size
permitted its installation, using just a supply boat and the drilling rig (shown in
photograph top right). The template weighs approximately 43 tonne (95kip) and
provides support to the manifold and the jumpers, flowlines and trees.
Two 273.1 mm (10in) diameter carbon steel production flowlines connect the Troika
subsea manifold to the Bullwinkle platform. These flowlines are insulated to minimise
paraffin deposition and to provide reaction time for hydrate prevention, following an
unplanned shut-in. Corrosion inhibition is provide by means of chemical injection into
the subsea manifold. The flowlines were constructed in bundled cross-sections in four
11.3 km (7 mile) lengths, and are encased in an open-cell foam, in 609.6 mm (24in)
carrier pipes. The design heat-transfer coefficient for the assembly is 1 W/m²/K (0.176
BTU/hr/ft²/°F).
Field layouts 25
LARGE MANIFOLD
An appreciation of the size of some manifolds can be gained from this photograph.
PLETS AND PLEMS
Pipeline end terminations
Pipeline end manifolds
In areas of the world with deepwater, soft seabeds and no fishing interaction, it is
common to use a vertical connection between the end of the pipeline and spool. PLETs
are lowered to the seabed attached to the end of the pipeline with a vertical bend. A
hinged attachment point as shown on the top left photograph provides tension to
prevent buckling of the pipeline. The central photograph shows the testing of a
spoolpiece connection to the Mardi Gras PLET. The right hand photograph shows
similar pre-installation testing for a flexible jumper.
PLEMs include some valve work and can be larger. They are sometimes connected after
the pipeline has been installed and pigged.
The lower left photograph shows a 610 mm (24in) pipeline with two 323.8 mm (12in)
marine loading lines These were pulled from the beach attached to a PLEM/loading
system manifold and installation sled at Isle de Bioko, Equatorial Guinea, West Africa.
A simple PLEM on a skid on the lower right is installed following the pipeline
installation.
SPM AND SALM
Single point mooring

Anchor chains to pile
Single anchor leg mooring

Sakhalin – lowered to avoid ice
Single hinged anchor arm
Fixed with piles to seabed
The left photograph shows a Mitsubishi SPM located in Himegi Japan.
The buoy is of diameter 11.0 m x 4.0 m x 4.8 m high (36ft x 13ft x 16ft). It is held by
just four 120 mm (5in) diameter chains attaches to seabed anchors or piles.
It is sized for a maximum moored vessel of 280 000 DWT. The maximum loading rate
is 12 000 m³/hr (75 500 bbl/hr) for 24 hour turnaround.
The vessel is connected to the buoy and can weathervane on the rotating top section.
The hoses connect to the swan neck seen at sea surface level. SPMs are often used in
shallow water for discharge to shore but can also be found at deepwater fields associated
with FPSOs.
A SALM is a mooring system utilizing a single anchor base and single riser, designed to
operate as an unmanned marine terminal in shallow water.
One is used in the Sakhalin fields, Russia, north of Japan. The unit can be lowered into
the glory hole during winter months to avoid the ice floes.
Field layouts 27
PIPELINE CROSSINGS
Crossings
Blocks
Mattresses
Rock dump
At pipeline crossings, it is common to provide supports to ensure a vertical separation of

300 mm (12in) or 450 mm (18in) – depending on local requirements. These supports
can be concrete blocks or mattresses or – as shown bottom left – simple rock dump
from an ROV.
Because the spans may be subject to vibration in currents and could snag trawler nets, it
is usual that the whole length is protected with rock dump or mattresses.
The photographs show the stern deck of the Oceaneering’s DP-2 MSV Ocean
Intervention during pipeline crossing mattress installation work. It successfully installed
100 concrete mattresses, weighing 4.5 tonnes (10 000lb) each, as insulation and thermal
protection for a flowline at depths greater than 1800 m (6000ft) in the Gulf of Mexico.
An Oceaneering ROV manoeuvred the 12.2 m (40ft) handling frame at the seabed to
position the mattresses end to end.
SUBSEA EQUIPMENT - SUMMARY
Wellhead trees
Manifolds
PLETs and PLEMs
SPMs and SALMs
Pipeline crossings
Any questions?
This has shown a selection of typical equipment and features associated with field
development, as well as introducing some of the common acronyms used.
Field layouts 29
PLATFORM AND RISER CONFIGURATIONS
FIXED PLATFORMS
Tubular steel jackets Shearwater Troll
Up to 500 m (1600ft)

Concrete gravity base
From 30 m to 300 m
(100ft to 1000ft)
Storage in base cells
Iceberg zones
Risers
Rigid fixed steel
I tubes with flexible pipe
J tubes with flexible or rigid pipe
Hibernia
Rigid steel catenary riser (SCR)
In the shallowest water, we can make use of fixed platforms. These can be constructed
from a lattice of tubular steel or reinforced concrete.
The former are normally used from the shallowest seas up to a depth of about 300 m
(1000ft). However, some examples are found in deep enclosed seas in up to 500 m
(1600ft). Such structures are generally installed by launching horizontally from a carrier
barge and then tilting to the vertical by flooding various compartments. The legs are
then piled into the seabed.
Concrete gravity based (CGB) platforms are generally floated out upright using
evacuated storage cells in the base to provide buoyancy and ballast. A minimum water
depth is needed en route to the final destination to accommodate the CGB’s draught.
At the field, the cells can be flooded in a controlled sequence to progressively sink the
CGB until it is in position on the seabed. They have the advantage that spare cells can
be used for product storage. They are often used in arctic regions where they need to
resist sea ice or bergs. Examples of this are the Hibernia platform shown and the
Russian Sakhalin platforms, north of Japan.
Risers for these steel platforms can be rigid steel pipework attached to the legs or jacket
face. On a CGB, the risers can be run either up the outside of the structure or more
commonly, internally within the legs. These are then connected up to the pipeline using
rigid spool pieces on the seabed. Alternatively, I tubes or J tubes may be attached in the
construction yard. Flexible pipelines are then pulled into these after installation. Small
diameter rigid pipe can also be pulled into J tubes (yielding the pipe steel) if the radii are
gentle enough. Rigid steel catenary risers have also been used with fixed platforms.
OTHER FIXED PLATFORMS
Compliant towers,
compliant piled towers
and guyed towers
250 m to 1750 m
(800ft to 5750ft) Compliant
piled tower
Risers as for shallow
water platforms
GB260
compliant
tower
GB260 floatout
As water depths increase, compliant towers, compliant piled towers or guyed towers are
used. Instead of splayed legs, these tend to have parallel sides.
Guyed platforms have diagonal cables (in a similar manner to broadcasting masts) to
provide lateral stability against currents.
Since these structures are essentially fixed to the seabed, they use riser designs similar to
other fixed platforms.
Trees are usually located in the dry on the lower deck.

Field layouts 31
FPSOs
Floating production storage offloading

20 m to 2500 m (70ft to 8000ft)
Early production, small fields, deeper water
Weathervaning
Central or forward turrets - releasable in tropical/arctic
Fixed alignment - side mounted risers
Risers
Flexibles - catenary, S, wave
250 m to 1500 m (800ft to 5000ft)
Hybrid riser
1000 m (3300ft) upwards
Steel catenary riser (SCR)
1000 m (3300ft) upwards
FPSOs are used in all water depths. They are vessel shaped as shown above.
In shallower water, they are used for early production or shallower fields. In deeper
water, they provide an alternative to fixed platforms.
There was a limitation on their use within USA waters until early 2006, when double-
hulled FPSOs gained approval.
They usually rely on four or five groups of anchor cables to hold their station. In order
to minimise wind and current forces, they may ‘weather vane’. This means that all the
anchor cables and risers are connected to a turret, which can rotate. This may be located
either centrally or at the bow as shown.
In areas where winds from a single direction predominate, the vessels are kept at a fixed
alignment and designed to resist all environmental forces. They can be anchored at the
bow and stern with the risers attached to the side of the vessel.
Risers for FPSOs can be flexible pipelines between approximately 250 m and 1500 m
(800ft to 5000ft). Different arrangements such as simple catenary, steep S, lazy S, steep
wave or lazy wave can be used, depending on the water depth, current and vessel
movement.
Hybrid risers consist of a buoyant stalk (or tower) from the seabed up to about 100 m
beneath the surface. From the top of the stalk to the vessel a flexible pipe is used.
Some vessels use a rigid steel pipeline in a simple catenary. This can be subjected to
vortex-induced vibration (VIV).
OTHER FLOATING PLATFORMS
Tension leg platforms (TLP) Heidrun TLP

100 m to 1500 m Genesis spar
(330ft to 5000ft)
Spars
300 m to 1700 m
(1000 ft to 5600ft)
TLP or SPAR risers
Tensioned rigid pipe
SCRs
SFPS (catenary cables)
500 m to 2200 m
(330ft to 7200ft)
FPSO type risers
Spar
Tension leg platforms rely on vertical anchoring to the seabed. The semi-submersible
pontoons provide buoyancy.
Spars, deep draught floaters, deep draught caisson vessels (DDCV) and single column
floaters (SCF) all rely on a large cylindrical tube combined with catenary anchor cables,
to provide improved lateral stability.
Risers for both of these systems can be vertical rigid steel pipes. These are often
attached to the platform on an independently-tensioned floor. SCRs are also used.
Not shown above are semi-floating production systems (SFPS). These have a surface
structure similar to that for a TLP. However, they are anchored in a similar manner to
FPSOs using catenary cables. Their risers are similar to those for the fixed alignment
FPSO: flexibles, hybrids or SCR.
Field layouts 33
RISER USES
Section of line from

seabed to topsides
Term includes lines
from FPSO to SPM
Many types and uses:
Drilling
Production
Drilling
Export/import mud riser
Workover
Workover riser
Control, power & chemicals Production
risers
The riser is normally defined as a section of pipeline from seabed to topside. This
would normally include the multiflow lines from the wells or manifold to the processing
facility and the export trunk oil and gas lines to shore.
However, for a FPSO, the term ‘riser’ might mean the export lines to the SPM, which
need not necessarily return to the seafloor. And, as the picture shows, the drilling mud
riser is also slung between the platform and the vessel without touching the seabed.
So, there are many variants on this theme and we can categorise risers in terms of their
functions, where they are used, and their physical configurations.
First of all, let us look at the functions that the risers perform. Risers are used for
drilling, production, export, workover and umbilicals. For the pipeline engineer, the
main focus of attention is on the production risers. However, similar technology applies
to all of them.
The picture shows a traditional fixed platform. It contains a rack of production risers in
the centre of the jacket (from the platform wells) and also a rack of production risers on
one outside face, serving the flowlines and export pipelines. The platform derrick may
either be used to workover existing new wells or drill new ones, in which event there will
be a workover or drilling riser in the main rack beneath it. In this particular case, the
drilling fluids are provided from a floater adjacent to the platform via temporary flexible
risers hung in a catenary.
DRILLING RISER
Drill string Semi-sub
Conductor
Riser
system
Insulation/
buoyancy
BOP
stack
system
Mud down centre -

Service pipe cuttings up annulus
Guide base
The above picture shows a drilling riser with a blow out preventer (BOP) stack beneath
it. This provides four methods of preventing blow-out, ultimately by crimping the riser.
This fatally damages the riser, so its operation is controlled by the drillers and only used
in an emergency.
As you can see from the cross-section, the purpose of this riser is to contain the rotating
drill bit. Mud is forced down the centre, and mud plus cuttings up the annulus.
Typically, the service pipes will consist of:

■ Two 114 mm (4 ½in) choking or kill pipes
■ One 168 mm (6in) booster line
■ Two 60 mm (2½in) hydraulic lines
■ Electrics
Approximately 95 to 98% of buoyancy is provided in the form of an epoxy syntactic

foam (glass or plastic microspheres in an epoxy matrix) applied as half shells or quarter
shells. This also serves to reduce the heat loss from the riser, to maintain a lower mud
viscosity.
Field layouts 35
PRODUCTION AND EXPORT RISERS
FPSO SPM
FPSO W riser
Storage vessel Turret with

bend stiffeners
Anchor cables
Catenary riser
Distributed
Tethered mid- buoyancy
water arch buoy
Flowline risers Export risers
(lazy S) (lazy wave)
Clump weight
Touchdown
Subsea manifold clamp and tether
The picture shows flexible flowline risers running from the seabed in a lazy S
configuration up to a floating production vessel. The export risers are configured in a
lazy wave with the distributed buoyancy rather than the midwater arch tethered to the
clump on the seabed.
The risers leading to the storage vessel are in a simple catenary.
An alternative used on the Girassol project for a pipeline linking to the SPM buoy is a W
riser. This uses distributed buoyancy to lift the central section (avoiding high hydrostatic
head), yet keeping the area adjacent to the buoy deeper than the shuttle tanker’s draught.
Although the lefthand view above shows flexible risers, rigid steel risers are also used in
deeper water.
The W riser shown is rigid pipe although flexibles can be used. They are designed to
provide enough draught for vessels passing over them but remain shallow enough to
avoid excessive collapse pressures due to the density differential between seawater and
product oil.
RISER CODES
Workover rig FPSO Shuttle

General requirements
ISO 13828-1 API 17A
Subsea control umbilicals
ISO 13628-5 API 17E & I
Workover riser
ISO 13628-7 API 17G
Dynamic production riser
ISO 16389 API RP-2RD
Wellhead and tree
ISO 13628-4 API 17E
Subsea production control
ISO 13628-6 API 17F
Flexible pipe
ISO 13628-2 API 17J & K
The picture shows a semi-sub workover rig with a workover riser connected to a subsea
well. The FPSO is already on station and connected to the shuttle or storage tanker.
The well may be some distance from the FPSO.
The purpose of the workover riser is to connect the production tubing and annulus back
to the rig in order that maintenance tasks can be done downhole or the production
tubing can be pulled and replaced.
A comparison is given of the relevant sections of the ISO and API codes for different
aspects of the work.
Not detailed on the bullet points are:

■ ROV interfaces - ISO 13628-8 API 17H (from the earlier ISO 13628-6 API 17D)
■ Remotely operated tools (ROT) - ISO 13628-9
■ Through flowline systems (TFL) - ISO 13628-3 API RP 17C
Field layouts 37
RIGID RISERS TO FLOATING

VESSELS
Vessel SPM Shuttle

Turret
W riser
Bare pipe Top
Tensioned
Buoyant Riser
sleeves Lazy Wave
Steel Catenary Riser
Buoyant
Compliant sleeves
Vertical
Axis Riser Steel
Catenary
Bare pipe
Riser
The Compliant Vertical Axis Riser (CVAR) and the Lazy Wave Steel Catenary Risers
(LWSCR) are alternatives to the simple Steel Catenary Riser (SCR). They accommodate
greater vessel movement by flexing. The Top Tensioned Riser (TTR) accommodates
vessel movement by applying a tension at the vessel and allowing the riser to ride up and
down in a shaft.
Both the CVAR and LWSCR make use of sections of buoyant sleeved pipe to modify
the simple catenary shape. Buoyancy on the W riser ensures that the hydrostatic
pressure is not excessive.
In the case of the CVAR, the lower section of pipe (perhaps half of the water depth)
ensures a near-horizontal portion of pipe (at mid-water depth), allowing vertical
movement at the vessel to be taken out of the system and preventing it from
significantly modifying the axial stress. The horizontal offset is typically a quarter of the
water depth. The CVAR can be used with well development and workover vessels (not
shown above).
For export risers with severe vessel movement, the LWSCR may be used. This requires
a significantly greater horizontal offset than either the CVAR or the SCR, approximately
the same as the water depth. The total suspended length approaches twice the water
depth. It has a buoyant length of about one third of the water depth set a similar
distance along the pipe from the touchdown position.
It is possible to use TTRs and CVARs configurations for drilling or well development.
STEEL CATENARY RISER
Flex joint Courtesy of

Halliburton
Welded
connections
Touchdown
point
The schematic above shows a rigid steel catenary riser (SCR).
It lifts off the seabed at the touchdown point and rises in a catenary to attach to the
vessel. Normally there will be a flex joint at the connection to the vessel. Sometimes,
titanium is used for the critically stressed section at the touchdown point.
These types of riser are commonly used at depths up to 1500 m (5000ft) but on the
Mardi Gras Thunder Horse project in the Gulf of Mexico, two SCRs have just been
installed in 1840 m (6035ft) of water. The diameters of these are 508 mm and 610 mm
(20in and 24in).
SCRs are rarely used at depths shallower than around 450 m (1500ft), because fatigue
becomes a major issue and other types of riser are more cost effective.
Field layouts 39
TOP TENSIONED RISER
Heidrun tension leg platform (TLP)

with rigid risers
Tensioned risers are primarily used in conjunction with ‘floating’ facilities such as the
tension leg platform illustrated, semi-submersible drill rigs and production platforms (eg
Buchan) and drill ships. The riser response to wave and currents loads and to vortex-
induced vibration (VIV) is controlled by the application of tension.
With top tensioned risers, it is possible to locate the tree in the dry rather than at the
seabed.
CVAR AND LWSCR
Catenary vertical axis riser

Lazy wave steel catenary riser
Higher vessel excursion and motion
Fatigue at touchdown and VIV near surface
VIV fatigue
CVAR LWSCR
Bending fatigue Touchdown fatigue

Use of catenary vertical axis riser (CVAR) or lazy wave steel catenary riser (LWSCR) will
accommodate more vessel excursion and movement. The CVAR configuration can be
used for all stages from drilling to export of the product.
These require similar end fixity considerations at the seabed as those of the TTR and
SCR.
Checks are also needed with regard to VIV fatigue in steady high currents just below the
surface wave layer.
HYBRID RISERS
Rigid tower Buoyancy
Self buoyant
Minimise transfer
of load to FPSO Export lines
from
Flexible
Linking flexibles risers
FPSO to SPM
Fixed vessel
orientation Rigid
riser
Benign conditions tower
Girassol field
with hybrid risers
and flowline bundles
Hybrid risers involve a combination of tensioned rigid and flexible pipe. The example
above shows the rigid pipe used for the (long) vertical portion and the flexibles attaching
from the top of that vertical portion in a catenary to a floating production vessel.
Hybrids are seen as a potential deep water solution, where the use of flexibles is limited
by the weight of the flexible being held at the top. The rigid part of the system is limited
to the lower depths where the hydrodynamic loadings are low.
They have been used with fixed orientated FPSOs (rather than turrets) in the benign
waters of West Africa.
Field layouts 41
PLATFORMS AND RISERS –

SUMMARY
Types of production platform and

other floating facilities
Range of water depths
Types of riser
Typical water depth range for rigid and flexibles
Wet and dry trees
Any questions?
The different types of production facilities have been shown along with their limitations
in water depth.
They are served by different types of rigid or flexible riser.
Ideally, the tree used to control flow from the well is located on the lower deck of the
platform or host floater. This means that it can be operated and maintained easily.
However, this is only possible when the riser is vertical and the vessel is immediately
above the template.
Where the well cluster is remote from the host, or rigid catenary and flexible risers are
used then subsea trees are essential.
FIELD LAYOUTS - SUMMARY
Typical field layouts

Types of pipeline and cable
Examples of equipment installed subsea
Examples of platforms and floating units
Arrangements of rigid and flexible risers
Terms and acronyms used
Any questions?
Fields are developed using slightly different equipment depending on a number of

parameters.
The main examples have been given – both subsea and above water – introducing their
names and acronyms.
This course will concentrate on the pipelines (flowlines and export lines) but it important
to be aware of associated equipment used.
Route selection
Route selection 45
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Preparation for design and construction

Survey equipment and techniques
For all stages of pipe construction and operation
Metocean surveys
From reservoir exploration stage
Soil types and properties
Needed for lateral resistance and trenching
Route planning
Areas of seabed to avoid
Determination of pipeline length
We will introduce the main survey techniques for designing and constructing rigid subsea
pipelines. Some equipment can also be used during the operational and maintenance
phase. Metocean data collected at field exploration stage is needed during design.
The soil at the seabed has an important bearing on a pipeline’s ability to withstand
environmental forces. We also need such data prior to trenching operations in order to
select appropriate equipment.
We have included geotechnical studies because they do not tend to be included on

mechanical engineering courses. Soil properties differ from those of other materials in
that they are natural deposits rather than being manufactured to a specified standard.
The main considerations that influence the routing of a pipeline are presented. We will
show some example areas of the seabed which need to be avoided.
The selected route naturally determines the length of the pipeline and leads to the next
stage of design.
WHEN ARE SURVEYS DONE?
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
TYPICAL PROJECT
Seismic exploration
Exploration drilling
Deep seismic Feasibility
and metocean Conceptual design
Front end engineering design
Desktop Detailed design

Procurement
Construction
Production drilling
Commissioning
Geophysical and Prelay,
Operation
geotechnical post-lay and
post-trench Inspection
As-built
First of all, when during the life of a pipeline do we carry out surveys?
Here we have a typical schedule for a project, from seismic exploration through to the
start of production operations. Surveys of various types feature strongly throughout.
At the reservoir discovery and evaluation stage (shown above as deep seismic
exploration), it is likely that metocean data will also be collected. Desktop studies are
likely to be used prior to offshore surveys for pipeline design.
With regard to pipelines, we are concerned with three main phases of survey:
■ DESIGN: The proposed pipeline route is surveyed to identify seabed features and
soil properties along the pipeline route. These are necessary for the pipeline design
and the installation engineering.
■ CONSTRUCTION: At various stages during construction, the pipeline is surveyed
to ensure that the as-installed pipeline is in accordance with the design.
■ OPERATION: During operation, the pipeline is surveyed to ensure that it remains
in the design condition. Operational surveys are addressed later in the Integrity
Management Inspection module.
Route selection 47
SURVEY TECHNIQUES
SURVEY: WHAT IS IT?
Survey means gathering information on the

offshore environment
Use of existing data
Offshore investigation techniques
Geophysical – topography
Vessel, ROTV and ROV based sonar
Geotechnical – soils
CPT, vibrocore, grab sample
Metocean – environmental forces
Wave and current meters
Three types of survey are used in pipeline engineering:

■ Geophysical gathers data on the seabed contours and the shallow rock strata. The
tools used are vessel and ROV mounted sonar devices.
■ Geotechnical gathers data on the soil types and strengths. The tools used are cone
penetrometers, vibrocorers and grab samplers.
■ Metocean gathers data on the environment, including waves and currents. The tools
used are current and wave meters.
More on what these look like below.

SONAR DEVICES
Sonar used to find seabed profile, wrecks,

wellheads, rock outcrops etc
Towed fish
sidescan
Sidescan
transducer
Pinger
Hydrophone
Combined Sub bottom profiler
transducer (boomer)
Picture courtesy Sonar Research Development Ltd
Geophysical surveys are carried out using a variety of sonar devices as illustrated above.
All send sound signals from a device to the seabed and listen for the echo return from
the bed itself or from soil layers just beneath. The equipment then interprets the
strength, time and direction of the echoes.
Their functions are as follows:

■ The towed fish sidescan, as the name implies, is towed behind the vessel on a cable.
This allows it to fly closer to the seabed, picking up more detail but over a smaller
width giving a picture of the seabed sufficient in detail to gauge contours, wellheads,
rock outcrops, wrecks and other similar features. It is even possible, with practice,
to distinguish different types of seabeds such as sand, gravel or shells.
■ The sidescan transducer is the same as the towed fish but attached to the hull of the
ship. It surveys swathes either side of the vessel.
■ The combined transducer is an echo sounder for mapping the seabed under the
vessel. It has two frequencies with differing beamwidths for improved resolution.
■ For use in seismic work, the pinger and boomer emit high energy pulses of high and
low frequency sound respectively. These pulses penetrate the seabed and reflect
from the soil layers beneath it. The reflections are picked up with arrays of
hydrophones and interpreted to give an understanding of the patterns of soil layers
beneath the surface.
Route selection 49
GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY
Seabed bathymetry
Contours – false colour
Sub-bottom profile
Soil layers
and rockhead
A geophysical survey plots the shape of the seabed (its contours) and those of the soil
layers underneath. In the case of oil exploration, the geophysical surveyors are looking
for deep layers containing oil and gas structures. In the case of a pipeline route survey,
we are really only interested in the very top layer, or down to about 4 m (13ft) if we are
trenching or dredging.
Horizon lines are correlated using known geophysical data (i.e. vibrocores) and these are
used to determine the actual make up of the layers seen in the geophysical survey.
ROTV
Remotely operated towed vehicles

Controlled survey height
above seabed
Fin pitch operated from
vessel through umbilical
Speedy survey of large
areas of seabed
Initial survey at design
phase
Deploying BRUTIV
Use of ROTVs is now the main source of pipeline route survey information.
By flying the equipment at a controlled height above the seabed, it is possible to rapidly
obtain topological and pipeline span data. The operator on the vessel is able to change
the pitch of the fins through the data umbilical cable.
The BRUTIV (Bottom-Referenced Underwater Towed Instrumented Vehicle) can be

towed at a speed of several knots just a few metres (ten feet or so) above the seafloor to
obtain continuous colour video imagery along transect lines several kilometres (miles)
long.
ROV SURVEYS
ROV survey can include:

Video
Depth of burial
Sonar imaging
CP testing
Wall thickness
Flooded member
determination
During pipelay and for the
integrity management operational phase
ROV surveys are conducted both prior to construction for small areas of concern, and at
stages during construction particularly the touchdown point or crossings. However, they
are classically used during the life of the pipeline to determine spanning sections and
depth of soil cover.
In addition to providing a visual video record of the pipeline condition, a range of other
activities can be performed as listed above. These include wall thickness measurement,
where Ultrasonic Testing (UT) equipment is mounted on the ROV. Also the ROV can
be used to determine if structural tubular members have become flooded. This is
particularly useful for the analysis of jacket legs, when it is necessary to determine if
structural members have cracked and become flooded.
The photograph is of a small ROV used for minor survey work – perhaps the
touchdown location during installation in shallow waters or the inspection of a riser or
short lengths of spanning or rock dump. Much more powerful ROVs rigged with
multiple cameras, lights and CP test equipment would be required for the inspection of
the whole length of a pipeline in strong currents.
Route selection 51
AUV
Autonomous underwater vehicles
AUVs are un-tethered ROVs that are programmed with the survey route, launched from
the support vessel and then recovered at the end of the survey. For pipelines that are
reasonably close to land, the AUV does not even require a support vessel as it can be
launched and recovered from land.
The AUV can carry a range of instrumentation such as:

■ side scan sonar
■ sub-bottom profiler
■ multibeam echo sounders
■ video camera
■ altimeter
■ telemetry equipment
The survey information can be downloaded from the AUV either after retrieval or in real
time as it is gathered during the survey itself. The benefit is the speed of the survey is
greater than a normal ROV and the support vessel does not have to be close to the
vehicle.
AUV RATIONALE
Heavy R&D
All types of seabed
survey
Not mature for
pipeline inspection
No turning circle
ROTV and fish
AUV
‘Salvage’ issue
There is heavy investment in AUV research and development at present by the major
survey companies. However, they are best used for seabed and route surveys. Their use
for pipeline inspection is as yet not a mature technology.
Removing the umbilical from the inspection tool has particular benefits in deep water.
Surveys can be completed more quickly and the handling is improved. An AUV is better
able to follow curves, arcs and changing depths than a tethered vehicle.
The AUV can be programmed to maintain a constant height above the seabed, typically
about 40 m (130ft), and it will maintain this more easily than a tethered ROV as it is not
affected by the heaving, pitching and rolling of the surface vessel.
An AUV sortie mission may be 48 hours at 2 m/s (4 knots) with a final positional
accuracy of around 3½ m (10 ft). AUVs have been used throughout the world including
the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico, West Africa and Brazil. Many tens of kilometres of
survey lines have been successfully run.
One advantage of AUVs over towed equipment such as fish is that they do not require a
turning circle when carrying out the transverse runs (see upper portion of track). To
avoid tangling of tow lines it is necessary to make a wide sweep at each end of the track.
AUVs can reduce data gathering time by half (see lower portion of track).
Although potentially, AUVs could be launched from a slipway and recovered a number
of days later having gathered all the data, at present they still require a vessel as a guard
ship. A trawler skipper catching one with his haul of fish can claim compensation for
net damage and claim the unmanned vehicle as salvage.
Reports of recent AUV work in the Mediterranean suggests that they could not recover
inshore data in depths less than 100 m (330ft) and the cost was more than that for other
more conventional equipment. Typical rates are $90 000 per day compared with an
ROV at $30 000 per day. However, in deep water, the rule of thumb is that they cost
three times that of the alternatives for five times the benefit.
Route selection 53
GEOTECHNICAL SURVEYS
Sample and test seabed soils

Use cone penetrometer and/or vibrocores
Geotechnical surveys establish the nature of the soil along the pipeline route.
They typically use a cone penetrometer tester (CPT), as shown in the picture above left.
This is a small device dropped onto the seabed with a coiled probe which is forced into
the seabed. On its way in, it measures the cone resistance, sleeve friction on its side,
friction ratio and pore pressure at its tip.
All of these are recorded as they vary with depth of penetration. By cross-referring to
calibration data, these features can be used to determine whether the soil is sand or clay
and what strength or friction angle it has.
The picture is of a Fugro Seascout CPT. It weighs 1 tonne (2200lb), is 2 m (6.6ft) square
by 2.4 m (7ft) high, has a 100 mm² (0.155in2) probe cross sectional area and a maximum
penetration of 6 m (20ft).
The picture on the right is the head of a vibrocorer. This recovers a sample tube of the
actual seabed for correlation. It is often used with a tripod stand to ensure accurate
entry.
METOCEAN SURVEY
Wind, tide, wave and current

Currents
Acoustic doppler current profilers
Current meters, electromagnetic,
acoustic, rotor
Waves
Buoys
Subsurface pressure, velocity
Radar
Satellites
The third element of survey is the metocean survey, telling us the environmental
conditions. This data is needed at the design stage and is normally assessed from
existing measurements and interpolation techniques.
The slide lists the instruments used to measure currents and waves and shows a picture
of an acoustic doppler current meter, a relatively recent development, which can
determine the currents at various locations throughout the water column.
Radar monitoring from satellites is also now used to provide wave heights worldwide.
SURVEY TECHNIQUES - SUMMARY
Three sets of data

Route contours - route planning
Width of laybarge anchor spread
Soil type strength - route planning
Waves and currents - field development stage
Route planning surveys
Ship and ROTV - quickly covers a large area
ROV - detailed information close to seabed
AUV - new technology but with high potential
Geotechnical - CPT and vibrocore along centreline
Any questions?
Route selection 55
There are two types of survey that are performed prior to preparing the route for
pipeline installation, these being geotechnical and geophysical surveys. Metocean data
has usually been already collected during the field evaluation phase. Where it is likely
that an anchored laybarge will be used, the width of side-scan survey should be extended
to the width of the anchor pattern – perhaps as much as 3 km (2 miles) to either side of
the pipeline route.
The surveys assess if the route is suitable for installation of the pipeline and identify any
obstructions to construction. Survey ships can cover an area of the seabed more quickly
than an ROV. However, more detailed work is best done close to the seabed by ROV-
mounted units. AUVs are still being developed but they have the potential for rapid
collection of data.
At route planning, it is common to undertake soils investigation using CPT and

vibrocore at least along the centreline of the pipeline route.
SOIL TYPES
WHAT IS SOIL?
Engineers
Soils are weathered or decomposed bedrock
May have been eroded
Transported by wind, water or ice
Re-deposited in homogenous or mixed layers
May contain organic (plant) material
Geologists
Classify the above as ‘weak rock’
Farmers and gardeners
Interested in
Top 0.2 m (8in) of organic topsoil for growing
Drainage of subsoil under-layer
Although engineers are interested in soils from the point of view of their foundation
strength, groups such as geologists and agriculturalists have other different interests and
ways of looking at soil.
We tend to define soil as weathered bedrock which may have been eroded, sorted and
transported by natural processes before being re-deposited some distance from its origin.
It may have organic material mixed with it, which tends to reduce its strength. It may be
partly reformed into weak sandstone or mudstones.
We differentiate between soils and rock. Geologists tend to view all rock and soils as a
continuum (no classification division between them). They are more concerned with the
origin and mineralization than the engineering strength.
Whereas engineers usually have to understand the behaviour of Quaternary deposits (last
2 million years); from a geologist’s point of view, this is regarded as very young drift
material that has yet to fully form.
Route selection 57
Agriculture is more interested in the upper layers which need to contain plenty of
organic material although drainage is also of concern. Organic material is definitely
undesirable from the point of view of sound foundation strength.
All these groups – and many others – have their own ideas about the optimum method
of classifying soils. There is no universal approach or codes so caution should be
maintained when reviewing soils reports.
TEXTURAL SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Texturally, soils divided into:

Coarse grained
Visible to naked eye
>0.060 mm (2.4thou)
Sands, gravels
cobbles and boulders
Sand Gravel
Fine grained
<0.060 mm (2.4thou)
Silts and clays
Clay is ‘cohesive’
Silt Clay
Real soil is a matrix with a range of sizes
Sands and gravels can be identified in the field by visual inspection. Sands are particles
smaller than 2 mm (79thou) in diameter but larger than 60 μm (2.4thou).
Finer soils such as silts and clays can be discriminated by touch and simple tests in water.
Silts are slightly granular – testing between the teeth is common. Clays are smoother
with no discernable grains. Silts will disintegrate when dropped into water whereas clays
will remain as a clump. Silts will dry quickly in the hand. With silt, dry lumps can be
powdered easily by hand whereas dry lumps of clays can be broken but not powdered
between fingers.
Silts exhibit little plasticity and marked dilatancy. Clays exhibits plasticity but no
dilatancy. Dilatancy (or bulking) is the inelastic volume increase caused by soil particles
moving relative to each other under shearing forces.
It should be noted that pure soils are rare as real soil is a mixture of particle sizes.
The exact division between each term depends upon the soils investigation code being
used. Examples of particle size distributions for real soils are given later on.
BS 5930 GRAIN SIZE CURVES
Grain size (mm) log scale

0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2 6 20 60 200
Fine
Coarse
Fine
Coarse
Fine
Coarse
Cobbles
Boulders
Medium
Medium
Medium
Basic soil CLAYS
type
SILTS SANDS GRAVELS
VERY COARSE
FINE SOILS COARSE SOILS
SOILS
Drainage Practically
Low permeability poor High permeability generally k>10-5 m/s (fine sands).
impervious
properties k<10-8 m/s
drainage 10-6 >k>10-9 m/s Maximum can approach 1 m/s
100%
Well graded
Gap-graded Uniform
Percentage
sandy,
passing
silty, gravelly fine slightly silty

medium-fine GRAVEL GRAVEL
SAND
0%
The slide shows three typical soil descriptions and the particle size distribution arranged
in accordance to BS 5930 : 1999 Code of practice for site investigations; and BS 1377-2 :
1996 Methods of test for soils for civil engineering purposes – Classification tests.
In general, very coarse soils such as cobbles and boulders cannot be recovered from
samples because they are larger than the core diameters.
Descriptors such as ‘gravelly’ and ‘slightly sandy’ or ‘very silty’ are set at up to 5%,
between 5% and 20% and more than 20% levels, respectively. Terms such as
GRAVEL/SAND means approximately equal proportions of each. Gap-graded means
that there are missing particle sizes.
Some codes have been designed for agriculture – others for geology – rather than
engineering. Descriptions and the number of divisions vary greatly between codes used
around the world: soil types may be shifted across, resulting in a “coarse sand” being
defined as a “fine gravel” etc. The rule is to look at the actual gradings rather than the
descriptors.
Note that some codes show the larger particles on the left; others (as above) show them
on the right. But shapes of profiles may be similar (top left to bottom right) because
percentage retained is changed to percentage passing. Again, look carefully at the sizes.
In the US, there are a number of different systems for various purposes:
■ Unified Soil Classification
■ Highway Research Board (AASHO) Classification
■ ASTM (Pedological Soils Classification) – but used for engineering design
■ Federal Aviation Agency (FAA) or Civil Aeronautical Administration (CAA)
Classification
■ Geological Classification (Wentworth)
■ Textural Classification for Agriculture
Route selection 59
COMPARING SAND, CLAY AND

MIXED SOIL
Shear strength versus normal stress
Pure sand Pure clay Mixed soil

τ τ τ
φ)
n( (φ)
·t
a τ=c t an
Mohr’s + σ n·
σn τ=c
τ= circle
Failure
shear
σn
c
φ
σ3
θ
σ1
σn σn
c = 0 or φ soil φ = 0 or c soil c - φ soil
The three graphs show the shear strength against normal stress for the different
classification of soil using the traditional approach.
Where:
■ c = cohesion
■ τ = shear stress
■ σn = normal stress
■ σ1 = major principal stress
■ σ3 = minor principal stress
■ φ = internal angle of friction
Pure sands have no cohesion and can be represented by the equation τ = σn· tan(φ),
indicating that the frictional resistance varies with the value of normal stress.
With ductile materials such as steel, we often use von Mises equivalent stress (maximum
distortion energy theory) or Tresca (maximum shear stress theory).
Soils are better modelled using the Coulomb-Mohr Theory. The Mohr’s circle diagrams
are shown above can be visualised as the principle stresses acting on a wedge of soil of
angle θ to the horizontal. The normal stress, σ1 with shear down the slope σ3.
The principal stresses (σ1 and σ3) are drawn on the lower axis. The vertical line from
the axis to where the Mohr’s circle is tangential, indicates the failure shear stress.
It is possible to make a vertical cut in a clay and for this to remain standing without
support for some time. This cannot be done with dry sand which tends to slump until a
slope with an angle approximately equal to the angle of internal friction (the friction
between the grains) is formed. Pure clays do not increase in strength with increasing
normal stress. For this reason, the equation τ = c is applicable, showing cohesion as a
constant value with increasing overburden. That is to say, a cohesive soil has a shear
strength even when the normal stress is zero (at the soil surface).
However, many real soils exhibit some features of both cohesion and internal friction, so
the equation τ = c + σn· tan(φ) is used. The figure shows two Mohr’s circles used to
describe such as soil, calculated at different depths (overburdens).
MAIN SOIL TYPES – PROPERTIES
Plasticity and cohesion

Clays are plastic, cohesive, expansive/compressible
Sands are non-plastic and non-cohesive (granular)
Silts and loess
Very fine grained
Generally non-plastic and mostly cohesionless
Muds are soft fine-grained organic deposits
Low friction and cohesion values
Calcium carbonate soils
Cover 30% of the seabed (mainly in tropical regions)
Can be any particle size – clays to gravel
Cementation – reformed (hard pan, dolomite, chalk)
Sands and gravels are non-plastic and non-cohesive. Silts and loess (wind-formed
deposits) are even finer grained particles and are usually also cohesionless.
However, clays are both plastic and cohesive. They tend to have other properties such
as being expansive or compressible when loaded.
Most soil investigation work was originally undertaken on silicate soils. However, some
30% of the sea floor has carbonate soils. The assumption generally made is that these
are predominately calcium carbonate (CaCO3). They may be of any particle size (from
very fine to cobble size) and tend to reform by cementation, forming layers of harder
material.
Route selection 61
SOIL TESTING ACCURACY
Inherent soil variability Pipe in trench
Vertically and laterally CPT

measure-
Naturally-laid deposit ment
Limited availability of information
Proximity of tests to pipe route
Restricted access to areas of seabed
Imperfect information for design
Investigation techniques don’t reflect true soil values
Measurement errors and testing imperfections
Disturbed specimen, limited sample size or missing layers
Imperfect empirical relationships to derive values
Because soil is a naturally occurring deposit, its properties vary both vertically and
horizontally. Commonly, there is more variation in the vertical direction because soils
tend to be laid in lenses. Even within a homogenous soil horizon, natural soils have
different properties due to variation in mineral composition, environmental conditions
during deposition, stress history and moisture content. It is common to average the
results of a number of samples and look at the best estimate, upper and lower bounds.
A large factor of safety should also be used. We may not have identified the fabric of
the soil which may have thin deposits of sand just a few grains thick within a body of
clay helping with drainage.
We often have to limit the number of tests along the pipe route. This can be because of
costs or restriction in access due to adjacent seabed equipment. Existing operators have
been known to prevent sampling within 500 m (1640ft) of their pipeline – even for a
crossing design. For critical designs of wellheads or clump anchors, it is common to
return to undertake additional soil testing at the exact location of the item.
However, it must be recognised that testing samples of soil does not necessarily provide
us with exact values for design. The equipment has some inherent error (tolerance or
accuracy) by its very nature. If we recover soil to the surface for laboratory testing, it
will have been disturbed, giving slightly different values from that on the seabed. Our
sample is generally of a limited size – typically 100 mm (4in) in diameter so any bedding
or joints (cracks) in a sample of clay or chalk may not be well represented, leading to
inaccurate estimation of strength or permeability of rubbly or blocky material. Finally,
the values that we measure are generally not those used for design. We make use of
empirical relationships to derive the engineering information, leading to either randomly
or systematically based inaccuracies.
The new Eurocode 3 (ENV 1997 parts 1 to 3) gives good guidance on soil design using
limit state methods. However, there is no comprehensive international standard for soil
identification and testing yet. National standards such as BS 8004 and the US Unified
Classification can be used but are primarily designed for land-based work. The Norsok
standard G-001 Rev 2 Oct 2004 - Marine Soil Investigations - is specifically designed for
offshore use.
Refer to Géotechnique 55 March 2005 Volume LV N°2 pp 95-108 Non-parametric

simulation of geotechnical variability, P L Bourdeau & J I Amundaray, Institution of
Civil Engineers ISSN 016-8505 (www.geotechnique-ice.com).
The figure shows how variability in soil properties tends to be greater vertically than
horizontally, even in a homogenous horizon of a single soil type. The colours simulate
perhaps weak to strong soil or fine to coarse grain size. The CPT on the left has
encountered average to low values. The pipe trench will be cut through average to high
values. In this instance the scale of fluctuation is large, but changes may occur at a much
finer scale.
SOIL TYPES - SUMMARY
No international standard as yet

Size of grain
Granular soil (sand, gravel) – φ
Cohesive soil (clays) – c
May be over-consolidated / very stiff
Muds (silt and clay mix) – c-φ
Mixed soil, often soft with organic contribution
Carbonate soils
Variable along pipeline route
Inaccuracy in recovery and testing methods
Any questions?
There are no international standards as yet. However, we normally describe soils on the
basis of their grain size.
Granular soils are described by their angle of friction (φ). Clays are defined by a value of
cohesion.
Most soil is mixed and require both φ and cohesion to describe their strength. Muds are
such an example and may contain significant amounts of organic material.
A further class of soil are the carbonates found throughout the warmer seas of the
world. The soil particles here may be of any size but tend to bind together in a weak
rock.
It must be noted that our results of surveys are bound to provide variation due not only
to the changes in soil type along the route but to the method of recovering survey data.
Route selection 63
ROUTING OF PIPELINE
CHOOSING THE BEST ROUTE
Straight line
Any ideas on the obstacles to routing the

pipeline in a straight line?
The starting point for the best route is a straight line from where you found the reserves
to where you want them delivered.
However, very few pipelines go in a straight line and there are numerous factors which
lead us away from the straight route.
These are discussed in the following pages.

SURVEYS FOR ROUTE SELECTION
Avoid problem areas

Desk study
Existing infrastructure
Bathymetry
Slopes and features
Soils
Trenching
Waves and currents
Pipeline stability
A number of surveys will be carried out prior to route selection.
These are aimed at minimising problems such as minimising crossings of existing

pipelines, avoidign unstable areas of the seabed or hard ground for trenching and
ensuring environmental forces do not destabilise the lines.
DESK STUDY
Desk study - at conceptual design stage

Contours
Geology
Block ownership
Existing pipelines,
wells, wrecks & cables
Cost effective
One day offshore ≡
8 weeks for an engineer
Before conducting an offshore survey, it is often cost-effective to conduct a desk study.

This simply means gathering together the existing data about the seabed along the
pipeline route. In areas of mature oil and gas exploration, there is usually a
comprehensive amount of data available. In the West of Shetland and North Sea, the
Route selection 65
UK Deal website provides a wealth of information regarding existing infrastructure and

seismic surveys.
Sources are:
■ Admiralty Charts
■ Geological Survey maps of surficial sediments and underlying geology
■ Government block licence information
■ Wellhead and pipeline positions from Notices to Mariners
■ Oil company surveys conducted during seismic and drilling operations
■ Oil company surveys of adjacent subsea facilities
SEABED OBSTRUCTIONS
Platforms
Wells
Wrecks
Cables
No deviation
Protection
Safety zone
500 m (1640ft) or
201 m (660ft)
Seabed obstructions cause deviations in the pipeline route around them. In the North
Sea, platforms, wells and wrecks are normally avoided by 500 m (1640ft). In the US, the
distance is somewhat less at 201 m (660ft) - one furlong, though this was originally
defined when fields were in shallower waters.
We also need to consider anchoring areas around subsea works for work-over vessels.
The oil industry shares the seabed with the telecommunications industry (amongst
others). With the advent of subsea fibre optics for international phone calls and internet
traffic, there are many cables currently being installed. Whilst crossing an existing cable
would probably not require a pipeline route deviation, it would be important to know
where the crossing would occur and to take measures to protect the cable against
damage.
PIPELINE CROSSINGS
Existing line
30° min
Protection
1 km (3300 ft) straight
1 km to 2 km
(3300ft to 6600ft) radius
Existing pipelines are preferably crossed perpendicularly, with the minimum angle being
30°. The reason for this is that any shallower angle of the approach would lead to a long
and extensive crossing with a greater amount of protection needed over the area. With
anchored laybarges, the anchoring procedure also becomes more difficult at angles less
than 30°.
Looking in plan at the pipeline route, there is a minimum radius for the curves that the
laybarge can achieve. Typically this is 1 km (3300ft) radius for a small (6in, 152 mm)
pipeline and up to 2 km (6600ft) for a large (40in, 1.016 m) pipeline. The reason for this
is that we are relying on seabed friction to pull against in order to form the bend.
OTHER USERS OF SEABED
Other countries
Exclusion zones NORTH SEA
Bacton
Dredging areas
UNITED UK
Shipping lanes KINGDOM Sector
Dutch
Sector
Other companies’
acreage Dredging
Restricted
areas
Area
Belgian
Sector
Zeebrugge
BELGIUM
Interconnector Pipeline
Route selection 67
Many other users have a claim on the seabed and can influence the seabed route, as can
be seen from the route chosen for the interconnector pipeline between Bacton and
Zeebrugge.
■ It may be advantageous to avoid crossing national boundaries. For example, the

interconnector pipeline skirts the Dutch sector. This avoids the requirement of
meeting Dutch legislation and of reporting to the Dutch authorities during the
operation of pipeline.
■ Transporting of hydrocarbon products across national boundaries may attract high
tariffs and taxes.
■ There are restricted areas where military operations are carried out and where
dredging is carried out.
■ Where there are busy shipping lanes, the route should go perpendicular so that the
construction vessels spend the minimum amount of time obstructing those lanes.
■ With trunk lines, it is often necessary to cross the license blocks of other companies.
Normally this is done by way of negotiation - company A crossing company B’s
licence block in return for company B crossing company A’s licence block
somewhere else. In case of difficulties, the Government Departments (DTI in the
UK) responsible for licensing oil and gas exploration may have the authority to
impose a solution.
MORE USERS OF THE SEA
Fishing grounds
Spawning and
nursery areas
SAC – special areas
of conservation
Corals and sponges
Landfalls – SSSI
Environmental impact assessment (EIA)
There may be environmental pressure to avoid fishing grounds, sites of special scientific
interest and special areas of conservation.
The approach is to evaluate the sensitive areas and select the route of minimum
environmental impact in consultation with interested parties.
The main photograph shows a twin-rigged beam trawler used for flatfish, shrimp and
prawn fishing. The insets show a soft coral, a blue sponge and an anemone found in
cold North Atlantic waters at depths of 300 m to 600 m (1000ft to 2000ft) near the
Foinaven development, West of Shetland. The cold water corals were unexpected finds
during the initial surveys for this development.
In environmentally sensitive areas such as landfalls, it may be necessary to carry out an

environmental impact assessment as part of the project approval process.
SEABED FEATURES
Sandwaves
Rocks
Pock marks
Iceberg scour
Mud slides
Mud volcanoes
Coral
Areas of rock outcrops and sandwaves are avoided where possible.
As a fallback, the pipeline may be routed through the valleys of sandwaves if they have a
suitable orientation. As a last resort, and if it is necessary to cross mobile sandwaves, the
sandwave may be dredged down to the level of the valleys.
Rock outcrops are avoided to permit trenching or limited self embedment, which
improves pipeline stability. Damage can occur to pipelines laid directly on rock so where
ridges of rock must be crossed, a layer of gravel is laid between as a bedding.
Pockmarks are craters typically 5 m to 10 m (16ft to 33ft) across and 2 m to 4 m (7ft to

13ft) deep, thought to originate from shallow gas pockets. The pipeline would be routed
around, rather than across these.
Mudslides sometimes occur on steep slopes, particularly near river estuaries and on the
continental slope. If these slopes cannot be avoided, then the route should run directly
down the slope rather than across it.
Subsea mud volcanoes and volcanic eruptions simply have to be circumnavigated.
Coral can be found at shallow or very great depths.

Route selection 69
SANDWAVES
Avoid or pre-sweep
Reforms quickly
These two pictures show an aerial view of sandwaves in a shallow sea and (right) a false-
colour side scan along a pipe route.
They can be encountered wherever strong currents combine with sandy seabeds in
shallow water.
The region is either avoided or the waves are removed just before the pipeline is laid.
They reform within a few tides.
POCKMARKS AND ICEBERG SCOUR

This view of a pockmark field in the Beaufort Sea (with an ice scour through the middle)
shows how uneven the seabed can be.
Such fields of pockmarks are found throughout the world adjacent to hydrocarbon
reservoirs. They are thought to be caused by release of small shallow gas deposits, which
remove the finer particles from the seabed sediments, leaving a depression.
If the route cannot be avoided, then these holes will need to be filled in during seabed
modifications prior to pipelay operations.
MUD VOLCANOES
Near hydrocarbons
Gas leak from formations
Careful routing of lines
Cold mud mounds
5 m to 500 m high on land
Currents sweep away soft deposits
Mud volcanoes are also known as sedimentary volcanoes or gas-oil volcanoes. The
above photographs show small examples on land at Cape Alyat near the Caspian Sea.
Because they are cool, they are considered a tourist attraction, and the mud is deemed to
have curative properties being mainly composed of silica with trace elements.
They also occur subsea and can erupt powerfully, similarly to magmatic volcanoes,
hurling flames to great heights. However, they tend to spew water, hydrocarbon gases
and tons of mud. They have periods of quiescence and then burst into activity again.
If possible, the area should be avoided. However, they often are found close to
hydrocarbon regions and are caused by leakage of gas from great depths. The methane
gas is formed in younger strata overlying the oil fields.
On land, they can reach heights of up to 500 m (1600ft) but subsea, due to the soft
nature of the mud, deposits tend to be rapidly moved by currents. The resulting soft
seabed is not ideal for pipelaying.
Route selection 71
BP SHAH DENIZ AZERBAIJAN

CASPIAN SEA
Shah Deniz platform

Adjacent to extinct mud volcano
Other features
Diapir collapse – faulting
Upwardly mobile salt dome
Shallow gas
Large deep-seated debris flows
Seabed channels
12 mud volcanoes
Associated widespread debris flows
Careful flowline routing
The BP Shah Deniz gas condensate platform is located adjacent to an extinct subsea
mud volcano.
The oil field lies between Mobil's Oquz, Chevron's Asheron and Exxon's Nakhchiuan
fields. Its name can be translated as 'King's Sea'. The prospect is situated in the South
Caspian Sea, off the Azerbaijan shore, approximately 70 km (44 miles) south-east of
Baku. It lies in water depths ranging from 50 m (160ft) in the north-west, to 600 m
(2000ft) in the south-east. The contract area covers approximately 860 km² (330 sq
miles). Reserve estimates have been calculated at between 250 to 500 million tonnes (1.5
to 3 billion barrels) of oil and 50 to 100 billion m³ (2 to 4 trillion ft³) of gas.
Detailed bathymetry provided information on the faults associated with mud diapir†
collapse, shallow gas, debris flows 1 km (3300ft) below the seabed and modern-day
features such as mud volcanoes and seabed channels. In total, twelve separate mud
volcanoes have been identified. The largest of these, north of the reservoir, produces a
major debris flow over 5 km (3 miles) wide.
The grid lines on the lower sonar plot of the field are at 2.5 km (1.5 mile) spacing.
†Diapirsare low density rocks such as salt, shale or magma that force their way upward
in domes or mushroom shapes.
CORAL
Types
Coral reefs
Deep cold water coral
Field character
100 m diameter, 5 m high
1000 m deep
Mound and tail
Sand volcanoes
Impact
Environmentally sensitive
Damaged by trawling
Damaging to coating
Flexible pipelines
Although coral reefs have been known about for millennia, it is only very recently that
coral mounds have been found in deep and cold waters.
The Darwin mounds in the Rockall trough off the north-east coast of Scotland are
shown above. These were discovered in 1998, and hundred of these mounds cover an
area of around 100 km². Similar fields have been located in deep waters off the coast of
Brazil having caused damage to flexibles. Mounds in that region are even closer together
having the appearance of a cheese grater.
The individual mounds are around 100 m (330ft) in diameter and some 5 m (16ft) high.
However much larger mounds exist southwest of Ireland in Porcupine Seabight, some
800 m (2600ft) deep. Here, they reach over 1000 m (0.6 mile) across and are 200 m
(660ft) high.
The carbonate rock of the Darwin mounds is built on what appear to be sand volcanoes
– the result of fluidised sand dewatering possibly as a result of slumping. The tops of
the mounds (shown orange) are home to live colonies of deep-water coral species and
the biological communities they support. The green areas on the chart show the much
larger tails (invisible on sidescan images), but which are characterised by high density
populations of giant protozoans, up to 0.2 m (8in) in diameter.
These corals are extremely slow growing and are easily damaged. Trawl damage has
been seen (even at such depths), which is unlikely to be repaired for centuries. For
pipelines laid in such regions, we may expect damage to coatings, especially to flexibles.
Route selection 73
PLATFORM APPROACH
Pipelay
vessel H
Minimum separation between

vessel and platform
(typically 15 to 20 m (50ft to 65ft))
Platform
H
Axial movement
of pipe due to
thermal
expansion Flanged connections
(could also be welded
or mechanical connectors)
End of rock dump

or trench
Where a pipeline is laid to any existing platform, the laybarge must pass to one side of
the platform. The pipeline end is laid down to be later connected with a dogleg or the L
shaped spoolpiece shown above. (The line cannot lay straight up to the platform
without the barge running into the platform.)
However, the spoolpiece must also be liftable and alignable. This means it will have a
limited length, so it is necessary to find a compromise between the requirements of the
laybarge and the spoolpiece.
SHORE APPROACH
Wave refraction
Land Shore approach route Laybarge at

12 m (40ft) LAT
Direct route
A typical third-generation laybarge has a draft of about 12 m (40ft). It may therefore

only be able to get within 3 km or 4 km (2 or 2.5 miles) of the shore, depending on the
rate at which the seabed slopes. The implication is that shore approaches should be
perpendicular, in order to minimise the length of pipe which must be pulled from ship to
shore and thus minimise the pulling forces.
However, first generation work barges operating in sheltered waters around the Gulf of
Mexico (GoM) were able to come into shallower depths down to 4 m (13ft). The larger
fourth-generation DP barges may need a water depth of 16 m (52ft) for their thrusters to
operate without churning up the seabed.
A second reason for pipelines approaching perpendicular to the shoreline, is for stability.
The waves refract as they come into shallow water, which means that they approach the
shore in a direction close to a right angle, no matter which way they had been travelling
further out. The high water particle velocities associated with breaking waves are in the
same direction as the waves, so routing the pipeline perpendicular to the shore
minimises the destabilising cross-velocities. Even so, it is normal to bury the pipeline on
its final approach and across the beach in the surf zone.
ROUTE SELECTION - SUMMARY
Desktop and surveys for routing

Identify and avoid or minimise:
Seabed obstructions
Pipeline crossings
Users of the sea
Seabed features and composition
Special routing at:
Platform approach
Shore approach
Minimum cost option
Any questions?
For areas of the world where there are already a number of developed fields, a lot of
information can be obtained using low-cost desk studies. We would supplement this
information with topographic and soils surveys.
Subsea pipelines are generally unable to follow the direct straight line route for many
reasons.
It is common to examine a number of possible routes and minimise the clashes. The
finally chosen route is a cost-driven compromise.
Route selection 75
ROUTE SELECTION - SUMMARY
Survey methods
Used for all stages throughout a pipeline life
Vessels, ROTVs, ROVs
Soil types
Sands or clays
Variability and uncertainty
Routing issues
Desk studies, topographic and soils surveys
Length of line now fixed
Any questions?
The three different types of offshore survey have been shown along with the main
techniques and equipment.
Soils and their variability are an important issue in trenching and stability.
Initially, desk top surveys can help with route planning. This is followed by geotechnical
and topographic surveys at sea. Metocean data will normally have been obtained from
desk top or have been undertaken at the original reservoir determination/evaluation
stage.
The main considerations that influence the routing of a pipeline have been presented.
This provides us with the length of line.
Pipe sizing
Pipe sizing 79
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Pipeline diameter (bore)

Determining head losses in pipelines
Liquid lines (condensate, oil or water)
Gas lines
Mixed oil/gas flows (multiphase from wells)
Criticality of diameter
Wall thickness
Internal bursting pressure
External water pressure (collapse)
Methods of making linepipe
Buckling
This section outlines the process of determining the diameter and wall thickness of a
pipeline.
There are three methods of making linepipe for the hydrocarbon industry. Videos of
these show the processes.
The causes and effects of buckling are described along with methods of avoidance.
DIAMETER SIZING
CHOOSING THE DIAMETER
Large enough for peak flow

Check for low flow condition
Assume a wall thickness to determine bore

Typically, t = D ÷ 22
Specify by fixed outside diameters
Having selected the pipeline route, the next problem to be addressed is to determine its
diameter.
The pipeline diameter is sized for peak flow and ensures that flow conditions and
pressure drop are within acceptable ranges. However, one must also check for low flow
condition in case this leads to laminar flow and corrosion at the bottom of the pipe.
In this section, we will examine the three types of flow and how to size the diameter for
each.
Hydrocarbon pipelines are specified by outside diameter, D. This remains constant such
that as the wall thickness, t increases, the bore reduces. This contrasts with pipe used in
the lower pressure water industry which keeps the internal diameter (bore) constant,
varying the outside diameter with changing wall thickness.
It is necessary to make an assumption regarding the wall thickness in order to determine

the bore (internal pipe diameter). The D/t ratio is often in the range between 18 and 30,
with thicker wall in deeper water. We suggest using a value of 22 for the first estimate.
Pipe sizing 81
TYPES OF FLOW
Liquid Separator and pumps Export

on platform or FPSO pipelines
Gas to shore
Multiphase
Riser
Flowline Oil/condensate
Wellhead
Multiphase Gas
Well
Cap-rock
Gas
Oil
Reservoir
Water
Pipelines are designed for one of three types of flow: either liquid, gas or multiphase.
The diagram above shows a schematic of a subsea development. Following the oil from
the reservoir where it is single-phase, it passes up to the wellhead. As the pressure
reduces on the way up, gas comes out of solution and gives multiphase flow. This
passes through the wellhead (which is essentially a valve) and into the horizontal
flowline. It passes through here in multi-phase flow back towards the production facility
where it travels up the riser and into the separator. The prime function of the
production facility is to separate the oil and gas into single phases, and put these into
separate export pipelines where they can be pumped to shore or to a tanker.
The following pages show how pipeline diameter is determined for the different flow
regimes.
LIQUID FLOW LINE SIZING
Pressure drop due to friction
f ⋅ ρ ⋅v 2 ⋅ L
ΔP =
2⋅D
1
ΔP ∝ 5
D
The pressure drop, ΔP in a liquid flow line is defined by the above formula, where:
■ f = friction factor
■ ρ = liquid density
■ v = liquid velocity
■ L = pipeline length
■ D = internal diameter (pipe bore)
The friction factor is found from the Moody diagram (see next slide) and is generally
constant across a wide range of velocities. The density and length are similarly known.
The design is carried out by trying a range of standard diameters, finding the minimum
size at which the available pressure drop is sufficient to deliver the peak volumetric flow.
The equation reduces to pressure drop being inversely proportional to the fifth power of
the diameter. This is an extreme sensitivity to the bore: since the pipelines we normally
specify are manufactured in steps of 51 mm (2in), experienced engineers can quickly size
the outside pipe diameter. An example may be given that using inch sizes, the ratio
(10/8)5 = 3 – or pressure drop would be a three times more going from a 10in to 8in
bore – and (16/14)5 = 2.
Obviously, here we have ignored the wall thickness, but the principle is demonstrated:
stepping up to the next standard diameter can significantly reduce the pressure drop in a
line.
Typical flow velocities in pipelines will generally be in the following range:
OIL: Min = 1 m/s (3.3ft/s) Max = 3 m/s (10ft/s)

GAS: Min = 3 m/s (10ft/s) Max = 9 to 11 m/s (30ft/s to 35ft/s)
Pipe sizing 83
MOODY DIAGRAM
D ⋅ν ⋅ρ
R e =
μs
hL
f =
L ν2
⋅
D 2 ⋅g
Friction factor, f
absolute roughness / diameter

Relative roughness =
Reynolds number, Re
The Moody diagram above is a plot of friction factor on the vertical axis against
Reynolds number (proportional to velocity) on the horizontal axis. The curves show
values of friction factor for different roughness of the inside of the riser. The curves for
a given roughness are fairly flat in the turbulent region to the right hand side of the
diagram. This means that for a given roughness, the friction factor varies little with
velocity if the flow is in the turbulent region.
A note of caution on Moody diagrams and friction factors: there are two different
systems in use. The above is the US system which is used throughout the oil and gas
industry. The other system has a friction factor f ' or λ (lambda) = 0.25 f, and is shown
in some UK water industry textbooks.
For common pipeline sizes and materials, the ranges of values are:
■ Reynolds numbers between 105 and 107
■ Line pipe roughness < 0.5 mm (20mil), giving
■ Relative Roughness between 0.0005 and 0.002
These ranges result in most pipelines having friction factors between 0.01 and 0.015.
The graph shows use of the chart: by following the curve from the relative roughness of
0.0001 to where it crosses the Reynolds N° of 6 x 105, we can read off the friction factor
on the left axis of 0.014.
Where
■ D = inside diameter of pipe
■ f = friction factor
■ g = gravitational acceleration
■ hL = head lost in friction
■ L = length of pipeline
■ Re = Reynolds’ number
■ μ = kinematic viscosity
■ ν = dynamic viscosity
■ ρ = density of fluid
SIZING FOR GAS FLOW
Similar to liquid, but compressible

With increasing distance along pipeline:
Pressure drops
Gas expands
Velocity increases
Drag increases
Distance along pipeline in km (miles)

Still has empirical formulae
Weymouth and Panhandle approximations
As the slide indicates, sizing the diameter for a gas pipeline requires a similar approach to
liquid lines but is slightly more complex. The complexity is introduced by the
compressibility of the gas, which means that, as the pressure drops along the pipeline,
the gas expands. Its velocity increases and the drag increases in proportion to the square
of the velocity. The overall result of this is that the pressure drops along the initial
sections of the gas pipeline are small, compared with those at the far end.
Although this sounds complex, the relationship can be described with empirically
derived formulae allowing a straightforward assessment of pressure-drop for a given line
size.
HORIZONTAL MULTI-PHASE FLOW
Bubble Froth
Liquid flowrate
Slug
Plug
Annular mist
Smooth Wavy
stratified stratified
Gas flowrate
Oil Gas
Pipe sizing 85
From a well, you typically find a mixture of oil, water, gas and sand. Any combination
of gas and liquid flowing together down a pipeline is known as multi-phase flow.
Depending on the proportion of gas and liquid and the overall speed of the flow, the
phases may adopt different patterns. These are known as flow regimes.
The flow regime will also be influenced by the geometry of the pipeline (whether it is
going up or down hill or on the level). The importance of determining the flow regime
is that different flow regimes cause different pressure drops per unit length of pipeline.
The slide above shows seven flow regimes for a horizontal line, depending upon the
proportion of oil and gas, and the driving pressure in the line:
■ Where the oil and gas flow rates are low, the flow is smooth stratified. The liquid
separates to the bottom of the line and the gas flows at higher speed at the top of it.
■ As the gas flowrate increases, the differential flow causes the surface to become
wavy.
■ At higher rates still, we get annular mist flow. This is typical of gas condensate
lines where the gas velocity is very high and there is only a small proportion of
liquid, which is forced out to the edges and runs along the pipe wall in tears.
■ If the proportion of oil is increased from an annular mist flow, whilst keeping the
pressures high, the flow can form froth. Both phases are dispersed and travel at the
same speed.
■ At the highest flow rates but when the oil is the greater fraction, the regime moves
to bubble flow where bubbles of gas are entrained in a matrix of liquid and all flows
at the same speed.
■ If the flow rate decreases slightly, then the bubbles tend to coalesce and separate out
at the top of the pipeline. They form plugs of gas.
■ Slug flow is common in oil and gas production flowlines where the flow rates are
fairly high. Liquid travels in slugs, with pockets of gas in between. The slugs
generally initially form at low points on the line or at the foot of risers.
Plug and slug flow can cause problems at pumps and fittings due to the surges as the
density of the flow changes.
The transitions between the different flow regimes depend upon a number of factors
such as topography of the pipeline and additives to the fluid. Researchers adopt
different terms (such as pseudo-slug, intermittent slug or bubbly slug) to further
subdivide the phases.
SIZING FOR MULTI-PHASE FLOW
Size for max flow

Check for min flow
Networks
Correlated software
Pipesim
Flow regime
Pressure drop
Explicit software
Olga 2000
Profes Transient
The technique for sizing for multi-phase flow is essentially the same as liquid and gas
single-phase lines, in that one initially finds the size required to accommodate the
maximum flow, and then checks that there are no problems induced by the minimum
flow condition.
Example low flow problems are:

■ Water dropout in stratified flow leading to corrosion at the bottom of the flowline
■ Difficulties in getting the flow up the riser
Also, life is rarely so simple as to have a single well and a single tie-back flowline. As the
diagram indicates, subsea developments often have many wells, manifolded together
with multiple flowlines back to the separator. In order to design for these conditions, it
is necessary to use computer simulation to determine the flow regimes and therefore the
pressure drop. Computer simulations can either rely on correlations or can solve the
physics of the flow explicitly.
‘Pipesim’ is an example of a programme which uses correlations based upon

experimental measurements to which curves are fitted and the results interpolated or
extrapolated to the conditions for your pipeline. Estimates are given of the rate of
slugging and the maximum size that needs to be accommodated in the trap.
Examples of explicit codes are Olga 2000 and Profes Transient. These use equations
rooted in the basic fluid properties; they can, for example, model the shape of the front
and rear of a slug in order to determine the forces as it passes through a bend.
Pipe sizing 87
DIAMETER SIZING - SUMMARY
Diameter sizing
Peak flow
Low flow
Extreme sensitivity to bore
Limited number of standard diameters available
Liquid flow sizing
Gas flow sizing
Multi-phase flow
Any questions?
To summarise diameter sizing, one finds a diameter suitable for conveying the peak flow
at the available pressure drop and then checks that this does not cause problems at the
minimum flow.
The bore has a strong effect on pressure drop. The standard diameters are normally
available in 51 mm (2in) steps. It is therefore a relatively quick process selecting the
diameter required to suit both peak and low flow rates.
For single-phase liquid and gas flows this process can be done analytically.
For multi-phase flow and networks, computer simulation is required.

WALL THICKNESS FOR BURSTING
SIZING WALL THICKNESS
Thick enough to contain pressure
What else should be taken into account

in determining the wall thickness?
The principle for sizing for wall thickness is to make the pipe wall thick enough to
contain the maximum allowable operating pressure.
This sets the minimum value for the wall thickness.
There are many other factors to take into account which may lead to the selection of a
thicker wall. These are detailed in the following section.
Pipe sizing 89
INFLUENCES ON WALL THICKNESS
Human safety Others

Internal pressure Bending stresses
Corrosion allowance Buckles
Reeling
Manufacturing
Seabed stability
tolerance
Fatigue
Hydrostatic collapse
Manufactured bends
Stress
concentrations
The slide above lists the factors to be taken into account in determining wall thickness:
■ In cases where the pipeline runs close to people, such as on risers and spoolpieces,
the wall thickness is increased to give an additional safety margin (lower stress).
■ Internal pressure has already been mentioned.
■ The wall thickness design must allow for corrosion and for manufacturing tolerances
on the thickness of the steel (or the centrality of the hole within the pipe).
■ The pipe must resist hydrostatic collapse due to the external pressure of sea water -
more on this later.
■ The pipeline must resist bending due to self-weight or environmental loading.
■ It must resist running buckles. This is an effect where a single imperfection (e.g.
some ovality) can allow hydrostatic collapse to start and to run both ways along the
pipeline until it is all flattened, or runs into shallow water. The material needs to be
strong enough to resist this, or must have thick buckle arrestors at intervals along
the pipeline.
■ If the pipe is to be reeled, it needs to be fairly thick to avoid local wrinkling on the
reel.
■ In some circumstances the pipeline may need a thicker wall to increase its self
weight to ensure that it remains stable on the seabed - more on this later.
■ Fatigue can occur due to wave and current motion on risers and pipeline spans.
■ In manufactured bends, allowance needs to be made for thinning of the wall during
the bending process.
■ As shown in the figure, where a pipe is attached to a stiffer fitting, this can induce a
stress concentration which may require local thickening of the wall to give a proper
transition.
THICKNESS FOR PRESSURE
( pi − pe ) ⋅ D
tmin = + C A + t tol
2 ⋅ A ⋅σ y
Corrosion Manufacturing
Resist bursting
allowance
Where tolerance
D = Outside pipe diameter

t = wall thickness
A = 72% or 60% Internal
pressure,
Pipe standards pi
API 5L External
pressure, pe
ISO 3183
The wall thickness needed for pressure containment is found using the above equation.
Where:
■ t min = minimum wall thickness
■ pi and pe = internal and external pressures (Normally, p is defined as the difference
between the maximum internal pressure and the minimum external pressure)
■ D = outside diameter
■ A = design factor (traditionally 0.72 for pipelines and 0.6 for risers, which sets the
peak hoop stress to 72% and 60% of yield respectively)
■ σy = specified minimum yield stress for the material (see next section)
■ τtol = negative manufacturing tolerance on wall thickness (typically 1 mm or 1.5 mm
(40thou to 60thou) for welded and 12.5% of nominal thickness for seamless for ISO
3183)
■ CA = corrosion allowance, typically 3 to 6 mm (1/8in to ¼in)
Having found the minimum thickness, the nominal thickness is found as the next
standard pipe thickness above this (taken from API 5L or ISO 3183).
However, when purchasing long lengths of pipe (hundreds of kilometers or miles), it can
be more economical to manufacture specials using the minimum thickness.
Pipe sizing 91
COMBINED LOADS
Equivalent stress
σ eq = (σ 2
h + σ l2 − σ h ⋅ σ l + 3 ⋅ τ 2 )
Lay tension, pressure
Internal pressure
and thermal forces Self weight or current causes differential causes
cause axial stresses bending (axial) stresses hoop stresses
The above equation calculates the equivalent stress using Von Mises method.
Where:
■ σeq = equivalent stress
■ σh = hoop stress
■ σl = longitudinal (axial) stress
■ τ = shear or torsional stress
Where we have loads in different orientations we need to use a yield method, such as
Von Mises to combine stresses to determine an equivalent stress.
The diagram above shows an example of a pipeline spanning across a gap, causing
bending.
The hoop stress induced by the internal over-pressure is orientated in the circumferential
direction around the pipe.
The residual lay tension or axial forces produce tension or compression in the pipe wall.
This must be added to the bending stress, which is also orientated axially along the pipe -
producing a tensile or compressive stress at top or bottom at different positions along
the pipe (hog or sag condition).
We can normally ignore the shear stresses in pipeline analysis since these do not occur at
the same point around the circumference as the peak axial forces. It is uncommon to
have torsional stresses in rigid pipelines.
INCREASED WALL FOR RISERS
Drop riser stress level

by 25% at platform
Hoop stress down from
72% to 60% of yield
Stronger section of
adjacent pipeline
DNV 500 m (1640ft)
US codes 152 m (500ft)
Greater consequence
in event of failure
Personnel safety
As already mentioned, close to the platform or at the landfall, the hoop stress levels are
typically reduced from 72% to 60% of SMYS.
Some codes also require a stronger section of pipeline within a certain distance of
personnel. The distance varies with the code – the Norwegian DNV is further than that
for API. The British PD code has no specified requirement. In very deep waters of
1000 m (3300ft) or more, perhaps even the DNV requirement should be increased:
bubbles from a gas leak may be carried some distance by sea currents towards the
platform.
This is in order to give an added margin of strength and therefore an increased factor of
safety due to the proximity of people.
Pipe sizing 93
SURGE
Pressure wave backs up pipeline at speed of sound

Valve
Stationary fluid Moving fluid
Valve closure
Fluid stops against valve whilst fluid behind
still moving
Fluid compresses
Pressure wave backs up pipeline as
moving fluid meets stationary fluid
When valves are closed, a pressure wave is set up in the pipeline. The effect is
sometimes seen in the domestic setting with copper pipes and is known as ‘water
hammer’.
The celerity (transmission velocity) of the pressure wave is the speed of sound in the
product.
SURGE PRESSURES
Joukousky equation ΔP = ρ ⋅ α ⋅ V
Where:
ΔP = change in velocity
ρ = density of oil
α = speed of sound in oil = 1300 m/s (=4265 ft/s)
V = velocity of oil prior to shut-in
Slow closure of the valve
Closure time longer than wave travelling to pipeline
end and back
Allow 10% internal design pressure
Maximum surge value is given by the Joukousky equation. ‘Velocity of oil’ can be
replaced by ‘change in velocity’ for cases of partial valve closure. It is apparent that
lower fluid velocities give lower surge pressures.
The pressure wave resulting from a valve closure travels back up the pipeline. It is
reflected at the pipeline end and travels back down the line to the valve.
The surge pressure can be greatly reduced by slow closure of the valve. If the valve is
closed slowly, particularly if the closure time is greater than the time required for the
surge wave to travel to the pipeline end and back, the total overpressure is reduced.
To avoid increasing the strength of the pipe excessively, it is common to allow 10%
extra design pressure and slow the rate of valve closure. Closure time may be 2 minutes
or more.
WALL THICKNESS FOR BURST -

SUMMARY
Various influences
Thick enough for pressure
Bending during installation and at spans
Risers and landfalls
Surge pressures
Any questions?
The wall thickness design of a pipe starts off by picking a minimum thickness for
pressure containment and then checking for other loading – particularly bending –
during installation or if spanning is expected.
In some countries, the wall thickness design of pipelines is prescribed in their national
legislation.
Pipe sizing 95
WALL THICKNESS FOR COLLAPSE
HYDROSTATIC COLLAPSE
Local buckle in pipeline due to external

pressure
Increases with external pressure and
ovality
Resisted by wall thickness and yield
strength
Deep water pipelines can often have periods when the external hydrostatic water
pressure exceeds the internal pressure. The governing criterion for wall thickness and
material grade can be resistance to collapse (due to external loads) rather than resistance
to bursting (due to internal loads).
COLLAPSE CRITERIA
Characteristic resistance for external

pressure pc is given by
(pc − pel ) ⋅ (pc2 − pp2 ) = pc ⋅ pel ⋅ pp ⋅ fo ⋅

D
t
(DNV OS-F101)
Where:
■ D = diameter of pipeline
■ fo = pipe ovality = (Dmax - Dmin)/D
■ pc = characteristic resistance pressure to collapse of pipeline
■ pel = elastic collapse pressure for a perfect tube
■ pp = plastic collapse pressure for a perfect tube
■ t = wall thickness
Collapse depends on ovality, caused by fabrication tolerances and subsequent handling.

For example, on reel barges, the pipe is deformed during storage and installation.
External collapse of thin walled pipes is primarily driven by the elastic properties of the
steel. Ovalisation of the pipe results in the hydrostatic forces on the flat sides being
much larger than the hydrostatic forces on the ends. This creates moments within the
pipe wall that tend to increase the ovalisation. When elastic and plastic resistance to this
ovalisation is overcome, a runaway flattening of the pipe occurs.
The above criterion is taken from DNV OS-F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems 2000
(commonly called DNV 2000). The characteristic resistance is given by solving the
above equation (which is equation 5.18 in the DNV code) for external overpressure of
an oval pipe.
This is essentially the same approach as PD 8010, although the inherent safety factor is
different, the ovality (fo) is defined differently and the code has a less conservative lower
limit.
Pipe sizing 97
ADD BENDING AND COMPRESSION
Hydrostatic collapse made worse by

bending and compression
Criteria from DNV OS-F101
2
⎛ Md ⎛ Sd ⎞ ⎞⎟ ⎛
2
⎛ pe ⎞ ⎞
2
⎜γ γ + γ SC γ m ⎜⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ SC m α c M p α S ⎟ ⎟ + ⎜ γ SC γ m ⎜ p ⎟ ⎟ ≤ 1
⎝ ⎝ c p⎠ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠⎠
Two critical combinations

Installation - high external pressure with bending
Operation - high thermal axial forces
Where:
■ Md = design bending moment
■ Mp = bending moment capacity
■ Sd = design axial compressive force
■ Sp = axial force plastic capacity
■ pc = characteristic collapse pressure
■ pe = external overpressure
■ αc = flow stress parameter
■ γm = partial factor for material resistance
■ γSC = partial factor for safety class
The onset of collapse is exacerbated by bending and axial compression.
Critical conditions are:

■ during pipelay when both the external pressure differential across the pipewall and
the bending are high
■ during hot operation when the axial compressive loads can be high
This is equation 5.24 given by DNV OS-F101 for pipes subjected to bending moment,
effective axial force and external overpressure.
DIFFERENT FORMULAE
Conflicting empirical formulae for low D/t

Safety factors not always explicit
No agreement between API 1111 and DNV OS-F101
Bending during laying operations
16000
14000
12000
Water depth m (ft)

8000
6000
4000
2000
Comparison of
existing collapse
prediction methods
Because it is only recently that pipelines have been laid at extreme depths, some codes
do not define the method for calculating collapse pressure.
There are various formulae available for predicting the collapse of pipe.
As illustrated in the figure above, although there is good correlation between the
equations in the shallower depths, there is significant variation in the predictions in the
deep water, low D/t region.
Even the use of the latest API 1111 and DNV OS-F101 codes results in the selection of
different wall thicknesses.
Assessment of the additional bending during installation needs to be included along with
the response behaviour of the particular laybarge chosen.
Pipe sizing 99
CASE STUDY - BLUESTREAM
Russia to Turkey, Black Sea, twin pipelines

Depth: 2150 m (7054 ft)
Diameter: 610 mm (24 in)
Wall thickness 31.8 mm (1.25 in)
Experimental work to confirm collapse
behaviour
As a consequence of concern regarding the collapse behaviour of thick walled pipelines,

the Bluestream project undertook experimental work to confirm the collapse behaviour
for their specific application.
BLUESTREAM SOLUTION
Comparison of Existing Collapse Prediction Methods
16000
14000
Water depth m (ft)
12000
8000
6000 Bluestream
design case
4000
2000
D/t for Bluestream is 19.182 at maximum water depth of 2150 m (7154ft).
The selected solution indicates that the more conservative predictions may be more
appropriate in deep water. An allowance must always be made for the installation
stresses (bending, spanning and axial) in addition to the pure collapse pressures for the
line once installed at depth.
HYDROSTATIC COLLAPSE -
SUMMARY
Causes of hydrostatic collapse

External overpressure and ovality of laid pipe
Resisted by
Wall thickness and yield strength of steel
Additional considerations
Bending and axial compressive forces
Different formulae and approaches
Bluestream used testing
Any questions?
We have looked at the causes of hydrostatic collapse which are principally the external
overpressure of the pipeline during laying when there is no counterbalancing internal
fluid pressure. However, the ovality of a laid pipeline has a major influence on the
pressure needed to initiate collapse.
The collapse is resisted by increasing either the wall thickness or the yield strength of the
steel.
Since such buckles are most likely to occur during laying, some additional considerations
must be allowed for. There are stresses induced in bending (such as at touchdown for S,
J-lay or Reel lay methods) and axial compressive forces again due to hydrostatic
pressures.
We have shown that different formulae give different solutions in terms of D/t
especially at depth. The Bluestream Project used a conservative formula backed up by
testing of the pipelines.
The consequence of the initial collapse results in a local buckle. However, this can turn
into a running buckle which zips along pipeline until it reaches shallow water or a stiffer
section of pipeline. The common way to provide this extra stiffness is to fit buckle
arrestors at regular intervals.
Pipe sizing 101
RIGID STEEL PIPE MANUFACTURE
LINEPIPE OPTIONS
Rigid steel pipe manufacturing methods

Seamless
Used for pipework - smaller diameters and thicker walls
HFI
High frequency induction welded pipe
Continuous process from strip steel
SAW
Submerged arc welded pipe
Usually UOE process to form pipe
Three-roller bending of plate for larger diameters
Spiral weld pipe for larger diameters from strip steel
Three roller bending and spiral welded pipe
There are three methods of manufacturing rigid steel pipe for the oil and gas industry.
These are seamless, HFI and SAW.
Seamless pipe is commonly used for smaller diameter lines subsea, especially for the reel
lay method where a thick wall is advantageous. It is also often used for manufacturing
process pipework in refineries where the pipe needs to span between supports.
A second method uses continuous steel strip to form pipes. High frequency induction
(HFI) welding effectively limits the thickness of pipe wall and so it cannot be used to
make the thicker pipes. The width of the steel strip also limits the maximum
circumference of the pipe. In USA, the term electric resistance welding (ERW) is used
instead of HFI. Strictly speaking, this is a similar process using copper anodes to deliver
the current. It is still in use for the manufacture of small structural hollow sections –
both square and circular up to 6in (150 mm) – but which is prohibited for use on
hydrocarbon pipelines.
There are three different types of submerged arc welding (SAW) processes used to make
line pipe. The UOE method is when a plate of steel is first formed into a U shape, then
rounded into an O and welded, and then finally expanded (E) to form the finished pipe
shape.
Maximum plate dimensions and the forming mills limit the diameter of pipe that can be
made using UOE. When the diameter needs to be bigger than that commonly used in
oil and gas (but often required by the water industry), a similar SAW process can be
used. The plates are curved into the pipe shape using three-roller-bending and then the
short pup sections are welded together to form the 12 m (40ft) long linepipe.
An alternative SAW method forms the strip into a spiral (just like a cardboard tube) and
can make any diameter of pipeline. However, it is not often used for offshore
hydrocarbon lines because of perceived problems with tolerances and subsequent
forming of the field butt welds close to the diagonal seams. Additionally, there is much
more weld required than for any other method and inevitably some must be at the
bottom of the pipe when laid. Intelligent pig inspections may not identify all down-
stream weld defects because the sensor may skip over the frequent beads.
SOURCE OF MATERIALS
Iron ore
Smelter
Pig iron
Steel ingot Blast furnace

Vacuum degassing
Rolling
Strip mill Plate mill

Hot billet Steel strip Steel plate
Seamless mill HFI pipe mill UOE pipe mill

Seamless pipe HFI pipe UOE (SAW) pipe
The above diagram shows the routes for the materials from smelting iron ore, to making
steel, to forming the steel ingot into plate and strip, to the formation of pipes.
Modern mills use vacuum degassing method to remove gas from the steel whilst molten.
The alternative is to repeatedly roll an ingot or to cast the steel directly as a plate. These
methods are still undertaken at older facilities.
Note that only the seamless method is classed as hot-forming. The other two processes
use steel strip or plate which has been pre-rolled to the correct thickness. This improves
the pipe wall tolerances though it means that a seam weld is needed.
Pipe sizing 103
MANUFACTURING METHODS
1. Seamless
2. High frequency induction (HFI) welded
3. UOE or submerged arc welded (SAW)
35
Wall thickness in mm (inch)
1¼
30
25 1
20 1 3 ¾
15
½
10 2
5 ¼
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Outside diameter in mm (inch)
The choice of pipe manufacturing method is primarily dependent on pipe size and wall
thickness. The above graph shows approximate areas of diameter and wall thickness
available from each method.
All three methods can produce the high standards of pipe necessary for offshore
pipelines. In areas of capability overlap, cost is usually the prime driver in selecting the
manufacturing method, and the usual ranking is HFI as lowest cost, then SAW, then
seamless.
Some mills extend the range of diameters and wall thicknesses which can be achieved by
each of these methods. The graph is a guide only on typical sizes supplied worldwide.
Some plants can produce thicker walls – for example, Corus SAW mill can handle up to
50 mm (2in) and HFI pipe trials have been made at the Welding Institute up to 25 mm
(1in).
COMPARISONS
Seamless
Clean - lamination-free
Eccentricity
Thick
HFI
Successor to ERW (electric resistance welding)
Better control of thickness in strip
SAW
Thicker wall than HFI
Good control of plate thickness
Seamless has the advantage of no weld and tends to be a “clean” steel (without
laminations), suitable for use on sour duty where hydrogen-induced cracking might
otherwise be a problem. Due to the manufacturing process, the hole can be eccentric,
leading to a requirement for greater wall thickness tolerances (API 5L permits 12.5%
rather than 5% for HFI or SAW pipe). Whilst it can be made very thick, this can lead to
less than 12 m (40ft) joint lengths in the larger sizes simply due to the mass of steel
within the ingot.
This is the only method to form the pipe from hot steel. The other two methods have
laminations embedded during the rolling process within either the steel strip or plate.
They form the pipe from essentially cold steel and have an axial weld.
HFI (High Frequency Induction) is the most recent process, and produces low cost, high
quality tube from strip.
SAW pipe is also known as seam welded and UOE.
With HFI and SAW, control of the thickness of strip or plate is better, but the seam
needs careful checking since the highest stresses are normally in the hoop direction.
Pipe sizing 105
SEAMLESS PIPE MANUFACTURE
The seamless pipe manufacturing process is generally used for small to medium diameter
pipe.
The process is as follows:

■ Heat cylindrical billet in furnace
■ Billet passes through rollers and is pierced to form central hole (see picture below)
■ The pipe is further formed with a central mandrel to produce the inside diameter
■ A stretch reducing mill is then used to obtain final pipe dimensions
■ The pipes are rotated as they are allowed to cool before final NDT (Non-
Destructive Testing), pressure testing and inspection.
3-ROLL PIERCER
By angling the three rollers on the diagonal, the hot billet can be rotated to form a
cylinder at the same time as it is being forced onto the piercer.
The rapid speed of pipe manufacture is determined by the rate of cooling of the billet.
MANNESMAN SEAMLESS - VIDEO
The Vallourec & Mannesman plug rolling mill produces seamless pipes in sizes between
177 mm and 355 mm (7in and 14in) diameter with wall thicknesses of between 6 mm
and 30 mm (¼in and 1¼in).
The video shows the manufacture of up to six strands of tube-making rounds using
continuous casting methods from the liquid steel. These are 175 mm, 225 mm or 270
mm (6.9in, 8.8in or 10.6in) in diameter. These are cut to length and delivered to the pipe
mill.
‘Centred’ billets (for handling) up to 4.7 m (15½ft) long and 2.1 tonnes in weight are first
preheated to about 700°C (1290°F) before placing in the rotating hearth furnace. Here,
they are further heated to around 1280°C (2340°F) and soaked to ensure optimal heat
distribution through the cross section.
Hot billets are removed at 30 s cycles and sent to the rolling mill, where they are pierced
using a die and helical rollers. This process forms the hollow tube and elongates the
bloom by five-fold. From here, the plug rolling mill reduces the wall thickness and the
reeler smoothes the inside and outside faces using helical rollers.
A further reheating process to 900°C (1650°F) and descaling is required before the
bloom is sent to the 10 stand sizing mill, where the correct diameter is formed. The pipe
is then cooled and straightened. Heat treatment may be used to attain the finished
hardness of steel. NDT testing, inspection and marking the now-cut pipe ensures the
quality of the finished product.
Other treatment such as coating with polyethylene, threading or upsetting of one end
(not shown) may be required prior to delivery to the client.
Pipe sizing 107
HFI WELDED PIPE PROCESS
High frequency induction (HFI) welded pipe is a continuous manufacturing process as

follows:
■ Coil is trimmed to the correct width and individual coils are flash-welded together
■ The coil is then rolled into a tube using forming mills
■ The tubular shape is induction welded and ultrasonically tested online
■ The weld bead is removed using planes when hot so the finished weld is not visible
■ The pipe is cut to length and may be passed for further processing to a stretch
reduction mill depending on size required
Whilst not shown on the above diagram, there are storage devices prior to the forming
mill that allows the plate preparation to continue independently of the welding, so that
stopping one does not immediately stop the whole line.
FINISHED FORMING
Smaller diameter pipe is processed slightly to its finished diameter, wall thickness and
length in the standardising or stretch reducing mill.
The finished pipes are identified and weld position highlighted.
The pipe is hydraulically tested.
This same process is used to manufacture circular and rectangular hollow steel sections
for buildings.
CORUS HFI PROCESS - VIDEO

Pipe sizing 109
The video follows the manufacture of line pipe in the 20in mill in Hartlepool through
the following stages:
■ Joining of steel coils to form a continuous strip
■ Forming before welding
■ Welding and NDT (non-destructive testing)
■ Heat treatment of the HAZ (heat affected zone)
■ Cutting into lengths
■ Quality of the line pipe is recorded by an individual number on each section,
ensuring traceability
The photograph above shows the continuous length of pipe being cut into standard 12
m (40ft) lengths.
SAW PROCESS : UOE FORMING
Submerged arc welding (SAW) permits thicker plate to be joined than HFI.
Generally used for large diameter pipes, the first half of the UOE process consists of the
following:
■ Plate edge preparation and pre-forming
■ Rolling (or die form, e.g. UOE) to form cylinder as per the picture below
■ Edge closure and tack weld seam
U PRESS
Tags have been attached for the subsequent welding and the plate width is trimmed to
the correct circumference. The edges are crimped to help with further processes.
It is then bent in the U press using massive rams first to push down, and then rams
either side of the side rollers are brought together to complete the first forming
operation.
A second press (not shown) finalises the forming of the pipe into the O shape, at which
stage the joint is tack-welded.
SAW WELDING
Pipe sizing 111
The pipe is welded using granular flux piled around the two edges of the pipe.
With thicker plate, it is common for two passes of SAW. The first is undertaken on the
inside of the pipe. The second (as shown above) is with the units on the outside of the
pipe. (A double V shape weld preparation is needed for this at the earlier edge trimming
stage.)
The picture shows the pile of white granular flux piled onto the joint. Surplus flux is
being vacuumed off to the right and the still hot, welded seam is revealed.
SAW PROCESS: NDT AND EXPAND
The remainder of the SAW process is as follows:

■ Initial NDT radiographic examination of the welds
■ Mechanical expansion
■ Hydraulic testing
■ Further NDT of the welds including ultra sonic examination and radiography
■ Heat treatment may be used as necessary
■ Machine ends
The following are pictures of the ultrasonic inspection and the mechanical expander.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
The weld quality is carefully checked by automatic ultrasonic inspection.
A pass/fail is determined automatically by computer. Any defects are flagged for

inspection.
MECHANICAL EXPANSION
Mechanical expansion brings the diameter to tolerance and also improves the physical
properties of the steel.
This unit expands the pipe in steps down its length.

Pipe sizing 113
SEAM WELDED PIPE MANUFACTURE

VIDEO
The CORUS video showed SAW seam-welded pipe manufacture.
Points to note are:

■ Steel plate arrives at the mill and is carefully prepared for forming.
■ Tabs are added along with a unique number, for traceability
■ The plate is formed into a pipe
■ The welding process begins with a tack weld along the seam before the internal and
external SAW welds are completed in a single pass each.
■ At each stage the integrity is checked with ultra-sound.
■ The pipes are then expanded mechanically to the correct size and to within the
correct tolerances.
The photograph above shows the etched micrograph of the submerged arc weld with
the internal and external passes (the pipe must be rotated so both can be executed from
above). The heat affected zone (HAZ) is also clearly seen in the plate metal to either
side of the welds.
OTHER MANUFACTURING
METHODS
Three-roller bending
Large diameter / thick wall
Short drum lengths
SAW seam and butt welds
Spiral pipe
Continuous process
Internal and external SAW
Low pressure in water industry
There are other methods of manufacture but these are not commonly used for oil and
gas pipelines offshore.
When the pipe diameter becomes large – 1066.8 mm (42in) and above in some plants –
or the wall thickness is excessive, it is necessary to roll plate longitudinally using three
roller bending techniques. These can then be connected using multiple SAW welds and
the short drum lengths connected with butt welds.
Spiral pipe is commonly found in the low pressure water industry and to a limited extent,
for land-lines, where repairs can more easily be undertaken. Like HFI, it is a continuous
process but larger diameters can be manufactured. The angle of the machine is adjusted
to suit the width of coil steel and pipe size.
Pipe sizing 115
STEEL PIPE MANUFACTURE -

SUMMARY
Rigid steel line pipe

Source of materials
Hot billet, strip or plate steel
Manufacturing methods
Seamless
HFI
UOE
Water industry large diameter pipe
Three-roller bending and spiral pipe
Any questions?
Line pipe for subsea usage can be rigid or flexibles. We will look at flexibles in a later
module.
Here we examined the three common manufacturing methods for rigid steel pipe. They
each require a different form of steel as input.
Each has a different range of diameter and wall thickness. The tolerances achieved by
each method are also different.
We mentioned two other methods for the manufacture of larger diameter, low pressure
lines used by the water industry.
BUCKLES
WHAT ARE BUCKLES?
Scope for confusion with the term, ‘buckle’

Three pipe failure modes
Local buckle
Caused by hydrostatic collapse and/or bending
Strut buckle
Lateral or upheaval buckle, due to internal pressure and
temperature rise
Running buckle
Initiated by local buckle, driven by hydrostatic pressure
Two resulting conditions
Wet or dry
Depends on whether there is leakage
Just about everything the pipeline engineer fears may go wrong with his pipeline tends to
be called a buckle, so there is plenty of scope for confusion.
There are three distinct mechanisms and two end results:

■ local buckle: an example of a local buckle would be the crease and hinge caused by
bending a copper central heating pipe too far. Local buckles are caused by bending
in this way and can be exacerbated by hydrostatic pressure
■ running buckle: we have already described running buckles as the complete
flattening of the pipe due to hydrostatic pressure. They need an initiator such as a
dent or a local buckle to start them off, but thereafter the energy comes from the
water pressure
■ strut buckle: an example of a strut buckle is the bow caused by pushing together the
ends of a ruler. This type of buckle occurs in both lateral and upheaval buckles in
pipelines where the compression forces are induced by the internal pressure and
temperature rise
■ a wet buckle indicates that there is a hole in the line
■ a dry buckle indicates that there is no perforation of the line
Pipe sizing 117
WHY ARE BUCKLES A PROBLEM?
Combination of
External overpressure Local pipeline buckle
Bending
Axial compression
Geometric imperfection
Pipe wall collapses
Blocking pipe bore
May cause a leak
Wet buckle
Buckles are caused by a combination of various conditions.
The main fear in all cases is blockage or rupture of pipes. In the case of the strut buckle,
the global bending is not so much of a problem as the fact that it induces high levels of
local bending at the mid-point of the buckle, which could induce a local buckle.
We will now consider lateral and upheaval buckles in more detail.
EXAMPLE OF LATERAL BUCKLING
The above picture shows a side scan sonar image of a lateral buckle, where a small
diameter flowline has snaked as a result of a modest 50°C (122°F) temperature rise.
A high temperature, high-pressure pipeline laid on the seabed is prone to lateral

buckling. Attempts have been made to lay a pipeline in a deliberately snaked
configuration to promote multiple lateral buckles so that the strain levels are controlled.
However, it is rare that an S-laybarge can achieve the frequency of snaking needed to
achieve this (due to the high lay tension).
DESIGN FOR LATERAL BUCKLING
Pipeline on seabed, expanding due to

temperature and pressure loads
Can be accommodated during design
Ensure that there are multiple small buckles rather
than one big concentrated one
A lateral buckle from a

single defect at midpoint
Allowing the pipeline on the seabed to snake due to pressure and temperature loads can
realistically be accommodated during design, and had probably been occurring for many
years before survey techniques were able to detect and measure it.
The key here is to avoid all the expansion being taken out at a single location. Instead, it
is preferable to induce large numbers of small lateral buckles along the length of pipe.
These would then dissipate the strain harmlessly.
Pipe sizing 119
UPHEAVAL BUCKLING
Buried pipe trying to expand

Due to pressure and temperature
But has nowhere to go
Insufficient depth of burial
Likely to cause plastic hinge or pipe rupture
Snag for trawling gear
Pipeline buckle
Uplift
Axial movement ‘fed-in’
by thermal expansion
Initial out-of-straightness
In previous slides, we noted that lateral buckling takes advantage of the lack of
constraint in an unburied pipeline. In the case of a buried pipeline, it does not have the
ability to snake laterally. Instead the pressure and temperature loads are locked in and
the pipeline acts as a coiled spring.
The diagram above shows an upheaval buckle where the pipe initially has a slight upward
imperfection which becomes amplified by the compressive load. It reaches the point
where the forces moving the buckle upwards exceed the overburden offered by the soil.
The result is the pipe erupting through the soil and forming a loop. These are typically 5
to 10 m (16 to 33ft) high above the seabed and have a 40 m (130ft) wavelength.
The bend at the apex may be so severe as to induce a local buckle and/or rupture. Even
if the pipe survives the initial upheaval buckle, the next fishing vessel to cross the
location will probably tangle with the pipeline and may break it.
When the buckle has been identified and fishermen advised (but prior to rectification), if
hooking still occurs, then the fault may lie with the trawlermen. However, it would not
be in the oil company’s best interest to sue!
UPHEAVAL BUCKLING PREVENTION
Restrict pipe movement

Out-of-straightness survey after trenching
Sufficient rockdump and backfill to prevent upward
movement
Monitor cover during operation
Heat exchanger to reduce inlet
temperature
If the pipeline to be buried is of a sufficient temperature and pressure to be at risk of

upheaval buckling, then it is necessary to prevent the upheaval buckling by design.
The techniques are as follows:

■ To conduct an out-of-straightness survey looking particularly for any hog bends
(upward bends) in the pipeline profile.
■ Apply sufficient rock dump and backfill to give an overburden on the pipeline
sufficient to prevent its upward movement in the first place. It is then necessary to
monitor this thickness of rock dump to make sure that it remains in place
throughout the pipeline design life.
■ As an alternative, it is possible through process design on the platform or by
placement of a heat exchanger spoolpiece on the inlet to the flowline to reduce the
inlet temperature and hence the propensity to upheaval buckling.
Pipe sizing 121
BUCKLE PROPAGATION
Propagation pressure
Less than collapse hydrostatic pressure
Hence once started, buckle ‘zips’ along
pipeline
fy ⋅ α fab ⎛ t ⎞ 2.5
p pr = 35 ⋅ ⋅⎜ ⎟
γ m ⋅ γ SC ⎝ D ⎠
Propagation
Where:
■ D = nominal outside diameter
■ fy = yield strength
■ ppr = plastic collapse pressure
■ t = nominal wall thickness (uncorroded)
■ αfab = fabrication factor
■ γm = partial factor for material resistance
■ γSC = partial factor for safety class
The external pressure required to cause a buckle to propagate is lower than is required to
collapse the pipe. Hence if the pipe is not designed to resist buckle propagation, any
local buckle accidentally introduced will propagate. This is not normally a problem for
pipelines installed in shallow water, where wall thickness is governed by internal pressure
containment. As water depths increase, buckle propagation design begins to dominate.
It is possible to design pipelines to exceed the buckle propagation pressure and design
instead to the external collapse pressure with adequate mitigation measures. These
include the use of buckle arrestors to limit the damage caused if a buckle is initiated.
Since buckles are normally caused during installation, and the worst conditions for
buckle propagation also occur during installation when the pipeline is empty, this forms
the principal design case.
It is normal to design allowing 100% of any corrosion allowance as part of the wall in
the analysis because we have a new pipe during installation. During its operational life,
the thinner wall (due to corrosion) is not subject to the high installation bending forces.
PROPAGATING BUCKLE PRESSURE
After collapse is initiated

Constant applied external pressure remains
Causing buckle propagation
X60 carbon steel, 1% ovality

External pressure MPa (ksi)
7010
Collapse Pressure
60
Propagation Pressure
8
50 1. Increased thickness ratio
40 6
prevents buckle propagation
30 2. Fixed thickness ratio;

4
20 1 buckle will propagate until
2 pressure reduces
10 2 (to very shallow water)
0 D/t
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
This graph compares the collapse and propagation pressures for an API X60 pipe with
an ovality of 1% over a range of D/t ratios.
For a particular D/t ratio, there will be a maximum water depth that the pipe can
withstand.
However, if the pipe does start to buckle, we can derive two results from the graph:
■ By tracing from the blue line horizontally to the left, we obtain the increased ratio
and thus the wall thickness needed to prevent buckle propagation.
■ By tracing vertically down to the red line below, we obtain the overpressure and thus
the water depth to which the buckle will propagate.
Pipe sizing 123
BUCKLE ARRESTORS
Having initiated a local buckle, will the

water pressure flatten the whole pipeline?
Buckle arrestors
Most useful during installation
Integral ring buckle arrestor Concrete weight

coating
Grout
Heavy-walled pipe joint Grouted external ring

integral cylinder buckle arrestor buckle arrestor
The onset of a local buckle is most likely to occur under combined load conditions, i.e.
when the hydrostatic pressure is combined with bending and axial load. Pipelay is a
critical condition when high bending is combined with the hydrostatic pressure. If a
local buckle does occur, it will initiate at the location of highest combined load.
Once initiated, the buckle can propagate beyond the region of combined loading because
the pipe’s resistance to hydrostatic collapse is reduced either side of the buckle by the
flattening and increased ovalisation in those locations. Buckle arrestors are commonly
used at intervals along the pipeline to limit the propagation of the buckle.
A typical pipe wall 19 mm (0.75in) thick may need around 50 mm (2in) thickness to
arrest a buckle. These would be located at perhaps 100 m to 500 m (330ft to 1640 ft)
centres along the pipeline.
The spacing is determined by the method proposed to rectify the buckle - it may be the
size of the tensioners on the barge (which are needed to pull the damaged section back
on deck). Larger tensioners can recover more flattened (and non-buoyant) pipe, so
spacing can be increased.
Buckle arrestors will stop running buckles after a local buckle has formed at any time.
However, they are most useful during installation when the effects of bending are
greatest: the laybarge can stop and recover the flattened section. During operation,
however, a major operation is required to mobilise equipment to cut out and replace part
of the pipeline.
SOLUTION TO RUNNING BUCKLES
Allow for ovality, bending and tension

Make pipe sufficiently thick
Insert buckle arrestors
Distance between dependant on barge capability
and procedure for recovery
The solution for design against hydrostatic collapse must take account of the ovality of
the line pipe supplied and installed, along with the predicted stresses due to bending and
tension during pipelay.
In deep water, the wall thickness is generally greater than that needed just for the
operating and test pressure of the contents.
Where buckles may propagate, then buckle arrestors need to be added at regular
intervals.
The spacing is dependant on the risk assessment and the procedure proposed to recover
from a buckle.
Pipe sizing 125
BUCKLES - SUMMARY
Three types of buckle

Local buckle during installation
Global or strut buckles
Lateral - horizontal
Upheaval – vertical
Running buckle
Two conditions
Dry or wet buckles
Buckle arrestors
Any questions?
There are three types of buckling that can occur in a pipeline. Local buckles are
generated by either a localised hydrostatic collapse or by significant bending stresses.
Running buckles result from the propagation of a local hydrostatic induced buckle.
Global buckles occur over long sections of the pipeline. Lateral and upheaval buckles
can both be categorised as global buckles and result from the expansions associated with
the thermal and pressure loads applied to the pipeline during operation.
Lateral buckles occur in the horizontal plane with pipelines resting on the seabed
surface. They are less severe than upheaval buckles as longer sections of the pipeline are
able to deflect laterally. Upheaval buckles occur when there is insufficient soil on top of
a buried pipeline to restrain the out-of-plane buckling deflections resulting from
expansion. The pipeline buckles over a relatively short length and so the strains are
concentrated into a smaller section of the pipeline than in lateral buckling.
Local buckles, running buckles and upheaval buckles are considered as failure modes and
should be avoided by design. Lateral buckles may be acceptable provided that they are
are not too severe.
PIPE DESIGN - SIZING - SUMMARY
Diameter sizing
Wall thickness determination
Bursting and hydrostatic collapse
Methods of rigid steel pipe manufacture
Seamless, HFI/ERW, UOE/SAW
Buckles
Combined bending, external overpressure,
compression and geometric imperfections
Local, strut and running
Any questions?
We have introduced the principal concepts for subsea pipeline design for diameter and
wall thickness.
The main manufacturing methods for rigid steel pipelines have been described.
The causes and means of prevention of different types of pipeline buckle have been
explained.
Materials
Materials 129
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Material selection
Strength
Corrosion resistance
Normally bare steel inside
Corrosion allowance
Corrosion inhibitors and chemical additives
Corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs)
Clad and lined pipes
Linepipe supply and welding
Titanium and composites – not for linepipe
Risers, topsides, gratings and protection covers
We examine what limitations there are in using carbon steel for pipe walls.
Selection of the material is based on a combination of strength as well as

corrosion resistance. We examine what benefits there are in using inhibitors or
other chemical protection.
Because pipelines are normally operated without an internal lining, we need to

carefully examine the effects of corrosion and find when we should select a more
expensive corrosion resistant alloy.
Clad and lined pipe construction may prove cheaper to purchase but welding can
be more difficult.
Although not used for linepipe, the use of titanium may be used for certain
sections of risers. Similarly, composite materials are used for liners and topsides
pipework as well as walkway gratings and wellhead protection covers. Use of
such materials may be more commonplace as their properties become better
known to designers and installers.
SELECTION FOR STRENGTH
WHAT PIPE MATERIAL?
Start with carbon steel
Need to look for:

Yield strength
Question coming
2 slides ahead …
please look up
from notes
In selecting a pipe material, there are two major factors we are looking for: these
are its yield strength and its corrosion resistance.
The technique is to start with common carbon steel and escalate to more
expensive solutions in order to meet the yield strength and corrosion resistance
requirements.
By ‘common carbon steel’ we mean one containing between 0.2% and 0.3%
carbon. This is slightly more than mild steel, which has less than 0.15% carbon.
Weldability is better with lower carbon content. Steels with a carbon equivalent
more than 0.4% normally require heat treatment.
Materials 131
YIELD STRENGTH
Elastic Plastic range Ultimate

stress
Stress, σ MPa (ksi)
517 (75) Necking

413 (60) Work Failure
hardening (breaks)
SMYS
Plateau of
Elastic ductility
limit
Linear E=σ/ε
0
0 0.2 0.5 15 to 20
Strain, ε (%)
What do we mean by yield strength? This is illustrated in the graph above for
grade X60 steel pipe. The vertical axis shows stress and the horizontal axis
shows strain.
If you imagine cutting a cuboid sample out of the wall of the pipeline and
stretching it, its behaviour would reflect the above graph. As you first applied
the load, it would stretch (imperceptibly) and if the load were released, the
sample would return elastically to its original size, following the line of Young’s
modulus, E. If the stress remains below the elastic limit then the material returns
to its original state when the load is released, and there is no permanent
deformation. However, if you applied a load past the elastic limit, the material
would stretch plastically. Releasing the loads within this zone would leave the
sample stretched and permanently deformed. Applying further load would cause
the sample to ‘neck’ and finally to break.
Linepipe steels can be classified by their specified minimum yield strength

(SMYS) and ultimate strength (UTS) points. The API 5L code (commonly used
for line pipe) defines SMYS as the stress needed to achieve 0.5% strain. Some
structural codes define it at 0.2% of recoverable strain (parallel to the linear
elastic line). The ratio of yield to ultimate stresses is set at a maximum of 93%.
Typically, the strain reaches between 15% and 20% before breaking.
In design, we generally seek to keep the pipeline steel in the region below SMYS.
If it goes past this, we are into strain-based design.
In the example above, the yield stress of the material is 413 MPa (megapascals).
This corresponds to 60 ksi (thousand pounds per square inch) in imperial units
and is termed grade X60, as defined in API standard 5L. In ISO 3183 (the
international linepipe code), the equivalent steel grade is L415.
CHOICE OF GRADE
Most pipelines in X52 to X65 range

Available from grades A, B through to X120
Why not go for very high strength steels
and save on weight of steel?
Ductility
Plastic deformation
Weldability
Avoidance of heat treatment
Fracture toughness
Accept defects with no brittle failure
Given that steel costs about the same per tonne regardless of grade, why should
we stick with X65 and not go for twice the strength?
The answer to this lies in terms of the ductility, toughness and weldability of the
steel.
■ Ductility is the ability of the material to deform plastically before failure.
■ Weldability means that the pipe can be welded together aboard the laybarge without
the need for heat treatment.
■ Fracture toughness is the ability of the material to accept defects (such as weld
inclusions) without these leading to brittle fracture.
As a result of these requirements, most pipeline steels come in the X52 to X65
range, although higher grades (X70 to X100) and lower grades (X42 or even
grade B) are available.
Materials 133
SELECTION FOR STRENGTH -

SUMMARY
Design based on yield stress

Maintain pipeline within elastic region
Up to 5% strain
Reel-lay and J-tube installation exceptions
Constraints
Ductility, weldability and facture toughness
Typical API 5L grades: X52 to X65
Yield 358 MPa to 448 MPa (52 ksi to 65 ksi)
Equivalent ISO 3183 grades: L360 to L450
Any questions?
Most pipeline design maintains the steel within the linear elastic region up to
0.5% strain. Notable exceptions are during construction when the wall is
deliberately pushed well into the plastic region during reel-lay and J-tube
installation.
The main constraints limiting the use of very strong pipe have been described.
We usually select grades X52 to X65 that are relatively easy to weld successfully.
SELECTION FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
WHAT CAUSES INTERNAL

CORROSION?
Three corrosion types:

Sweet corrosion, CO2
Pitting and general wastage
Sour corrosion, H2S,
Cracking and deep pitting
Highly toxic
Use ISO 3183 Class C
Oxygen corrosion (rust)
Water in flowlines
Same as external corrosion – but different solution
Sweet corrosion and sour corrosion come from hydrocarbon conditions.
Sweet corrosion manifests itself as pitting and general wastage.
Sour corrosion causes cracking in the pipe wall leading to deep pits which may
cause leakage.
Oxygen corrosion (rust) can come from water injection duty on the inside of the
pipe or seawater on the outside. Having said that, it is very rare to experience
oxygen corrosion on the outside of a subsea pipeline because it is protected by a
cathodic protection system (see ahead).
Note that ISO 3183 Class C linepipe is specifically for sour service lines. API 5L
does not have an equivalent.
Materials 135
COMBATTING INTERNAL
CORROSION
Corrosion allowance
3 to 6 mm (0.118in to 0.236in)
Use an inhibitor
Coats pipe wall
Use a CRA
316 stainless
Duplex
Nickel alloy
Use a liner/cladding
Methanol or glycol
‘Mops up’ water
In designing for internal corrosion, we use common carbon steel as a starting

point and escalate from there to find a solution.
A typical escalation sequence is as follows:

■ Apply a corrosion allowance of 3 to 6 mm (0.118in to 0.236in) of sacrificial steel. If
the duty requires much more than 6 mm (¼in) of steel, it is probably too aggressive
and there is a risk of isolated pits penetrating the wall during the life of the pipeline.
The use of an inhibitor might therefore be justified.
■ Corrosion inhibitors can be added to the flow. They provide a protective coating to
the inside wall of flowlines and are developed to suit the individual application.
Corrosion inhibitors typically slow the rate of corrosion by a factor of 10.
■ If inhibitors would still not be sufficiently effective, use a corrosion-resistant alloy
(CRA) - such as a stainless steel or nickel alloy - for the pipe, or line the inside of the
pipe with a 3 mm to 5 mm layer of CRA. CRAs tend to have a material cost of
three to ten times that of carbon steel and are also two to three times slower to lay
due to increased welding times. This results in pipeline costs being up by a factor of
three to six, so are not an option to be embarked upon lightly.
■ Polyethylene or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) liners have been used successfully in
water-injection lines as a cladding to protect a carbon steel pipe from oxygen
corrosion. However, there are material problems to be resolved (particularly the
collapse of the liner) before they are used in hydrocarbon duty. They are
considerably cheaper than corrosion resistant alloys, being about double the cost of
carbon steel.
Methanol and glycol (for gas pipelines) are added to pipelines to absorb water,
binding to it at a molecular level. They mop up free water, preventing it forming
acids with any H2S or CO2 present. They are also added for process reasons (to
prevent hydrates or wax formation) rather than to prevent corrosion, but if they
are present they will enhance the effectiveness of corrosion inhibitors. These
additives need to be separated at the terminal and returned to the field. One way
of doing this is via a piggyback line, as shown in the above picture.
CORROSION INHIBITORS
Inhibitor vaporises
Migrates to recessed
areas and cavities
Condenses on surface
Ions dissolve in
moisture film
Ions form protective
film Pipeline section showing active VCI
protection in all three phases :
liquid, inter-phase and vapour phase
Corrosion Inhibitor
Courtesy: Cortec® Corporation
The slide details the process by which corrosion inhibitors work. However, at
the interface of the oil and brine, preferential corrosion can occur to produce
‘tramlines’ along the length of the pipe.
There are various methods for introducing corrosion inhibitors to pipeline

systems.
The main methods are as follows:

■ Continuous Injection - This is the preferred method to give reliable corrosion
control. The inhibitor is injected through an injection line at rates from 2 ppm to
100 ppm according to the corrosivity of the fluid.
■ Batch Treatment - This can be used where no injection facilities are available.
Usually batched through a pig launcher in a diluted form of diesel/kerosene.
Batches normally range from 80 to 400 litres (20 to 100 gal US) per week depending
on size of pipeline and corrosivity of fluid.
Materials 137
CORROSION-RESISTANT ALLOYS
CRA properties
More expensive to purchase than carbon steel
Long lead times – limited worldwide supply
Strength and other properties
Strength, density, thermal expansion and conductivity
Product composition for selection
Shorter lengths and slower to weld
Common types
316 stainless, duplex, nickel alloy
Cheapest to dearest – but improved resistance
13% chrome difficult to weld
Corrosion-resistant alloys are far more expensive to purchase per tonne than
carbon steel with the common duplex grade about five times the cost.
With a limited number of manufacturers, there are long lead times. A single
pipeline project may use a significant percentage of the worldwide supply.
Their properties differ with some being notably different from that of carbon
steel.
Thick wall seamless CRA pipes may only be available in short lengths of 9 m or 6
m (30ft or 20ft) and butt welding operations may take twice as long for duplex as
that for carbon steel.
Selection of such materials needs careful examination of the product

composition. With the presence of H2S, hydrogen-induced cracking of the wall
may still occur.
Common grades are listed above in increasing cost. However, the most
expensive grades are the most resistant to corrosion. For example, grade 316 is
only resistant to sweet corrosion, duplex is resistant to sweet and low levels of
H2S, whilst nickel alloys resist sweet and high levels of H2S.
Some grades are notoriously difficult to weld.

INTERNAL CORROSION - SUMMARY
Three causes of internal corrosion

Product composition – CO2, H2S, H2O
Different effects – pitting or general loss
Corrosion allowance
Chemical injection - inhibitor
CRA
Cladding – hydrocarbon lines
PE liners – water injection line
Any questions?
The product composition provides an indication of the content of the line. With
carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide or water in the line, it is likely that different
forms of corrosion may occur.
For low levels of attack, the initial approach of providing additional wall
thickness may be sufficient.
It is best to use a piggyback line to inject inhibitor before moving to exotic

materials such as corrosion resistant alloys.
Savings may be made by using the CRA as a cladding inside oil or gas lines.
Water injection lines installed using the reel-lay or bundle methods may demand
the use of PE liners.
Materials 139
CLAD AND LINED PIPES
CRA-CLAD FLOWLINES
Combines corrosion resistance of CRA

with strength of carbon steel
Thin inner layer 3 mm or 5 mm (⅛in or ¼in)
Metallurgically or mechanically-bonded
Seamless – explosive or cast
UOE – rolled and seam welded
Care needed at ends
Special welding techniques
Careful alignment tolerances
Ignore cladding in strength calculations
Young’s modulus and expansion characteristics
By using a thin layer of CRA on the inside of a pipeline, it is possible to use a strong
carbon steel pipe for highly corrosive product. The purchase cost is less than a thick-
walled wholly CRA linepipe and because we can take advantage of the stronger grades of
steel, it may result in a thinner wall overall.
These pipes are usually limited to flowlines because it is more cost-effective to take out
corrosive product at the facility than to clad a whole length of export line.Commonly,
the cladding is 2 mm to 3 mm thick on pipelines less than 328.3 mm (12in) and up to 5
mm on larger diameters.
A number of techniques have been used to metallurgically or mechanically-bond the

inner cladding to the pipe, depending on the manufacturing method and diameter.
These include:
■ Rolling of plate ‘sandwiches’, then UOE rolling and welding the layers separately
along the seam
■ Explosive bonding followed by rolling, roll bonding for UOE pipes
■ High pressure sintering/diffusion bonding a layer of CRA
■ A layer of CRA being ‘buttered on’ to the pipe as a weld material
■ And even spun casting.
Post-manufacture heat treatment is needed to restore the properties of the cladding and
the carbon steel pipe.
Because of the thinness of the cladding, it is important that care be taken with alignment
at the ends for the butt welds. In some cases, it is possible to weld the liner and the pipe
itself with the same high grade alloy. In this instance, buttering of the weld bevel is
required.
With other combinations, it is necessary to weld the inner section separately from the
outer using different welding wire and techniques. TIG is often used for the cladding
and first pass of the outer pipe, and NDT of this is required before continuing with the
remainder of the weld. Cladding therefore slows the field weld process considerably,
with far higher rates of rejects: it may take three times longer to butt weld clad pipe
compared with simple carbon steel.
PLASTIC-LINED PIPE
Internal water corrosion protection

Medium density polyethylene (MDPE) liner
PE pipe
Steel pipe string
Tension
Shrink wrap capping Swagelining die

FBE
Carbon
steel pipe CRA
Field
PE liner weld
Joint make-up is time consuming at load-on

Feasible with only 1 joint per 500 m (1640ft) string
When steel pipe is to be carrying significant amounts of water, then internal

corrosion becomes an issue. This is a particular concern for water injection
flowlines with long service lives. One solution is to use a medium density
polyethylene (MDPE) liner pipe, inserted into the steel pipeline that seals the
steel against contact with the water.
The process of lining the steel pipe with the MDPE liner is known as
Swagelining, this process is illustrated above. It requires that the MDPE liner has
an outer diameter slightly larger than the inner diameter of the steel pipe. The
liner is then pulled through the die and steel pipe under tension. The tension
through the die reduces the diameter of the liner enough for it to pass through
the steel pipe. Once pulled through, the tension is released and the liner attempts
to return to its original diameter. This then creates a tight fit between the liner
and the steel pipe.
To connect two sections of lined pipe together then the connection is made as
illustrated above. Two short sections of pipe made from a corrosion resistant
alloy (CRA) are welded to the end of each steel pipe joint. A larger diameter cap
Materials 141
is then placed and welded over the whole joint. The two sections of MDPE are
then positioned to ensure the water contents will only contact the CRA pipe
sections.
The make-up of the joints for plastic lined pipe is a time consuming process,
which makes the process uneconomical if using the S-lay or J-lay methods.
Reeling has the advantage that the pipe strings are fabricated onshore in 500 m
(1640 ft) lengths. It is then possible to swage line these long pipe strings in a
single activity onshore, prior to reeling the string onto the spool. This then
means only one joint is required for each 500m pipe string. It then becomes
viable to use plastic lined pipe for reeling operations.
This type of lined pipe has been used on the Foinaven field for the water
injection flowlines. The field is west of the Shetland Isles at a depth of between
396 m (1300 ft) and 607 m (2000 ft). The depth meant that the water injection
flowlines would have to survive their required 25 year service life without
maintenance. Development of the field began in 1996 and 15 km (50000 ft) of
254 mm (10 in) pipe and 2.8 km (9300 ft) of 203 mm (8 in) PE lined pipe were
installed by reeling from the Norlift vessel.
PE-LINED PIPE CONSIDERATIONS
Costly connection system

Used with long stalks/strings
Limits use to reel lay and bundles
Land-based assembly methods
Used with water injection lines
Better protection than internal epoxy coating
Difficult to assure internal field joint epoxy coatings
Not subject to erosion/wear from particles in water
Specified by certain clients
The main problem with PE-lined pipe relates to the field joints. It is not possible
to continuously coat the whole length of the line and field joints. It is necessary
to use a CRA field joint system which is too costly to undertake at every 12 m
(40ft) pipe joint.
This limits its use to land-based assembly methods such as reel lay and bundles
when lengths up to 500 m can be threaded before PE recovery takes place.
Nevertheless, it is the only system permitted by leading clients for water injection
lines. The alternative is to coat the inside of these lines with either FBE or epoxy
paint. However, severe corrosion of such lines has often occurred and has been
linked to erosion from particles in the water or poor field joint repairs.
CLAD AND LINED PIPELINES -

SUMMARY
Clad pipe
Corrosive hydrocarbon products
Sweet and sour service
Thin bonded layer of CRA
Cheaper than wholly CRA
Difficulties with welding
PE-lined pipe
Used for water-injection lines
Specified by leading clients
Limited to reel-lay and bundles
because of expensive connections
Any questions?
Opportunities to minimise corrosion with corrosive hydrocarbons or water

injection lines are provided by cladding or lining the inside of a carbon steel line.
Cladding is cheaper than providing linepipe out of CRA but does present
difficulties with the butt welds.
PE-lining is limited to reel-lay and bundles because of costly CRA connections at

the field joints.
Materials 143
TITANIUM AND COMPOSITES
TITANIUM PROPERTIES
Good strength to weight ratio

Relatively low E to strength ratio
High proof to UTS ratio
Good fatigue performance
Properties of Ti-6AI-4V annealed rod
0.2% proof stress 938 MPa (136ksi)
Tensile strength 1007 MPa (146ksi)
Elongation on 5D 14%
Reduction in area 40%
In its pure form, titanium has a comparatively low strength and few applications.
However, when combined with other elements to form alloys, the material
properties can be greatly enhanced.
Titanium has a relatively low elastic stiffness (Young’s Modulus) compared to its
strength. It also has a greater spring back in forming and machining operations
than steel.
One of the main benefits of titanium alloy is very high strength to weight ratios.
Components that would otherwise be made in steel can be made using titanium,
giving comparable performance at a much lower weight.
Titanium alloys have a fatigue performance which is similar to or better than

steels and aluminium alloys (compared on a density basis). The fatigue limit is
typically 0.4 to 0.6 of tensile strength.
Titanium has excellent corrosion resistance and so is ideal for offshore

applications. It is highly resistant to sea water and brine, oxidising acids, aqueous
chloride solutions, wet chlorine gas and sodium hypochlorite.
TITANIUM AND STEEL

COMPARISON
1200
160
Ti-6AI-4V annealed
1000
140
Nominal Stress MPa (ksi)
120
800
100
X65 pipe steel
600
80
400 60
40
200
20
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Strain (%)
The graph shows how carbon steel has a lower yield than titanium but has
approximately twice the Young’s modulus, E.
That is to say it is stiffer, and will elongate approximately half that of titanium
providing the stress remains below yield.
Materials 145
TITANIUM
Material Titanium X65 steel

Yield stress 759 MPa (110 ksi) 450 MPa (65 ksi)
Cycles to failure at 68 ·106 0.4 ·106
100 MPa (14.5 ksi)
Young’s modulus 110 GPa (16·106ksi) 210 GPa (30.5·106ksi)
High cost
Information on:
Touchdown point stress joints
Taper stress joints
Available from:
www.titaniuminfogroup.co.uk
To cope with the demands of the touchdown point, titanium joints may be used.
The strength, flexibility, fatigue properties and temperature range are very
beneficial compared to steel.
The yield stress given above relates to Ti-6Al-4V ELI (ASTM grade 23, UNS N°
R56407) used for deep water drilling risers, choke/kill lines, dynamic
production/export risers, taper stress joints and fasteners. The standard grade
Ti-6Al-4V (ASTM grade 5, UNS N° R56400) yields at 827 MPa (120 ksi) and is
used for drill pipe.
However, the cost per tonne is 20 to 40 times that of steel – though considerable
savings can be made because of the reduction in both the wall thickness and the
density of pipe.
Note: Jee runs a three day advanced course on materials covering:

■ Titanium
■ GRP
■ Elastomers
Delegates receive a wealth of detail on their properties and applications,

sufficient to know when these materials might be useful. See www.jee.co.uk for
information.
HEIDRUN DRILLING RISERS
Tension leg platform

Operational in Norway
since 1992
20 new well completions
24 titanium drilling
riser joints
Performed well
Care with TIG welds
Pores limit fatigue life
Titanium drilling
6 month test of riser joints
composite joint
The Heidrun drilling platform is a tension leg platform (TLP) which operates in a
northern area of the Norwegian Sea in 345 m (1132ft) of water. It is the most
northerly TLP installed to date. The platform was developed and run by Conoco
and Statoil, and has been operating since 1992.
The titanium alloy used is Ti-6Al-4V ELI (ASTM grade 23) – ELI has extra low
interstitial O, N and H for improved toughness. The joints are 552.3 mm (22in)
bore with 22.23 mm (0.75in) wall and 14.685 m (48.2ft) long. These are TIG
welded to compact flanges. The joints have a 3 mm (⅛in) internal hydrogenated
nitrile liner for wear resistance and external protective layer. Care was needed
with welding to limit the size of pore defects which limit the fatigue life.
Due to the field’s relatively extreme operating conditions, it became feasible to

develop the high pressure drilling riser from titanium and not from the more
traditional steel.
The high strength to weight ratio of titanium means that the drilling riser weighs
55% that of the steel equivalent. At present, the titanium drilling riser has
produced 20 new wells and the inspection of the riser after each retrieval has
found no detrimental defects of the titanium material.
A number of other developments (Green Canyon, Garden Banks and Neptune)

make use of titanium for the taper joint at the base of the riser. There are over
20 years experience with titanium on the Kristin export catenary riser, and they
have also been used at Åsgard and Njord.
DNV has issued RP-F201 (2002), Design of titanium risers with fatigue guidance
(SN curves).
Note that successful testing of composite drilling risers (CDRs) has also been
carried out at Heidrun between July 2001 and January 2002 during
inspection/maintenance of the titanium risers.
Materials 147
WHAT ARE COMPOSITES?
Solid material comprising fibres or

particulates embedded in a matrix
Wide range of fibres and particulates
Wide range of matrix materials
Thermoset or thermoplastic polymeric resins
Metals and ceramics
Properties only achieved in final

component
Most objects we work with on a day to basis could be considered a composite

and made from more than one material. The closest natural composite to the
polymer composites being considered today is probably wood. Indeed there are
a lot of lessons to be gained from seeing how wood structures are designed and
assembled and how they perform in practice.
The most important thing to remember about composites is that the final
properties are dependent on the manufacturing process and are only achieved
after the component has been manufactured.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS -
BENEFITS
Material
Lightweight
Fatigue performance
Installation
Ease of handling
Use of hand tools Composite laminate sheet
Picture courtesy of EDO Speciality Plastics
May eliminate hot work
Others
Thermal insulation, fire, failure mode etc
The principle benefits that can be derived from the use of composites are listed
above.
The lightweight properties are more important in weight sensitive applications.
Composites are very cost effective where high metallurgy CRA (corrosion
resistant alloy) alternatives would be required.
The installation advantages are often not appreciated at the start of a project and
become more apparent as the labour force progress through the learning curve.
SUBSEA PROTECTIVE
STRUCTURES
Wellhead
protection
Shell Cocoon
wellhead protection
Valve cover
(fisher-friendly)
Composite materials can be used for many protective subsea structures including
wellhead and valve protection.
The main value to be gained from the use of composites is weight saving, which
can enable substantial savings in installation cost by enabling the use of lower-
cost lift vessels, or to enable the protective structure to be attached to the
flowline during pipe installation.
The fabrication cost is competitive with that of conventional steel and concrete
technology.
The lower material modulus of GRP may impose limitations for some structural
applications, for example templates.
The purchase cost for GRP is slightly more expensive than that for steel.
However, the fabrication and installation costs are much less, making composites
very attractive financially.
Materials 149
TITANIUM AND COMPOSITES -

SUMMARY
Titanium
High strength to weight ratio
Good fatigue performance and corrosion resistance
Used successfully for Heidrun drilling riser joints
Composites
High strength to weight ratio if correctly designed
Good fatigue performance and corrosion resistance
Good thermal insulation properties for fire resistance
Used successfully in subsea protection structures
Reduced weight eases installation
Any questions?
Titanium and composites are advanced materials that can have significant
benefits when compared to steel.
Titanium, although expensive can become a feasible pipe material due to its
higher strength:weight ratios, better fatigue performance and corrosion resistance
in comparison with steel. Titanium drilling riser joints have been successfully
used on the Heidrun riser and to present date have showed no detrimental
effects.
Composites also are an alternative to steel for some applications. Composites

can be designed to have their strength in a principal direction and so can become
very efficient for strength to weight ratios. Composite components can also be
designed to have good fatigue performance and corrosion resistance for specific
applications. Composites are successfully used for subsea protection structures
as their lightweight enables the structures to be installed from smaller vessels.
PIPE DESIGN - MATERIALS -

SUMMARY
Start with carbon steel and escalate

Ensure sufficient yield strength
Three types of internal corrosion
Methods of combating internal corrosion
Clad and lined pipelines
Titanium and composites – specialist areas
Any questions?
In summary, material selection aims to satisfy the requirements for strength and
corrosion resistance. The technique is to start with common carbon steel and to
escalate until you find the solution.
Ensure that the effects of internal corrosion are minimised first using corrosion
allowance and chemical additives before moving on to costly exotic materials and
welding techniques.
Titanium and composites are only used in specialist areas.

External coatings
External coatings 153
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
External coatings
Corrosion protection
Concrete for on-bottom stability
Thermal
Why they are needed
What coatings are available
Pipe-in-pipe systems
Field joints
Active heating systems
The previous module defined the size and material for the pipeline.
This module examines coatings used on rigid pipelines.
Most pipelines have an exterior coating for prevention of corrosion. We explain why
this and other external coatings of concrete or thermal materials are sometimes applied,
and the types of coatings that are available.
For extreme thermal conditions, pipe-in-pipe systems may be necessary.
Field joints need to be made quickly - generally a matter of minutes - and coatings which
are acceptable for the main linepipe may not be suitable for covering the welds.
Where insulation is not enough by itself, some lines use active heating systems to
maintain the product above the minimum allowable temperature.
EXTERNAL CORROSION PROTECTION
EXTERNAL CORROSION AND

PROTECTION
Primarily, oxygen corrosion

Rust – pitting and general wastage
Corrosion-protective coatings
Line pipe first cleaned and shot-blasted
Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE)
0.5 mm (20 thou) thick applied to hot pipe
Polyolefin coatings - PE, PU or PP
2 mm (80 thou) impact protection over FBE with adhesive
Coal tar epoxy (CTE)
Older technology
Field joint cutback – heat shrink wrap
Overlap with factory-applied coating
The primary attack on the external surfaces of the pipe is oxygen corrosion. There are
two levels of defence - the first is the anticorrosion coating on the pipe. The second is
the cathodic protection system.
The anticorrosion coatings take the form of fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) similar to the
enamel on cooker hobs, polypropylene coating or bitumen/coal tar epoxy (CTE). CTE
is a 6 mm layer of tar with a bonded-in layer of glass fibre. It is now used less frequently
in the UK and USA – although it may still found on operational pipelines installed a
decade or more ago.
In all cases the pipeline is first cleaned and shot-blasted to conform with the Swedish
standard Sa2½, according to ISO 8501-1. Sometimes, FBE is then used alone, but it is
usually used as a first layer in combination with polyurethane PU, polypropylene PP or
polyethylene PE for impact protection.
At the field joints, it is common to apply sheets of shrink wrap which bond to the pipe
and provide an overlap of 50 mm (2in) or so with the factory-applied coating. A cutback
at the pipe-ends of 100 mm to 200 mm (4in to 8in) is needed because the heat from the
welding operations would damage the coating. This section needs to be protected using
a rapidly applied system.
With FBE-coated pipe, it is possible to simply shot-blast and spray on a rapid cure epoxy
layer at the field joint.
CORROSION COATINGS
Can be used both externally or internally

May be combined with
Thermal insulation
Fire protection
Firetex M89 Epoxy Thermal Barrier Images courtesy of Leigh Paints
The corrosion coating system is normally used to provide external protection, but some
pipelines also require internal protection (for example, water injection and tanker loading
lines).
This is normally provided by applying an epoxy-type of lining to individual pipes prior to

welding, with hand completion at the field joints.
The external protection system is often combined with other materials to provide
impact, thermal or other benefits.
COATING MATERIALS
Epoxy powder (FBE)

Advantages Disadvantages
Excellent adhesion Low impact resistance
Doesn’t shield CP system Poor shear stress
resistance
Tape wrap
Simple application Shields CP system
Useful for covering weld Adhesive subject to
areas biodegradation
Fusion-bonded epoxy (FBE) is by far the commonest coating for offshore pipelines.
This is typically 0.5 mm (0.040in) thick and is a very smooth hard coating. It is applied
by heating the pipe and spraying on a powder. However, FBE does tend to chip when
hit and it is often used as the base layer of a multi-layer coating systems. Occasionally, it
is used as a single or double application (with no further coatings) in the deep waters of
the Gulf of Mexico – careful handling is required to prevent mechanical damage.
Nevertheless, it should not be so used at temperatures over 70°C (158°F) when in
contact with seawater.
Tape wrap has often been used for pipe joints and for the whole length of some
landlines. It is quick to apply at butt welds, but other jointing systems with fewer
disadvantages (such as shrink wrap coating) have replaced it.
COATING MATERIALS
Glass reinforced bitumen or coal-tar

Easy to apply - minimal Subject to cracking
surface preparation Coal-tar is carcinogenic
Permeable to CP systems Environmental concerns
Polyolefin coatings (PE, PU and PP)

High corrosion protection Limited temperature ranges
Good handling Poor shear stress resistance
A further two common coatings are shown above.
Bituminous coatings were once the standard form of protection but they are now rarely
used offshore due to environmental concerns. Thin layers of glass reinforcement tape
are embedded into the thickness of bitumen whilst it is still liquid.
PE, PU and PP’s temperature and shear resistance disadvantages limit them to being
applied as part of a ‘coating system’ often in combination with FBE.
PE should not be used for temperatures more than 85°C (185°F)

PU can operate up to temperatures of 100°C (212°F)
Different types of PP are limited to temperatures less than 75°C to 140°C (167°F to
284°F).
The particular cleaning chemical used to degrease the pipe and the grade of FBE may
prove to be a problem at temperatures over 110°C (230°F) due to disbondment issues.
SPLASH ZONE
Riser section of pipelines

CP inoperable without seawater for conductivity
Thick layer of rubber / neoprene
Resistance to degradation from
salt water, UV light-corrosive
agents, ozone and sharp
abrasive particles in waves
Vulcanised – short lengths
Antifouling
Reduction in wave
and current drag
The splash zone is particularly vulnerable to corrosion. However, cathodic protection

cannot be used because it requires the seawater to make the electrical circuit. Instead, a
very thick vulcanized rubber coating is often used to protect the riser in this region.
Since this is a high light level region, some systems add antifouling to the coating to
prevent build-up of marine growth.
The picture shows Trelleborg’s Viking system applied to risers.
The method of applying the rubber is to clean and shot blast the length of pipe and then
helically wind on thin strips of rubber sheet from rolls. The pipes are then heated to
vulcanise the rubber into a single mass and bond it to the pipeline riser section. Because
the furnaces are of limited size, this necessarily limits the lengths of pipe to be coated.
EXTERNAL PROTECTION -
SUMMARY
Caused by rusting of pipeline in seawater

Coating types
Usually three-layer FBE/adhesive/PP
Older process thick CTE coating
Shrink wrap or FBE for field joints
Thick rubber used for splash zone
Any questions?
A number of different coating materials are used to prevent corrosion of the outside of
the pipeline in seawater.
Most pipelines are now coated using three-layer protection. The CTE process may still
be found in some areas of the world and on older pipelines.
In the highly corrosive environment of the splash zone of risers, it is often necessary to
use thick rubber coatings.
CATHODIC PROTECTION
CATHODIC PROTECTION
Galvanic system
Sacrificial method - gradual deterioration of anode
Potential difference between anode and steel
Uses zinc, magnesium or aluminium as anode
Impressed current system

Adjustable direct current applied through
transformer rectifier
Output typically 2 to 30 Amps at 1 to 2 Volts
Uses graphite bed as anode
There are two main methods of providing protection against external corrosion: the
galvanic method or impressed current.
Offshore, the former predominates, and we attach anodes at intervals along the pipe.
CATHODIC PROTECTION (CP)

SYSTEM
Anodes
8 to 12 pipelengths
Reel lay at much
greater centres
Bracelet or
half-shells
Ablate away
Protect exposed
areas of pipe with
coating damage
More important
at end of life
If the coating becomes scratched or damaged at any time during the life of the pipeline,
the second line of defence is the cathodic protection system, where aluminium or zinc
anodes are attached at intervals to the pipeline, as shown in the picture above.
Typical anode spacings would be 100 m (328 ft). However, this distance is increased by
perhaps five times on pipelines installed by the reel-lay method, which relies on a rapid
lay rate. Such anodes are less efficient and need to be larger than those using the S-lay or
J-lay methods.
If an area of pipe steel becomes exposed, the anode sets up an electric circuit whereby
aluminium or zinc goes into solution in the seawater, in preference to the iron from the
steel.
Although installed with the pipeline, they become more important towards the end of its
life as damage increases. In some cases, it may be necessary to replace spent anodes
during the life of the pipeline.
CATHODIC PROTECTION OR
COATING?
Optimise cost balance between the two

methods
CP
Coating
Coating & CP
Cost
Optimum level
(typically 98%)
0 100
% Pipe of protected by coating
This diagram illustrates the advantage of using a combination of CP and coating to

prevent corrosion. The cost of providing a perfect coating with no defects is very high,
as is the cost of protecting a bare pipeline using purely CP throughout the design life.
Hence, generally, a combination of the two methods is used, with the CP system
protecting the regions of the pipeline where defects or degradation of the coating over
time leave the pipeline exposed, allowing water and oxygen to reach the surface.
CATHODIC PROTECTION -
SUMMARY
Anodes
Used for subsea pipelines and manifolds
Impressed current
Used for land pipelines and platforms
Overall protection
Combination of coating and CP
Minimum cost solution
Any questions?
Anodes are attached to subsea pipelines to protect areas of coating that are damaged
during their life. That is an economic combination of coating and cathodic protection.
An alternative is the impressed current which requires ground beds to produce the
potential.
ON-BOTTOM STABILITY
ON-BOTTOM STABILITY
Any ideas what this is?
Making sure that the pipeline does not move

under storm conditions
Typically two design cases:

Construction, air-filled, 1 year storm
Operation, product-filled, 100 year storm
Three times design life
It is necessary to ensure that once placed on the seabed, the pipeline does not move
under storm conditions.
This requirement often conflicts with the need for insulation, where applying thick layers
of foam makes the pipe much more buoyant and less stable.
The stability design will typically consider two cases:

■ the construction case when the pipe is in an air-filled condition but only needs to
resist a one-year storm wave
■ the operational case when it is product-filled but needs to resist a hundred-year
storm wave.
We choose 1 year and 100 year return periods respectively, because they are each
approximately three times the design life of the pipeline in that condition.
HYDRODYNAMIC FORCES
Hydrodynamic lift
Inertia
Buoyancy Hydrodynamic drag

Weight
Lateral friction
Bottom reaction
Stability means ensuring that the pipe has sufficient submerged weight not to move
under storm conditions. Looking at the diagram above, this means that the (available)
lateral friction must exceed the drag due to the current and waves.
Looking at the vertical forces, when the pipeline is placed on the seabed it has its
submerged weight (ie self-weight less buoyancy) countered by the bottom reaction from
the seabed. If we now introduce a fluid flow over the top of the pipe, this results in lift
and drag.
You are perhaps familiar with the lift generated by aircraft wings where the air flows
faster over the top than it does underneath. In this case, we have water flow over the
top of the pipe but no flow underneath. This generates lift. In addition, there is a drag
force caused by a high-pressure build up on one side of the pipe and a low-pressure
wake behind it.
The effect of the lift is to reduce the bottom reaction. The lateral friction is proportional
to the bottom reaction. So, as the fluid speed increases, the lateral friction will reduce
and the drag will increase until the limit of stability is reached when the drag matches the
lateral friction.
In wave flow, there is an additional factor due to the acceleration of the wave, which
induces inertial forces on the pipeline as well as lift and drag. The drag, lift and inertial
forces all vary over a complete wave cycle..
STABILITY ANALYSIS
What can you do if it is not stable?

Ideas?
ADD CONCRETE COATING
If the pipeline is not stable, the primary means of stabilising it is to add a concrete
weight coat. The picture shows a typical 50 to 100 mm (2in to 4in) of concrete being
added to the pipe joints.
Points about concrete coating are as follows:

■ Because concrete has a low cost per unit weight compared with steel, it is almost
always cheaper to add a concrete coating, rather than increase the thickness of the
steel
■ Concrete is not generally applied over the top of foam coatings, but it is not
unknown with more rigid insulation systems such as the syntactic materials
■ Higher density concrete (specific gravity of 3.050 instead of 2.400) can be used to
reduce the required thickness
■ Almost every line over 16 inch diameter needs to be concrete-coated to counteract
the increased buoyancy of large diameter lines
■ Concrete also acts to protect the pipeline against impact
Typically, steel costs twelve times more than concrete per tonne. However, the
submerged weight of steel is five times that of normal concrete so the savings are
reduced.
TRENCH THE PIPELINE
Trenching alone
Reduces current
effects (shielding)
Steep side slope keeps pipeline in place
Slope angle is soil-type dependant
Helps reduce trawling impacts
Trenching with burial
Eliminates hydrodynamic forces on pipeline
Provides thermal insulation
Cover to top of pipeline varies
Landfall 2 m to 3 m (6ft to 10ft) – offshore 0.3 m (1ft)
An alternative to concrete-coating is to trench the pipeline. This has two main effects in
terms of stability. Firstly, it shields the pipeline from hydrodynamic loads. Secondly, it
provides an upward slope on either side of it which effectively increases the lateral
friction. However, the shape of the trench depends on soil type. Fine sands, soft muds
and silts do not usually result in a steep enough trench.
Additionally, some trawl interaction protection is given by lowering the pipeline below
the surrounding seabed.
If burial is undertaken as well, then a further insulating benefit is given by the soil.
There is more about trenching in the Construction Support module.
The depth to the top of the pipe varies depending upon the risk of scour removing the
cover. At the landfall, 2 m or even 3 m may be needed. In deeper water where there are
low currents and a non-mobile seabed, this can be substantially less.
ON-BOTTOM STABILITY - SUMMARY
Current and wave

forces on pipeline
Two conditions
Empty 1 yr storm
Full 100 yr storm
Concrete coat
Trench pipeline
Any questions?
The principle of stability is to ensure that the pipeline has sufficient weight such that it
does not move under storm conditions. The main techniques are concrete-coating and
trenching.
THERMAL INSULATION
WHY INSULATE A PIPELINE?
Production temperatures
60°C to 160°C (140°F to 320°F)
Ambient
5°C (41°F)
What problems may be caused by allowing

oil or gas to cool?
This section addresses the issue of why we need to insulate pipelines and the techniques
available to do so.
PROBLEMS DUE TO COOLING
Wax
Oil lines
Hydrates
Gas lines - water at high pressures
Viscosity
Increased friction - head loss
Separation
Emulsions
The main reason for insulating a pipeline is that process problems can occur if the oil or
gas is allowed to cool to ambient temperatures.
These problems are:

■ Wax can crystallize out of oil flows. It collects on the pipe wall, and both reduces
the pipe diameter and increases its roughness, so it greatly increases the pressure
drop. One way of avoiding this is to keep the production warm. Another way is to
pig regularly and we will come to this later under the Routine Operations module.
■ Hydrates can form in gas lines. These are waxy ice crystals made up from methane
gas and water and occur in conditions of high pressure and low temperature. In
extreme conditions, they can collect and block a pipeline. Insulation and warmth are
one way of avoiding them. Methanol can also be used to inhibit them. To remove a
build up of hydrates, one solution is to depressurise the line, but this may not always
be successful.
■ As the temperature decreases, the viscosity of oil increases as does the pressure
drop. However, this is not normally too much of a problem unless the oil is so
viscous that it sets at ambient temperatures.
■ At lower temperatures, water and oil can form a stable emulsion. It is therefore
important to the separation process at the topside that temperatures are kept above
the emulsion point, typically 30°C (86°F).
SELECTION OF COATINGS
Insulate
Thermal inertia
Withstand maximum temperature
Withstand maximum collapse pressure
Handling and reeling without damage
Not cause pipeline to destabilise (increased
uplift or flotation)
A coating has a number of purposes.
It must provide the insulation required to keep the product warm throughout the length
of the pipeline.
If the flow is stopped for some reason, then insulation will prevent the product from
cooling too much prior to restarting operations. This may be for 24 hours or more. On
restarting, the pumps must be able to cope with the increased viscosity.
Some insulation materials can withstand higher temperatures and pressures than others.
Typical product temperatures for flowlines are up to 110°C (230°F), though this can be
exceeded especially with deep water fields.
It is often the case that a protective outer coating is used to improve the handleability of
the coating, preventing damage to the insulation layer. Flowlines are often installed
using reelbarges. Softer foams cannot be reeled successfully without crushing damage.
If the insulation layer is too thick or not dense enough, then the pipeline may be too
light in weight for stability. In extreme cases, the pipeline may float during installation
when is empty.
INSULATION TECHNIQUES
Trench & backfill

Heat loss 5 to 10 W/(m² K) (0.9 to 1.8 BTU/hr/ft²/°F)
Foam coating
1.5 to 5 W/(m² K) (0.3 to 0.9 BTU/hr/ft²/°F)
Solid PU
PUF
FBE
Pipe-in-pipe Pipe
0.8 to 2.5 W/(m² K) (0.1 to 0.4 BTU/hr/ft²/°F)
There are three main techniques for insulating a pipeline:

■ You can trench and backfill it. The covering of soil provides a layer of insulation.
Although a poor insulator, it is possible to obtain the required U value using a thick
layer of soil
■ You can apply a coating, as shown in the pipes in the picture which has a solid inner
layer to withstand the high temperature and an outer solid layer to improve handling
■ You can enclose the flowline in a carrier pipe and put insulation (rockwool or
microspheres or polyurethane foam) in-between, thus creating a pipe-in-pipe system
Where:
■ PU = PolyUrethane
■ PUF = PolyUrethane Foam
■ FBE = Fusion-Bonded Epoxy
Typical range for PU foam coating is a U value between 1.5 and 5 W/m²/K (0.265 and
0.884 BTU/hr/ft²/°F).
The equivalent for P-I-P is 0.8 to 2.5 W/m²/K (0.141 and 0.442 BTU/hr/ft²/°F).
PU FOAM COATING - VIDEO
Bredero Price Coaters Ltd video of PUF coating.
Here is an example of a foam-coated pipe, where the flowline is coated with an

anticorrosion barrier of fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) followed by a layer of polyurethane
foam and an outer water-excluding sheath of solid polyurethane.
The video shows the pipe being rotated and the foam being poured from nozzles which
move axially along the pipe.
Another method of applying the coating (but which is not shown) is to extrude the foam
over the outer surface of the pipeline.
COATING DEGRADATION
MECHANISMS
Creep
Water absorption
Cracking Through Life Overall Coating Strain
12
Hydrolysis
10
Combined
Strain (%)
6
effects 4
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Time (years)
For foams, creep can be an important factor affecting their insulation properties. Over
time, the coating will become thinner due to the pressure of the surrounding water. Not
only do we have less thickness of insulation, but the thermal properties of the denser
coating are poorer. The graph shows typical strain over the life of a coating.
Water can diffuse through polymer coatings. The water conducts heat more readily than
the polymer, and so the thermal conductivity of the coating increases over time.
Where the pipe has been subjected to damage during installation bending or subsequent
impact, cracking can occur. It can even be caused by age degradation. This can cause
water penetration to the steel or even spalling of the coating.
Finally, all plastics are subject to hydrolysis or degradation when subjected to heat and
water. The water binds to and splits the bonds of the molecules. Some materials are
able to resist this better than others.
When assessing reduction in insulation capability over time, some of these mechanisms
combine - for example, if the coating cracks, water can reach deeper more quickly and
become absorbed into the material. Hydrolysis can then degrade the insulation
exacerbating creep.
The following slides look at the coating types and define the operational limits.
INSULATION COATINGS
GSPU (glass syntactic polyurethane)

SPU (syntactic polyurethane)
PPF (polypropylene foam)
PUF (polyurethane foam)
Epoxy (PU replacement)
Mini-sphere matrix
A range of coating systems are available or being developed for deep water applications.
The main coating types are shown above and the first three will be described further in
the following slides.
Mini-spheres act in a similar way to glass syntactic foams but are the size of a pea up to
golf-ball or more. The space between the mini-spheres is filled with GSPU. They are
commonly used for ROV and other buoyancy units.
GSPU AND SPU
Syntactic polyurethane
Glass or plastic microspheres in PU matrix
Maximum depth - 3000 m (9850 ft) for GSPU
Maximum temperature - 140°C (284°F)
Typical U-value range - 2 - 5 W/m²/K
(0.4 - 0.9 BTU/ft2/hr/°F)
Reelable
Widely used West Africa, South America,
Gulf of Mexico
Microscopic hollow glass or plastic spheres are used to provide insulation. These are
mixed into liquid polyurethane which then sets hard.
Plastic spheres cannot withstand the pressures that glass spheres can.
This can be applied to pipes installed using the reel-lay method.
PPF
Polypropylene foam
Maximum depth - typically 600 m (1967 ft)
Maximum temperature - 150°C (302°F)
Typical U-value range - 2.5 - 5 W/m²/K
(0.44 - 0.9 BTU/ft2/hr/°F)
Reelable
Examples of advanced PPF
Nile - 1000 m - 90°C (3280 ft - 194°F)
Crosby - 1200 m - 90°C (3937 ft - 194°F)
Madison - 1400 m - 65°C (4593 ft - 149°F)
Typical PPF coatings have a maximum depth of around 600 m (1967ft).
However, advanced PPF materials have been developed and applied at depths of around
3000 m (9840ft), though at the expense of their resistance to the highest of temperatures.
PUF
Polyurethane foam
Low density option
Maximum water depth 100 m (328 ft)
Typical U: 0.3 to 2 W/m²/K (0.053 to 0.352 BTU/ft2/hr/°F)
High density option
Maximum water depth < 1000 m (3280 ft)
Typical U-values: 2 to 5 W/m²/K (0.4 to 0.9 BTU/ft2/hr/°F)
Crushing limitations at depth
Max temperature 150°C (302°F)
Depth range too limited for ‘deepwater’
applications
The simplest (and amongst the cheapest) insulation is a foamed polyurethane. It uses
gas bubbles to provide the required U value.
This comes in two ‘flavours’:

■ low density provides good insulation but is limited in water depth
■ high density provides reduced insulation but is good for deeper water
We need to carefully assess the crushing over the life of the pipeline and restrict the
maximum temperature.
It is not good at resisting the bending rollers of a reel barge.

LØGSTØR RØR - VIDEO
SPS_01 Logstor single pipe with concrete.mpg
The video shows manufacture of Løgstør Rør’s ‘single pipe’ insulation system which
features a pair of water stops either side of every field weld.
The pipes are precoated externally with FBE which is then preheated to ensure a good
bond with the sprayed on isocyanate foam coating. The foam can withstand 110°C
(230°F) and is typically applied as a 10 mm to 30 mm (0.4in to 1.2in) layer in densities of
150 kg/m³ to 375 kg/m³ (9.4 lb/ft³ to 23.4 lb/ft³).
An outer polyethylene shell is hot applied to provide full hydrostatic pressure resistance
down to 200 m (656ft). The ends are tapered for welding and bonded to the FBE pipe
coating.
A steel cage is spun around each pipe and a dense heavyweight concrete (containing iron
ore) is slip-formed around the pipe in a vertical system. This contrasts with other
methods which use sprayed, shotcreted or gunited concrete applied to a horizontal
rotating pipe. The vertical system results in a denser, less porous casting. Half shell
anodes are fitted to the ends of some of the pipes. Their outer diameter matches the
concrete coating.
Once the pipe is welded on the laybarge, the field coat is made up using a heat shrink
sleeve over the joint. Two insulated half shells are banded on and the gap is injected
with syntactic polyurethane foam. The slope of the firing line helps ensure no voids are
left as the foam sets. The properties of the foam are not as efficient as the pipe
insulation at 0.145 W/m³ (0.014 BTU/ft³/hr) at a density of 810 kg/m³ (51 lb/ft³).
Total water absorption is less than 2.5% and it can resist a pressure of 15 MPa at 23°C
(2176 psi at 73°F).
The total field joint process takes 7 minutes for each pair of the double jointed pipes.
FIELD JOINTS
Protection over butt welds

Need to consider:
Thermal requirements
Compatibility and overlap with factory coatings
Matching diameter of concrete
Speed of application and curing
Health and safety issues
Once two sections of line pipe have been welded together, the corrosion protection and
insulation layers need to be made good.
Field joints need to be matched for compatibility with the main factory applied coatings.
In general they overlap these and make a seal of 50 mm (2in) or so.
If there is concrete applied for weight coat, the field joint is generally filled out to the
same diameter. This is necessary when the pipe is laid over a stinger from an S-lay barge.
It is important to fit the field joint makeup into the production plan. Speed is often of
the essence to reduce pipelay costs. For this reason, different materials may be used
than in the factory, but which can be applied and cured more quickly. This is
sometimes subject to detailed health and safety scrutiny.
DEEPWATER FLOWLINE
REQUIREMENTS
Deep water flowlines

Often means high pressure and multiphase flow
Hydrate problems
Gas at low temperatures and high pressures
Design conditions
Must keep sufficiently warm when flowing
Must allow sufficient period of shut-down
May possibly need to heat product
Requirements
Hydrostatic pressure
U value and high temperatures
Reeling
Deepwater developments often have associated thermal constraints to avoid production

of hydrates in gas lines or long multiphase flowlines.
The major design conditions issues for a deepwater coating system often take the form
of a required U-value and a specified cool-down period. That is, we need to consider
both normal operations and shutdown conditions, when there may be a requirement to
maintain heat as long as possible or even warm the product up again from cold ambient
temperatures.
These effectively determine the selection of suitable coating capable of withstanding

high hydrostatic pressures and product temperatures. The coating suppliers have
additionally had to contend with characterising and accounting for the degradation
processes. With flowlines, one commonly chosen installation method is reeling. This
further limits the selection of coatings, due to the high strains produced by bending
around the reel.
THERMAL INSULATION - SUMMARY
Avoid operating problems

Wax, hydrates, viscosity and separation
Use burial, foam or pipe-in-pipe
Typical coating materials
Field joint coatings
Deepwater flowline requirements
Operation, cool-down time and restart
Any questions?
We need to avoid a number of flow-related problems by insulating the pipe.
Wax builds in oil lines, hydrates form in gas lines, and viscosity increases at cooler
temperatures. All tend to increase friction (and hence production costs) or reduce the
flow. If a multi-phase product gets too cold, there may be separation problems at the
facility due to it forming an emulsion.
Three methods are commonly used to reduce heat loss.
In this section, we have looked at typical insulation coatings. There are differences in
the materials used at field joints.
We have examined the particular problems which may arise in deep water flowlines due
to the high pressures and temperatures at the well head and the long lengths of lines
used.
PIPE-IN-PIPE SYSTEMS
PIPE-IN-PIPE CONSTRUCTION
Corus Hydrotherm pipe-in-pipe

manufacture
Steel carrier
with FBE coating
Microspheres
Pipe
with FBE coating
Here is an example of a pipe-in-pipe system where the annulus between the steel carrier
and the pipe is filled with alumina silicate microspheres. The microspheres are tiny
hollow spheres and look like cement dust. The technique is to assemble the pipes
together, rotate them vertically, fill with the microspheres, and put rubber water stops at
both ends.
HYDROTHERM - VIDEO
Courtesy
of CORUS
Hydrotherm uses microspheres to insulate a pipe-in-pipe. It is a relatively costly system,

but because the microspheres are inert at high temperatures – above 140°C (284°F) – it
can be used where syntactics start to break down.
The process is carefully controlled by weighing to ensure that the correct packing of the
spheres permits some of the hydrostatic head to transfer from the outer to the inner
pipe.
PIPE-IN-PIPE SYSTEMS
A variety available from ITP, BPCL, Bredero

Price, Løgstør Rør, CORUS and others
One
atmosphere
Insulants used are:

Microspheres
Internal
Rockwool pressure
PUF
Vacuum
External
pressure
Various connection schemes
Conventional thermal insulation coatings, such as low density foams, have low strength
and would crush in deep water applications. But they are very efficient as insulators.
Pipe-in-pipe systems offer a means of achieving high thermal efficiency in deep water
applications. The insulation product is placed in the annulus between the inner product
pipe and the outer carrier pipe, in pre-assembled lengths. The outer steel pipe has
sufficient strength to withstand the hydrostatic load, and the insulation product does not
require any intrinsic strength.
Pipe-in-pipe systems are made up on the laybarge, although the requirement to join both
an inner pipe and outer pipe significantly reduces the rate of lay. Various connection
systems have been developed to increase the speed at which the outer carrier pipe
connection can be made.
OUTER PIPE WALL THICKNESS
Require large wall thickness to prevent

collapse of outer pipe
Pressurise nitrogen in annulus to reduce

wall thickness
Thermal implications
The outer pipe wall thickness can be reduced by internally pressurising the annulus with
nitrogen gas.
However, this does have thermal implications.

THERMAL IMPLICATIONS
Foam insulant
Must be open-celled to avoid crushing
Open cells less efficient than closed cell foam
Increased convection
High pressure gives increased gas density
Increased convection within foam cells
Increased convection across annulus
Troika – Gulf of Mexico

Pressurised annulus - problems
When pressurising the annulus with gas, consideration has to be given to the effect of
the pressure on the insulant material. If a foam is being used, this must be open-celled
to allow pressure equalisation through the foam and to avoid crushing of the foam.
Open cells are less efficient insulators than closed cell foams.
A further implication of pressurising the gas is that, with the resultant increased density,
convective heat transfer increases.
The Troika pipe-in-pipe system in the Gulf of Mexico failed to meet its thermal targets
because these effects were not correctly accounted for.
PIPE-IN-PIPE DEEPWATER
CHALLENGES
Thick outer pipe

Resists full hydrostatic collapse
Installation method and assembly rate
J-lay barges are set up for single weld joints
Connection of outer pipe
Real need for bulkheads and shear stops?
Bulkheads
Prevent flooding of whole annulus
Shear stops
Prevent inner pipe sliding relative to outer
The principal deepwater challenges for pipe-in-pipe systems are listed above.
■ Significant material costs can be incurred as a result of the thick outer pipe being
required to resist the full hydrostatic collapse pressure. Since the annulus is at 1
atmosphere, no beneficial effect can be taken from the internal product pressure.
■ Rapid assembly is required to control installation costs. The need for both inner and
outer pipe connections greatly reduces the layrate. This is especially true of J-lay
barges which use single welding stations.
■ Outer pipe connection details must be rigorously designed. Pipeline failure has
already occurred as a result of inappropriate design of the outer pipe connection
details.
Are intermediate bulkheads and shear stops required?

■ Bulkheads are needed to prevent flooding of long lengths of line annulus with
resulting loss in insulation properties. The spacing of bulkheads is determined by
the length of insulation that can be lost without arrival temperatures dropping too
much.
■ Shear stops are provided to prevent the inner pipe sliding relative to the outer.
During installation only the outer pipe is held by the tensioners. The need for shear
stops needs to be ascertained on a case-by-case basis depending upon the method of
insulation and the relative size of the pipes. A study of the operational temperature
flow regime may also indicate shear stops.
PIPE-IN-PIPE J-LAY ISSUES
Inner and outer pipe joints made at single

weld station
Potentially poor lay rate
Rapid connection system desirable for
outer pipe
Mechanical connector
Sliding sleeve
With the J-lay method, there is a single weld and coating station. The pipe-in-pipe lay
rate is consequently much slower if conventional steel half-shells are used for the joint.
A number of systems have been proposed and used to speed this up.
Most make use of either a mechanical connector or sliding sleeve.

PIPE IN PIPE JACKET
Metal jacket
Steel
Half-shell
half-shell
Flow line
Weld
Insulant Rubber water stop
For a pipe in pipe system tensioning is a more difficult problem.
It is the outer jacket which is put in tension, so at least some of the jacket weld (both
girth and seam welds) must be completed before the first tensioner. Normally at least the
root weld and first pass are completed before the tensioner.
This requirement puts a limit on the use of tensioners (effectively the first pair are made
redundant as they are before the first jacket weld stations). This means that double
pipeline systems are laid approximately 1/2 to 1/3 times slower than conventional
‘single’ pipelines.
Another problem is performing the NDT of the flowline efficiently.

SLIDING SLEEVE CONNECTOR
Less welding than half-shells

Design and fabrication issues for fatigue
performance
Erskine experience
1
2 1. Inner pipes welded together
2. Sleeve slid across
3. Sleeve butt welded to bell-end
3 4 of outer carrier
4. Sleeve fillet welded to the
other pipeline
The purpose of the sliding sleeve is to reduce the welding time for the outer pipe. A
welded sliding sleeve will require at least one of the welds to be a fillet weld rather than a
butt weld. This has significant implications with respect to fatigue performance, which
must be duly accounted for in both design and fabrication. The Erskine pipeline failed
because of this type of connection.
BONGA SOLUTION
Vacuum Field weld Sleeve slid on

Shop-welded ends
Pipe-in-pipe
Insulation
Preformed insulation Injection
For the Bonga field, pre-formed ends were welded onto the outer pipe in order to speed
up the assembly of the pipe-in-pipe system. The axial stress in the outer pipe is then
transferred to the inner pipeline through a single structural weld.
Preformed blocks of insulation are then fitted around the weld prior to a sleeve section
with the primary vacuum insulation being slid on.
The sleeve is then held in place by injection of a quick-setting plastic.
PIPE-IN-PIPE REEL-LAY ISSUES
Bending and straightening of inner pipe

Spacers
Reelable bulkheads and water seals
Pipe-in-pipe systems can be reeled. The major issue is the control of bending and
straightening of the inner pipe.
The bending of the outer pipe is displacement-controlled by the reel and straightener.
The inner pipe is displacement-controlled at intermittent points only (the spacer
locations). The discontinuous contact with the inner pipe means it is not possible to
straighten the pipe fully during the reeling process.
Other issues include the design of intermediate bulkheads and water seals which also
have to be reelable. It is important that no additional strain is concentrated at these
points.
DEEP WATER REELED PIPE-IN-PIPE
Nile: 1100 m (3610 ft) maximum water depth

Spacer pitch 2 m (6.5 ft)
Coiled buckle arrestor (internal spring)
Annular water seals every 400 m (1312 ft)
Technip have installed the Nile pipe-in-pipe flowline in 1100 m (3608ft) water depth in
the Gulf of Mexico (GoM), and are currently working on a project for 2100 m (6888ft)
water depth.
LNG ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
Rupture of LNG tank or

transporter tanker
Forms cold vapour cloud
Heavier than air
Unconfined vapour
cloud explosion (UVCE)
Environmental concerns
Terminal sited far from
existing residential areas
Ship moored far from
onshore tanks
Spilled LNG (liquefied natural gas) in a large scale leak can produce very cold vapour
which in general will remain heavier than air until it absorbs sufficient heat from
surrounding surfaces and air. If the cold vapour forms a flammable heavier-than-air
fuel-air cloud, it may find an ignition source near the ground and cause an unconfined
vapour cloud explosion (UVCE) during the dispersion process. This could be a simple
spark from even a mobile phone or hobnail boots.
Because cold LNG is reduced to some 1/628 of its original volume and the transporter
ships are so large - the largest Q Max vessels currently being built holds 265 000 m³
(9.4x106ft³) of liquid - there are serious concerns regarding leaks. Explosive release of
such a large amount of energy at once would be an absolutely calamitous disaster.
There are currently a number of concerns requiring the location of LNG moorings and
loading/unloading facilities to sites remote from habitation. If a cloud were to form
from an accidental leak or terrorist attack on the ship, it can spread a very long distance
from the source.
U.S. Coast Guard requested that Sandia National Laboratories review the ‘Independent
Risk Assessment of the Proposed Cabrillo Port LNG Deepwater Port Project’ off the
coast of Malibu, California. The conclusion states that a flammable liquefied natural gas
(LNG) vapour cloud could extend 12 kilometres (7.3 miles). (Reference Sandia Report
Sand2005-7339 January 2006.)
A recent incident occurred at the Skikda gas-liquefaction plant in Algeria in January

2004. The blast shook buildings and shattered windows more than a mile away and 27
lives were lost with injuries to a further 80 people. It was the deadliest incident in over
30 years. A small amount of LNG had leaked from a pipeline and the vapour was drawn
into a boiler which exploded when it was relit.
Nevertheless, the use of such refrigerated vessels provides a convenient means of

transporting the fuel to where it is needed. The alternative is to leave it as a gas, but this
means providing long intercontinental trunk lines.
LNG PIPE-IN-PIPE-IN-PIPE
Cold low pressure liquid

API 5L X65 pipe to withstand
hydrostatic pressure
Vacuum for leak test
API 5L X65 pipe
Aerogel or vacuum – insulation
Invar pipe 4 mm (0.16in) wall – primary
containment (zero contraction)
Liquefied natural gas at -160°C (-256°F)
less than 40 bar (580 psi)
Currently there are a number of proposals to install P-I-P-I-P systems to transport

liquefied natural gas. This is at present limited to short distances such as lines from a
near-shore offloading facility to shore.
The alternative is to construct insulated pipelines and contraction loops on long jetties
out to the dolphin or sea-island where the LNG tankers moor. However costly this is,
the danger of catastrophic loss of a subsea LNG pipeline means that at present, such
proposals remain as cost-benefit and risk-assessment studies.
LNG needs to be kept very cold to maintain it as a liquid, but the required pressure is
low – only enough to pump the short distance to shore.
Invar or similar material has a zero (or even negative) coefficient of thermal expansion.
This provides designers with a means of matching the linear contraction of the
innermost sleeve (when in contact with LNG during discharge) with the behaviour of
that for the outer pipeline, in contact with seawater at perhaps 5°C (41°F). The wall
thickness of the inner pipe is very thin – only needing to resist low pressure. The
corrosion resistance of invar is excellent and there is no need for a corrosion allowance.
However, costs for Invar are very high.
The two outer pipes are of normal carbon steel grade X65 or similar. These need to
resist external water pressure. However, if they come into contact with the cold LNG,
they are liable brittle failure.
The annuli between the pipes contain either vacuum or aerogel to provide insulation and
a means of testing for leaks. Spacers holding the lines coaxially must be designed
carefully to avoid heat bridging between the pipe layers.
PIPE-IN-PIPE - SUMMARY
Improved thermal properties

Better able to resist deep water pressure
Slows down production
Care needed at joints
Can be installed by all methods
Care needs to be taken in J-lay and reel-lay
P-I-P-I-P for LNG
Only at loading/discharge berths
Any questions?
When conditions demand better insulation, it is possible to install a pipe-in-pipe system.
It is better able to resist high external pressure without creep or crushing. But this
comes at the cost of speed of installation. Additional care is needed at joints.
All the installation methods can make use of pipe-in-pipe. Special considerations for J-
lay and reel-lay have been explained.
The recent development for LNG terminals is limited to relatively short pipeline strings
as a replacement for existing insulated lines on jetties.
ACTIVE HEATING OF LINES
HEATING
Heat required for:

Hydrate and wax avoidance
Start up viscosity
Process separation
Approaches:
Use electrical cables
In bundles, use heating pipes - Gulfaks
Hot water in pipe-in-pipe annulus - Britannia
Insulation systems are widely used to reduce the heat loss from the pipeline system.
There are cases where we may have a requirement to add heat to the pipeline system,
particularly in shut-down and start-up conditions.
There are a number of ways of adding heat to a system.

ELECTRICAL HEATING
3 main categories:
Induction
Wire induces eddy
currents
Pipe wall heats up
Direct impedance
Current passed down
pipe wall eg Asgard
Trace heating
Electric wire heats up
P-I-P systems
Consider costs
Shutdown/startup
Combipipe Induction system
Electrical heating systems can take three basic forms:

■ Induction heating - where the electromagnetic field around the electrical cable
induces surface eddy currents on the pipe causing the pipe wall to heat-up. An
example of this system is illustrated above. The induction heating cable does not
have to be in contact with the pipe. This means that a cable can be separately laid
alongside the pipeline.
■ Direct impedance - where a current passed along the pipeline heats the pipe wall.
This system is in use on Asgard.
■ Trace heating - where the electrical cable itself heats up. Trace heating systems
require the heating element to be installed in or under the pipeline insulation
coating. Trace heating is widely use in onshore applications and is also being
marketed by Technip in their heated pipe-in-pipe system.
However, there are considerable operating costs involved in continuous electrical heating
of lines. It may be best reserved for shutdown/startup operations.
HEATING PIPES
Gullfaks bundle
1. Control lines
3 2. Gas injection
2 3. Methanol injection
4. Insulation
1 1
5. Production lines
6. Hot water return
7. Hot water supply
4
8. Insulation
6
5 5
8
7 7
Thermal Analysis
Hot water heating pipes have been used in bundles. This figure illustrates an
arrangement as used in the Gulfaks satellite bundles. The production flowlines and
heating pipes are within an insulated nitrogen filled carrier pipe, which is itself within an
outer water filled carrier pipe.
Heat input is required to sustain a long cool-down period following shut-down. Heat
transfer from the heating pipes to the production flowlines is by convection in the
nitrogen and radiation.
The Britannia bundles used an alternative hot water heating system, where the hot water
flowed within the carrier pipe itself.
Because part of the carrier annulus remains nitrogen filled, extra weight must be found
in the bundle to counteract buoyancy.
BRITANNIA CIRCULATION SYSTEM
Uses waste platform heat

Hidden carrier corrosion
219 mm (8in) Test line

89 mm (3in) Methanol line
324 mm (12in) Heating line
and carrier annulus return
356 mm (14in) Production
On the Britannia project, waste heat at the platform was utilised to keep warm water
circulating through a dedicated 324 mm (12in) pipe adjacent to the 356 mm (14in)
production flowline.
At the well manifold the slightly cooler water returns to the platform though the
annulus.
One difficulty with this system is that there may be hidden corrosion on the internal side
of the carrier pipe.
The system was designed to heat up to operating temperature from cold within 24 hours.
ACTIVE HEATING OF LINES -

SUMMARY
What happens with no heating

Means of achieving direct heating
Three methods of electric heating
Reserve for shutdown/startup
Two methods of water in bundles
Any questions?
We have listed the four main problems when heat is not provided (wax, hydrates,
viscosity and product separation).
The three methods of active heating using electrical power to provide heat have been
examined, along with the two bundle approaches to heating flowlines.
EXTERNAL COATINGS - SUMMARY
Cathodic protection
On-bottom stability
Thermal insulation
Pipe-in-pipe systems
Active heating of lines
Any questions?
We have examined the needs and means of applying coatings to pipelines.

They are needed to assist in avoiding external corrosion and keeping the pipe in place on
the seabed. The first is achieved with a combined approach of coating and CP. An
alternative to concrete coating is to trench the pipeline.
Thermal coatings can be applied directly or through the use of pipe-in-pipe systems.
If even more heat is needed then active heating can be applied.

Design methods
Design methods 201
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Limit state design

DNV OS-F101: 2000
Pipeline buckling
HIPPS systems
Fishing interaction
Types of trawling
Protection pipeline
Vortex-induced vibration
Fatigue damage at risers and pipeline spans
We will look at modern limit state design theory and how this may be applied. We
introduce the Norwegian standard commonly known as DNV OS-F101, which is the
leading limit state design code used for pipelines.
The modern design approach can lead to cost savings when assessing pipe buckles. We
also consider how the use of HIPPS systems can lead to thinner walled flowlines.
We examine whether we need to design all pipelines for fishing interaction or if we can
safely make cost savings by eliminating trenching.
Fatigue damage to pipelines can be caused by rapid vibration caused by currents flowing
over them. We will look at means of assessing for VIV.
LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Identification of Limit States
LIMIT STATE FAILURE

CLASSIFICATIONS
Designer assesses all limiting failure states

Need not know exact cause of failure
Classes
Ultimate
Service
Fatigue
Accidental
Any fool can build a bridge that stands up,
but it takes an engineer to build a bridge
that just barely stands up
There are four limit state classifications that are usually considered in modern design.
There may be more than one limiting state in each class.
When assessing a pipeline, we need to ensure the design complies with the codes and the
client’s needs. We don’t necessarily need to worry too much about the detailed lead up
to the failure condition.
The adage above implies that we should strive to design as economically as possible.
Let us see how the four limit state classifications are applied to the failure of bridges.
Remember, we normally only need to determine the limiting mechanism conditions, not
what caused them.
However, in the next two slides, we are also describing how they came about. This is to
help us understand the differences between the four limit state conditions.
Design methods 203
LIMIT STATE FAILURE MECHANISMS
Ultimate
Loads exceed strength
London bridge - heavier buildings
Foundations were exposed by scour
Fell down - unusable
Service Medieval London bridge
Usable but does not achieve client’s needs
Thin plank over stream
Feet get wet
Rope bridge
Feels wobbly
Rope
Millennium footbridge bridge Millennium bridge
The ultimate limit state indicates that the loads applied to the structure exceed its
strength. In other words, it fails or collapses.
In the nursery rhyme, ‘London Bridge is falling down’, the bridge had so many houses
and storerooms built on and over it that people may have thought that they were
walking through a tunnel with shop fronts on either side rather than crossing a bridge.
The piers to the bridge were so wide that they constricted the flow of the river. At
certain times of the tide, the differential water levels either side of the bridge were up to
1.5 m (5ft) and a weir effect prevented passage of boats. Severe scour of the soil
beneath the piers caused loss of support. This lead to the installation of protective
starlings (timber sheet piles) which further restricted flows.
Eventually, the weight of the buildings exceeded what the foundations could support.
In service limit state, the structure may be quite safe. However, people either cannot use
the structure in its intended manner (it does not achieve the requirements set out in the
Basis of Design), or they feel unsafe in using it. (Perhaps the boatmen beneath the old
London bridge would have perceived it as a service failure as they shot the weir.)
As children, we have all used too thin a plank to cross a gap. If we made a bridge to
cross a stream, perhaps we were able to cross without it dipping into the water.
However, if two were to cross together, they might get wet feet.
The rope bridge across a gorge in an Indiana Jones film invariably has someone too
scared to cross because it is moving too much.
The classic modern service failure was London’s millennium footbridge. When it
opened, the crowds crossing caused it to sway from side to side at a fundamental
frequency. This made others walk in step and the bridge began to oscillate even more.
The bridge was quickly closed and dampers fitted. Again, this is a service limit state
because of excessive deflections - though this time laterally rather than vertically.
LIMIT STATE FAILURE MECHANISMS
Fatigue
Subject to repeated bending stress
Tacoma Narrows
Strength of material deteriorates
Avoid locations of stress concentration
S-N curve - assess-and-monitor or overdesign? S
Accidental
Unexpected incident N
Vehicle hits suspenders or ship hits pier
Provide Armco barrier and fendering
Kobe viaduct
Designed for lesser earthquakes
Not a design condition for the structure
Fatigue caused by repeated bending results in loss of strength of the material itself.
The classic example was the failure of the Tacoma Narrows suspension bridge (upper
photograph above), which is shown to most engineers at college. The bridge was
designed to resist predicted winds but the deck fluttered violently at speeds
approximately half these, 19 m/s (42 mph),. It originally was thought of as a service
failure (similar to the Millennium bridge), and it gained a reputation as ‘Galloping Gertie’
in such winds - with people ‘thrill-seekers’ using it from July through November of 1940.
However, the repeated flexing caused loss of strength due to fractures at points of stress
concentration and it eventually collapsed violently but with no loss of life (apart from a
dog).
It is possible to design members using the low stresses determined from horizontal
section of S-N curves. However, this is not necessarily the most economic option. It is
better to assess the number of cycles and use appropriate stress levels on the inclined
section of the graphs. By eliminating stress concentration points, design can be carried
out economically. Where fatigue damage is suspected, then monitoring the structure
can provide prior warning of damage.
Accidental limit states are not normally a design condition for the structure itself. They
are caused by unexpected incidents that would cause the structure itself to be totally
uneconomic.
As an example, we might consider a lorry that hits the suspension wires of a bridge or a
wayward ship hitting the support piers. We do not design the bridge to resist this: we
add Armco barriers or marine fendering to deflect such impacts back into the main flow
and thus protect the bridge with secondary structures.
Another example might be the Kobe elevated roadway (shown above), a 3 km section of
which fell over during the 1995 earthquake. Japan is a seismic region and the viaduct
was designed to resist what was thought a safe level acceleration. However, the shallow
event that hit the city occurred within 20 km (12 miles) of the centre, and at Richter 7.2
was well beyond what had been assessed as reasonable.
Design methods 205
LIMIT STATES FOR PIPELINES
What do you think the limit states may be

for a pipeline?
Ultimate
Service
Fatigue
Accidental
End condition rather

than the initial cause
Try to concentrate on the end condition, rather than what leads up to it.
Accidental limit states are normally not a design case for the pipeline itself. However,
we need to assess the likelihood of the incident, and to provide protection if required to
reduce the consequences to an acceptable level. For this reason, the cause does become
important.
LIMIT STATES FOR PIPELINES
Ultimate
Pipe bursting or collapsing (thin wall or corrosion)
Service
Insufficient throughput rate (bore too small)
Too low a delivery temperature (poor insulation)
Inability to pig line (bends too tight)
Fatigue
Loss of material strength (flexing at a dent, span VIV
or installation wave motion)
Accidental
Blockage of pig (trawlboard, vessel or
Reduced operating pressure } anchor impact dent)
Although not essential, we have included some of the possible causes to help understand
the issues.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND FOR

PIPELINES
Pipeline codes rooted in 1950s

BS PD 8010, IP6, ASME/ANSI B31.4 and B31.8
Engineers had slide-rules,
not computers
Allowable stress design (ASD)
Codes based on not going over yield
Later modified for reel-lay
Limited number of cases considered
Single factors of safety (or ignorance)
Combined all the unknowns together
Widely used pipeline engineering design codes such as ASME B31.4, B31.8 and BS PD
8010 specify generalised safety factors that were appropriate to technology and standards
of control in the 1950s.
Design was normally undertaken using slide-rules rather than calculators, so simplified
procedures were specified of necessity. It was common to consider only a limited
number of ultimate and service cases. Some codes do not even include the installation
case as one of these.
This design methodology is often termed allowable stress design. These techniques were
based on not taking the material beyond yield, although adaptations were subsequently
made to these codes to include strain-based design, such as required for reel-lay.
We can now rapidly undertake analysis of many cases using spreadsheets or more
advanced analysis methods. We can include the separate uncertainties associated with
the material and the loads, which may differ for each case under consideration.
This means that today, the allowable stress design (ASD) codes are now considered as
excessively conservative in some areas.
Design methods 207
BASIS FOR 0.72 DESIGN FACTOR
Pipelines are commonly designed

to operate at 72% of SMYS
This is derived from:
Mill tests to 90% SMYS hoop
Allow 80% of that in operation
0.9 x 0.8 = 0.72
Arbitrary
Not written in stone !
Has resulted in a few failures
The derivation of the 0.72 usage factor for pipe wall hoop stress is shown above.
The inherent level of safety which was chosen is quite arbitrary. However, it resulted in
few failures.
THINGS HAVE IMPROVED
Manufacture Offshore
Better steel Better welding and
compositions and NDT
control Better pressure
Better thickness and measurement and
ovality tolerances control
Better factory welds Better corrosion
Better defect detection control
Better inspection and
repair
We can take advantage of the technological improvements in manufacturing and control,

shown above.
SAFETY MARGINS INCREASED
Probability
Burst
Operating Pressure
Pressure
Today
Today
1950
1950
Pressure
Bigger safety margin
All aspects of pipeline operations and manufacture will have tolerances. Over the years,
careful measurement of the various aspects have provided us with a better knowledge of
numerical values for these individual tolerances.
The combination of these may be represented on a probability graph, as shown above.

The two ‘skewed bell curves’ for the operation and strength of pipelines (shown in solid
red) were originally close together, with negligible overlap.
By better control of the operational loads and the strength of the pipe (shown in yellow
dashes), the two curves have been pulled apart from each other, so the effective safety
margin has increased.
This gives scope for new design methods to safely reduce the strength of the pipe or
increase the load.
Design methods 209
NEW DESIGN APPROACH
Consider the true failure conditions for the

pipeline (not necessarily yield)
Assess the consequences of failure
Apply rational safety margins
Derived using separate partial safety factors
applied to materials and loads for each failure case
Codes set down these factors
Basis of new approach is:
Limit state
Risk and reliability
The new design techniques move away from the potentially arbitrary design criteria of
previous codes.
They are based on the actual failure conditions of the pipeline combined with an
assessment of the consequences of failure.
Safety margins are defined to give an acceptable and definable reliability.
Separate partial safety factors are set down in the codes (both for materials and loads,
and for each failure condition) in order to achieve these margins.
PRIZE
Provide confidence in level of safety

Meet tougher challenges and
extend technical boundaries
Higher pressure for same wall
Extreme temperatures
Deep water
Non-trenched lines
Develop smaller fields
Give lower costs
Trawl board impact on unburied line

The need for new design techniques has come from a number of drivers, as indicated
above.
These are principally the need to meet demands of lower cost and tougher technical
requirements, whilst maintaining an adequate (and fully assessed) level of safety.
Examples where new design techniques are being used are shown in the rest of this
module.
LIMIT STATE DESIGN - SUMMARY
How safety factors were developed

Allowable stress at yield
Single FoS / basis of 72% SMYS
Improvements in
Manufacture
Measurement, inspection and corrosion control
Increased margins permit
Cost saving
Safely extend technical boundaries
Higher temperatures, pressures and deeper water
Any questions?
We have examined how the pipeline codes were developed in the 1950s. They were
based on not permitting the pipe steel to yield and having a single factor of safety.
Typically, for most codes worldwide, the permitted safe level of stress was 0.72 SMYS.
We now have improvements in manufacture of the pipe both in control of tolerances in

material and geometry. Installation and operation of pipelines is better with improved
measurement and inspection.
This new approach to design permits cost savings, or alternatively more throughput
down existing lines. We can now consider higher temperatures or pressures and deeper
water lines.
Design methods 211
Derivation of Safety Factors
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS
How do code writers select safety factors?

Quantified using risk and reliability analysis
Also called structural reliability analysis
Define what all the failure modes are
Finds the risk of each occurring
Determine safety classes
Sets individual partial safety factors
on loads and materials to give
acceptable, uniform risk of failure
Apply safety margins rationally
Modern codes (such as the suite of structural Eurocodes for steel, concrete, aluminium,
masonry, timber, soils and seismic or the AISC LRFD code) are all written using limit
state principles.
The limit state codes use partial safety factors on loads and materials, rather than the
generalised safety factors used by the traditional design equations.
These are derived by the code writers using the method of risk and reliability. This is
also known as structural reliability analysis in the US.
Each possible failure mode is defined and an assessment is made of the risk of each
occurring.
For pipelines, a range of safety classes has been defined.
The partial safety factors appropriate for each class are determined by the writers of the
codes using reliability methods, which define the distributions on the load and strength.
The safety factors are therefore applied rationally to give a specific level of safety.
The following slides give an overview of the risk and reliability methodology.
WHAT IS RISK?
Risk = probability x consequence

Numerical values for each
High
Highest
Consequence of failure
risk
Medium
risk
Lowest
risk
Low
Low Probability of failure High
Risk is normally defined as the product of probability of an event occurring and the
consequences of that event. A simple Boston square is illustrated, which gives a means
of presenting and comparing levels of risk.
The consequence of failure is often determined in money terms with a price being put
on each life lost.
The probability of an event happening is usually determined by the use of event fault
trees, reliability block diagram or Markov methods, where reliability values and Boolean
logic calculate the likelihood of failure.
A failure that has a high probability of occurring and a high consequence would be
considered high risk.
For most systems, risks in the red and yellow squares must be removed by design. Even
those in the green squares should be removed if the costs of doing so are low.
More detailed systems now exist with more boxes and bands, numerically quantifying the
likelihood levels for each axis. Perhaps these would have six bands – the lowest being
something likely to occur at least once per year, and the highest being an event occurring
less frequently than every 10 000 years.
Knowing the consequence of failure, we can determine the appropriate or target level for
the probability of failure.
Design methods 213
TARGET RELIABILITY
DNV OS-F101 pipeline safety classes

Failure frequencies acceptable to society
Safety Description Probability
class of failure
Minor consequence to life or
Low 10-3 /yr
environment
Significant consequence to life or
Medium environment under temporary 10-4 /yr
conditions
Significant consequence to life or
High 10-5 /yr
environment under normal conditions
Pipelines are assessed in DNV OS-F101 into one of three safety classes, depending upon
the consequence of failure and period of risk. The associated frequencies or probability
of failure normally considered acceptable to society are derived in order to give uniform
risk.
Note that probability of failure is stated in terms of a number of failures per year for
each pipeline. That should mean longer pipelines need better factors than short ones.
However, this is not reflected in the present codes.
Whereas we have been emphasising up to now just how accurate the code writers are in
the derivation of the load and strength probability distributions, this table seems
somewhat arbitrary. However, it reflects common practice for safety engineers in only
using the numbers 1, 2 or 5 multiplied by a power of ten for their answer.
For pipeline designers, there are only these three safety classes. Other industries (such as
nuclear) use more.
FACTOR SELECTION BY CODE

WRITERS
DNV selects factors of safety Limit state and

allowable stress designs
Failure modes often result in similar sizes
but the former
Loads and tolerances
can be justified rationally
Strength and tolerances
Monte-Carlo for load and DNV adjusts factors

strength distributions
No
Acceptable failure rate?
Yes
Probability of failure
Ensure consequence of failure
< acceptable target level
The basic reliability assessment method is shown in this flow diagram. Each step of the
process is described in the following slides.
The partial safety factors and their values are adjusted to ensure that the consequence of
failure is less than a target level deemed acceptable to society.
DNV OS-F101 FAILURE MODES
Ultimate failure modes

Burst through over-pressure
Burst through corrosion defect
Leak through corrosion defect
Burst through upheaval buckle
Service failure modes
Insufficient flow through wax
buildup on walls
Low arrival temperature through
insulation degradation
Plus others
The first activity is to identify all of the things that could go wrong and lead to a failure.
This listing of failure modes on a particular contract is also known as a risk register.
Design methods 215
Examples of some of the possible ultimate failure modes and how they might occur are
itemised above.
MONTE-CARLO PREDICTION
Random number generator (0 to 1)

Actual probability distributions
Probability
Probability
Probability
Pipe diameter Wall thickness Material strength
Plus others such as ovality, eccentricity and weight
Derive probability for
Characteristic
pipe burst strength
Probability
5%ile
Pressure in pipe derived
in a similar manner Burst strength
A number of measurements are taken to guarantee line pipe conforms to the

specification. These include the minimum and maximum diameters at the ends and
along the length of an individual 12 m (40ft) pipe, the ovality, wall thickness, yield and
ultimate strengths of the steel and the pipe unit weight.
By deriving the actual probability distributions for the measured tolerances in pipe
manufacture, it is possible to find the distribution of pipe strength in bursting when
subjected to an internal overpressure.
Typically, a random number generator produces a figure between 0 and 1.000. Using the
total length of ordinate bars on a histogram, the value of the random number can be
read along as a proportion of this, so determining a value for each parameter.
Nowadays, use of computer programmes can determine exact values, independent of the
width of the histogram bars.
Depending on the shape of the individual curves, generated numbers can be applied to
each of the variable distributions, deriving values for the diameter, wall thickness and
material strength for a particular pipe. (Pipe parameter combinations outwith those
given in API 5L or ISO 3183 are rejected.) However, for pipe within tolerances, an
individual burst strength can then be calculated.
In a Monte-Carlo prediction, thousands of runs are used to produce the probability

distribution for pipes, and the 95% characteristic value determined.
A similar process can be applied to derive the distribution of pressure in the pipe along
with the characteristic load.
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
For each failure mode, define the loads

For each load combination, quantify
Expected variations
Accidental variations
Measurement tolerances
Apply Monte-Carlo to get load distribution
Random number generator
Uses probability distribution
Many thousands of combinations
Combined probability graph for loads
For each failure mode we need to consider the load that could lead to that failure. For
that load we need to first identify the load equation and those parameters that contribute
to the load. For example, if the failure mode is burst through over-pressure, the load is
pressure differential across the pipe wall and the parameters that contribute are the
internal contents pressure and the external hydrostatic pressure.
For each load parameter we then quantify the potential variations and distributions for
that parameter.
We then apply a probabilistic technique, such as Monte Carlo simulation, to the load
equation to determine the distribution of load.
Monte Carlo simulation uses random number generators and the probability
distributions of the particular loading condition. After many thousands of runs, the
combined probability graph can be derived for the loads.
Not that the code developers have chosen partial safety factors for the variations and
distribution in loads. The designer only has to assess the loads and combinations, and
apply the factor to them.
Design methods 217
STRENGTH DISTRIBUTION
For each failure mode:

Define the material properties and
parameters to resist the load
For each property, quantify:
Expected variations
Accidental variations
Measurement tolerances
Apply Monte-Carlo to get strength
distribution
We take the same approach to determine the distribution of strength. The following
slide shows the combination of the load and strength distributions on a probability
density graph.
Note that the code authors have undertaken this work for us, assessing all the tolerances
and defining the appropriate partial safety factors.
PROBABILITY OF FAILURE
Calculate characteristic strengths and loads

Set at 5% or 95% confidence levels
Find probability of failure
Intersection between strength
and load curves
Assess consequence F[r,s]
Failure domain
S
of failure (high - low) R
Risk is probability
x consequence
Derive safety factors
R,S
From the Monte Carlo simulations, the code writers calculate the characteristic values
for the strengths and loads.
The probability of failure is then the overlap between the two curves.
Separately, the consequences of failure are assessed.
The risk is then simply the product of the probability and the consequence.
From this, it is possible to derive a set of suitable safety factors to maintain risk at a
suitable level.
COMPARISON OF APPROACHES
Working Material Material

stress yield 0.2% ultimate
due to load (elastic) (plastic)
True load-
FoS multiplier derives factored load
factor method
Older API and BSI

FoS – derives permissible stress
allowable stress
methods
Euronorms &
current BSI
limit-state γload γmaterial
Probability
Risk of
Charac- failure Charac-
teristic teristic
5%
load, Gk 95% strength, fk
Stress
We may represent the increasing stress levels first due to the loads and then the yield and
the ultimate strength of the material on a linear graph.
The load factor method simply multiplies the load and checks whether it is less than the
elastic limit of the material. This is generally used when the method of calculating the
load is not rigorous.
In API and older BS codes, a slightly different approach reduced the yield stress by a
factor to obtain a permissible working stress for the material. This was then compared
with the calculated (un-factored) working stress due to load. Failures occur using the
load factor and allowable stress methods, but it is difficult to identify whether the
problem lies with the loads or the strength due to the single combined FoS.
With the modern DNV, BS and Euronorms, the limit state method is used. It is
recognised that the stress due to the load varies over time and may be represented by a
probability curve. Similarly, the strength of the material will vary, though over a
narrower band. By applying one partial safety factor to the characteristic loads, and one
to the characteristic material strength, these probability curves are brought together. The
partial factors on the loads cover a number of combinations. Note the shape of the
probability curves are different for each. The material factor (which is deemed here to
incorporate tolerances on the shape of beam) can be defined as a much sharper curve
than that of the loads. This is due to extensive testing and tighter quality control during
manufacture. Improved testing can result in smaller partial factors, and ultimately a
more economic design.
Design methods 219
The small area of overlap represents where the system would fail. It is normally quoted
in terms of powers of ten per year: e.g. 10-3, 10-4 or 10-5 yr-1. More sensitive or critical
designs attract higher confidence levels, thus necessitating either higher strength material
or thicker wall.
In designing using the limit state method, there is no need to worry about the shape of
the probability curves. The modern codes take care of these by adjusting the factors that
are applied to the characteristic loads (which are defined at the 95% confidence level).
DERIVATION OF SAFETY FACTORS -

SUMMARY
Boston square
Cost and likelihood of failure determine risk
Acceptable target probabilities for pipelines
Risk and reliability
Assessment of probability of failure
Failure at overlap of load and strength distributions
Used to derive partial safety factors
Comparison of approaches
Load factor, allowable stress and limit state
Any questions?
We have introduced the concept of risk being dependent upon the costs and likelihood
of a failure occurring. This can be represented on a Boston square.
The acceptable targets for pipeline failure given in DNV OS-F101 are categorised into
three safety classes.
The procedures for risk and reliability assessment result in probability distributions for
loads on the pipeline and its strength. The area where these overlap is used to assess
likelihood of failure.
Such graphs are used by the code writers to derive appropriate partial safety factors.
Finally, we underlined the three main approaches used by designers showing how older
codes used the yield strength but the limit state codes also use the ultimate strength.
DNV OS-F101 design
LIMIT STATE DESIGN AND DNV

OS-F101
DNV OS-F101 2000

Submarine Pipeline Systems (DNV OS-F101)
Comprehensive method for pipeline design
Increase in calculation effort over API 1111
Associated publications
Recommended practices
Design guidelines
Limit states categories for a pipeline
Ultimate, serviceability, fatigue and accidental
DNV OS-F101 design for buckling
DNV OS-F101 embodies the limit state design methods and, in conjunction with
associated supporting documents, covers all aspects of pipeline design. It is generally
more comprehensive than API 1111 but at the cost of a slight increase in calculation
effort.
As previously stated, there are many limit states for a pipeline with several categories of
limit state. We have already covered the categories commonly used.
As an example, we will give a flavour of the document in how it designs for buckling.
Design methods 221
DNV OS-F101 STRUCTURE
Gudesp Multispan Guideline X

Trawlboard Deepipe
Design of Deepwater
JIP JIP
pipelines
Spanning Guideline 13
RP F105 Interference between
Spanning pipelines Trawl Gear and Pipelines
Existing CNs, RPs, Guidelines and rules RP F101

CN30.5 Environmental conditions Residual strength of corroded Residual
CN30.6 Structural reliability analysis pipelines [internal pressure] strength
DNV JIP
of marine structures
RP F101
RP O501 Erosive wear in piping OS-F101
Residual strength of corroded
systems
pipelines [external pressure]
Guidelines for flexible pipes
Rules for verification of flexible risers
and pipes
RP B401 Cathodic protection design Guideline X Hotpipe
RP E305 On-bottom stability Design of HP/HT pipelines JIP
Guideline X
Reeling - Fracture assessment Guideline X upheaval buckling Upheaval
Reeling Laying buckling
JIP Criteria JIP
SUPERB
This diagram illustrates the general structure of the code. The code is supported by a
number of guidelines and recommended practices, many of which are recently developed
or still in the process of development.
DNV OS-F101 APPROACH
Ultimate [ULS] Fatigue [FLS]

Bursting Pressure cycling
Local & global buckling Vibration
Unstable fracture & Accidental [ALS]
Plastic collapse
Dropped objects
Serviceability [SLS] Trawl gear hooking
Ovality Earthquake
Accumulated plastic
strain
Damage to or loss of
concrete coating
Yielding
Ratcheting
DNV OS-F101 makes extensive use of limit state design. The areas are shown above.
ULS - ultimate limit state

SLS - serviceability limit state
FLS - fatigue limit state
ALS - accidental limit state
EXAMPLE OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN
DNV OS-F101 local buckle limit state

Load-controlled condition
Operating pipeline subject to:
Bending moment
Axial force and
Internal overpressure
DNV combines three limit state conditions
All contribute and interact
Causing local buckle failure
As an example of limit state design, we consider one of the local buckle limit state
functions defined by DNV OS-F101.
For this, the criteria uses load-controlled conditions with internal overpressure. That is
the load conditions representative of an operating pipeline on the seabed.
This limit state function considers local buckling due to combined loads. It therefore
combines a number of individual limit state conditions and defines how they interact.
BUCKLE CRITERION
DNV OS-F101 criterion

Internal overpressure with load-controlled bending
⎛ Sd ⎞
2 ⎛ 2⎞ 2
⎜ Md ⎛ Δp d ⎞ ⎟ ⎛ Δp d ⎞
γ SC ⋅ γ m ⎜ ⎟ + γ SC ⋅ γ m ⎜ ⎜
⋅ 1− ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎟+⎜ ⎟ ≤1
⎝ α c ⋅ pb (t 2 ) ⎠ ⎟ ⎝ α c ⋅ pb (t 2 ) ⎠
⎜ α c ⋅ Sp ⎟ ⎜ α c ⋅ Mp
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
Ratio of Ratio of Ratio of

applied axial applied moment internal over-
force to plastic to plastic pressure to burst
axial force moment pressure
γSC , γm and αC are safety factors

Design methods 223
The criterion given by equation 5.23 of DNV OS-F101 is based on several ratios and
factors.
The first ratio is the applied axial force to the plastic compression force. The total axial
force is the resultant of the applied tension, submerged pipe weight and end pressure
load.
The second ratio is the total applied moment to the plastic moment. This gives us the
tendency of the moment due to the buckling bend to cause a plastic hinge in the pipe
wall.
The third ratio is the internal over-pressure to the collapse pressure. This gives us the
tendency of the pipeline to maintain its shape whilst pressurised.
There are several partial safety factors included in DNV OS-F101. These are included in
the equation to help improve the accuracy of the buckling prediction for ‘real life’
conditions.
Where:
■ Md = Design bending moment
■ Mp = Plastic moment resistance
■ pb = Burst pressure
■ Sd = Design effective axial force
■ Sp = Characteristic plastic axial force resistance
■ t2 = Nominal wall thickness less the corrosion allowance
■ αc = Flow stress parameter accounting for strain hardening
■ γSC = Safety class resistance factor
■ γm = Material resistance factor
■ Δpd = Design differential overpressure
LIMIT STATE DESIGN - SUMMARY
Identification of limit states

ULS, SLS, FLS and ALS
Derivation of safety factors
Risk-based approach
DNV OS-F101 design approach
Core and associated documents
More comprehensive than API 1111
Considers all limit states
Local buckles - three interacting limit states
Load controlled condition with bending, axial and overpressure
Any questions?
For a particular pipeline design, it is necessary to assess the limit state conditions that
apply.
The authors of the particular code have previously determined the particular safety
factors to be considered as variables to the input. Risk and reliability are used to provide
a logical derivation of the values.
The DNV approach has a number of documents that are fully compatible with limit
state design methods making it a more comprehensive approach than the API 1111 –
although the latter is slightly simpler to use.
Local buckles such as lateral or upheaval buckling are deemed to be load controlled
combined with the bending moment, the axial force and overpressure.
Design methods 225
HP/HT AND HIPPS
HIPPS AND HP/HT
High Integrity Pressure Protection System

(HIPPS)
Limits the maximum operating pressure of pipeline
Used on HP/HT systems
High pressure / high temperature (HP/HT) definition
Greater than 690 bar (10 ksi) and more than 150°C (300°F)
High pressure wells are typically in the range
400 to 1000 bar (5 800 to 14 500 psi)
High temperature wells are in the range
100°C to 160°C (212°F to 350°F)
Generally associated with deep reservoirs
As oil is found at ever increasing depths below the sea bed, then the technology required
to extract the oil must meet the specific design that this entails.
Although the definition for an HP/HT reservoir is one with pressures over 690 bar and
temperatures over 150°C, the term is more loosely applied when one of the parameters
lies just outside this range.
Deep reservoirs are naturally more highly pressured as a result of the greater depth.
Reservoir pressure is typically relative to the water column above it. Reservoir
temperatures are relative to the earth’s temperature, which is also a function of depth
below the surface.
Flowline design pressure is usually based on the shut-in wellhead pressure, which is
usually significantly greater than the operating (flowing) pressure.
HIPPS
Reduce wall thickness – 30% cost reduction

Not 100% reliable therefore full pressure design in
critical (high safety class) regions
Used on Kingfisher project since 1997
508 mm (20in) production line:
Host platform ~ 250 bar to 350 bar (3.6 ksi to 5.1 ksi) (low pressure)
~ 30 km to 50 km (20 miles to 30 miles)
100 bar
102 mm (4in) chemical injection line (full pressure)
(1.5 ksi)
102 mm (4in) service/test line (full pressure)
200 bar (3 ksi) 690 bar (10 ksi)
operational shut-in
through choke pressure
Manifold
with HIPPS
Fortified zone for Fortified zone for
people proximity surge collapse
500 m (1640ft) safety zone
Because shut-in wellhead pressures can be much higher than normal operating pressures,
there is wasted pipeline capacity other than in upset conditions. High integrity pressure
protection systems (HIPPS) have been developed to allow pipelines to be designed for
the flowing pressures rather than the shut-in pressures and to provide a high degree of
confidence that the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) of a pipeline will
not be exceeded.
This has the potential to offer significant cost savings to production flowlines from
satellite developments, where there would be a possibility that the pipeline would see
shut-in wellhead pressures (SIWP). For example, if an SSIV (subsea isolation valve) or
ESV (emergency shut-down valve) were activated.
In a HP/HT development project, the cost of the pipeline can be 75% of total budget.
By providing a thinner wall pipeline, cost savings of a third may be made. Any pipeline
over 20 km (12 miles) with pressure rating of bar 350 bar (5ksi) or more may benefit.
The limit on pressure also applies to other equipment at the platform.
The HIPPS system is not 100% reliable and therefore other precautions are typically also
taken, for example:
■ Design pipeline for no burst in case of HIPPS failure

■ Increase pressure rating in critical areas ie riser and SSIV to full SIWP
The Kingfisher project went on line in late 1997, and the system operated with no
problems until a series of transmitter faults were reported by the HIPPS system. These
were successfully resolved by a modified maintenance regime using methanol to clear the
orifices of the input lines to the detectors.
Despite attracting much attention – as the savings in flow-line costs were several million
dollars and the whole project was brought on stream early and under budget – the
solution was not repeated for five years. Once proven, however, many repeat systems
followed in the North Sea, with over 20 systems installed up to the end of 2005.
Design methods 227
HIPPS LAYOUT
Methanol Small bore

inlet line bypass line
Maintenance/test valve
V1 V2
From wells To platform
Initiators P1 P2 P3
Logic solver
HIPPS
Control system
with redundancy
This illustrates the typical HIPPS configuration. It consists of:

■ High reliability pressure barrier (typically two gate valves)
■ High reliability over pressure detection system (typically three pressure sensors)
■ High reliability controls system to operate pressure barrier (typically fully redundant
subsea control module)
■ By pass line to de-pressurise behind barrier if activated
HIPPS STANDARD
IEC 61508 standard

Performance-based, non-prescriptive
Verifies safety of potentially hazardous installations
Four safety-integrity levels (SILs)
Higher number - safer
HIPPS systems
One valve SIL 3
System SIL 4
Land-based
emergency shut-
down systems
HIPPS system on
In use for subsea skid with full
over 30 years diameter bypass pipework
Functional safety standard IEC 61508 ‘Safety Standard for Safety Instrumented Systems’
is a performance-based, non-prescriptive method of verifying safety of potentially
hazardous installations.
IEC61508 and its companion IEC61511 are the new standards for the life-cycle
management of instrumented protection systems, and will become common-place in
major contracts across all process industries in the near future. The need to specify
quantitative safety targets for overall systems, and for their separate protection sub-
systems, has grown rapidly over the last ten years. This feature has become known as
Functional Safety and numerous standards and guidelines have emerged, most of which
incorporate the idea of safety-integrity levels (SILs).
The quantified target (either a failure rate or a probability of failure on demand)

determines which of four target SILs is called for. The higher the SIL then the more
onerous the qualitative requirements to be observed during the life-cycle. There are
different requirements for high and low demand equipment.
For the low demand mode of operation, the standard has associated average
probabilities of failure to perform its design function on demand as follows:
■ SIL 1 : ≥10-2 to <10-1

■ SIL 2 : ≥10-3 to <10-2
■ SIL 3 : ≥10-4 to <10-3
■ SIL 4 : ≥10-5 to <10-4
An individual valve may only reach SIL3. However, it is possible to achieve a SIL 4 for
the complete HIPPS system by using redundant components. Experience and
confidence with similar emergency shutdown valve systems has been gained on land-
lines, where they have been in use for over 30 years.
Thus, safety-integrity is addressed from two points of view:

■ Meeting the numerical failure rate target
■ Meeting the qualitative requirements for the SIL in question
HIPPS REQUIREMENTS
Operates independent of other systems at

installation
Overpressure quickly isolated at source
Initiators
High accuracy set-point (1%)
Voting logic
Valves
Robust but slower actuators and valves
Spring-operated ESDV – closures less than 5 s
Actuator oversizing (5 times)
HIPPS are designed to operate totally independently of other control systems operating
the pipeline or installation.
The overpressure in the main line is quickly detected and isolated at the source.
Design methods 229
This is done using three or more initiators with a very high accuracy of set-point. This is
typically 1% or better.
The voting logic determines if a situation is safe or unsafe based on the output of the
initiators. The valves automatically operated by the logic system with no input from
operators.
Because long flowlines will not be subjected to the full pressure immediately, it is
possible to use robust but slower actuators and valves to shut off the flow. Such units
are cheaper than fast closure equipment.
The actuators are normally spring-driven and are oversized to ensure closure. Typical
stroking times usually less than 5 s, although this is dependent upon the diameter and
length of the line.
HP/HT AND HIPPS - SUMMARY
Deeper wells will have relatively higher

pressures and temperatures
HIPPS systems limit the maximum
operating pressures in the pipeline
Therefore enable thinner pipe walls to platform
Main features of initiators and valves
IEC 61508 standard
SIL levels for function on demand
Any questions?
As oil is extracted at ever greater depths, the pressures and temperatures of the well
fluids increase. This then requires the development of pipeline systems that can
accommodate higher pressures and temperatures.
The increases in temperatures can mean significant increases in wall thickness of the
pipelines to ensure pressure containment. HIPPS systems have been developed to limit
the maximum operating pressures within the pipelines at greater depths.
The objective is to enable thinner walled pipe to be installed and so save on the cost of
the pipeline materials.
The main features of the HIPPS initiators and valves have been listed. These need to be
supplied to IEC 61508 in order to ensure that the system functions on demand at the
appropriate SIL level.
FISHING INTERACTION
NON-TRENCHED PIPELINES
Traditional UK practice - 406 mm (16in) rule

Pipelines less than this diameter trenched
This and larger diameters not trenched
Basis
Shell tests (late 70s)
Subsequent Department of Energy guidelines
Now small diameter lines left on seabed
untrenched when safe to do so
Foinaven and Schiehallion
USA – trench all inshore and larger lines
Smaller lines self-bury in soft sediments
Pipelines are trenched for three reasons:

■ stability
■ insulation
■ protection from trawl gear
Trenching for stability reasons is seldom needed except in shallow waters. The main
reason for trenching in the past has been for protection of the pipeline from trawl gear.
Traditionally in the North Sea, all pipelines of less than 406 mm (16in) diameter have
been trenched. Whilst there has never been a legal requirement for this, the UK
Department of Energy issued guidelines in 1984 (based on work carried out by Shell)
which spawned the 16in rule of thumb for trenching of small diameter pipelines.
More recently, limit state design has been applied to the interaction of trawl gear on
pipelines leading to a number of developments not trenching small diameter lines.
Reference: OTH 561 - HSE Offshore Technology Report - Guidelines for the
Trenching Design of Submarine Pipelines, prepared for HSE by Jee, 1999.
Design methods 231
In the US, regulations differ: larger diameter lines and those in shallow water close to
shore must be buried. States have different distances from shore or depths to determine
what pipelines are classified as ‘inshore’.
In the softer sediments of the Gulf of Mexico smaller diameter pipelines will self bury
and there are no large trawlers cutting through the seafloor. However, a risk has been
identified of the small, local shrimp-boat trawls snagging on larger pipelines: an incident
has occurred in shallow water caused by a vessel hitting and rupturing a large diameter
gas-line, resulting in the total loss of boat and crew in the resulting fireball.
TYPES OF TRAWLING
Pelagic trawls
Warp
Large vessels fishing Otterboard
midwater (herring and
Net
mackerel) Bridle
Weights can touch seabed
Weight
Demersal beam trawls
Large steel beams hold net open
Tickler chains force Warp
fish upward Net
Beam impacts directly

with pipelines Beam
A number of different types of trawling are used. Some of these can impact with
pipelines or subsea structures.
Pelagic (mid-water) trawling is not normally a problem for the oil and gas industry.
Although these powerful boats are extremely large, operating out of port for many
months at a time, the trawl nets are held open with doors (or otterboards) that are
designed to stay above the height of pipelines and well head manifolds. By adjusting the
speed of the vessel, the net height can be lifted or lowered to intercept shoals of fish.
However, the risk is from the weights used to keep the net down. These inevitably
touch the bottom from time to time and are typically 1.1 tonnes up to as much as 5
tonnes. The vessels operate at 1.9 m/s (3.75 knots) to 2.8 m/s (5.5 knots) for the faster-
swimming mackerel.
Beam trawls are used for whitefish and flatfish (sole plaice or megrim). Two nets are
trawled from warps attached from either side of the vessel. The beams used to hold the
net open can be 9 m to 12 m long and weigh up to 10 tonnes. Towing speeds are
between 2.1 m/s and 3.6 m/s (4 and 7 knots). The fishing grounds may be as deep as
200 m (650ft). Allowance needs to be made for added mass of the water in and around
the beams, the chains and other gear.
Scallops are also dredged using drag rigs, sometimes with a number of small toothed
nets trailing behind a bar. However, the size and weight of these bars is somewhat less
than for beam trawlers.
Reference: A Fishing Industry Guide to Offshore Operators published by the Fisheries

and Offshore Oil Consultative Group March 2001, ISBN 0 7559 0162 2.
TYPES OF TRAWLING
Demersal otter trawls

Commonest trawling method (round fish & shell fish)
Mud plumes guide fish into mouth of nets
Otterboards and clumps impact and drag
Boards can
get stuck Warps
Otterboard
under spans
Fishermen follow Clump Sweep
Bridle Net
pipelines (FAD) Headline
floats
Depths to 1000 m Bridle Groundgear
rockhoppers
(3300ft)
The commonest method of trawling uses bottom or demersal otterboards. These are of
a slightly different shape to those used for pelagic trawling.
The fish are demersal (bottom dwellers) or benthic (live in the mud), such as cod, flatfish
and nephrops (scampi). They are of higher value at market than pelagic fish, which tend
to come ashore already sold, fully prepared for the supermarket shelves.
Otterboards are used to hold the nets open. The floats on the headline lift the top of
the net and the groundgear (kept somewhat behind the headline and consisting of chain
and circular rubber disks called rockhoppers) ensures that the mouth of the net is kept in
close contact with the seabed. The fish are guided into the net by plumes of mud
disturbed by the heavy otterboards (trawl doors). Smaller fish can escape through square
mesh panels in the net but larger ones collect in the cod-end.
The otterboards are between 5.3 m² and 8 m² (57ft² and 86ft²) and weigh between 1.4
tonnes and 3 tonnes. Again allowance should be made for added mass. The central
clump weights are roller or drag chain type and can be as heavy as 2 tonnes. Towing
speed is between 1.3 m/s and 1.8 m/s (2.5 and 3.5 knots).
It is common for these trawlermen to closely follow pipelines. These are fish attractive
devices (FAD) because of the warmth and protection from currents. Trawl scars can
even be found in the seabed above buried pipelines.
There are other types of fishing used throughout the world (such as purse seine, gill
netting, baited lines, creels and lobster pots) but these have little effect on oil field
developments.
Design methods 233
DESIGN APPROACHES
Overtrawlable
Structure cannot snag trawl equipment
Otterboard, ground equipment and nets ride over
Cannot be damaged by warp wires
Smooth surface - truncated pyramid
No obstructions or gaps
Not too high
Fisher-friendly
Location noted on charts
Structure catches trawl gear but does not hold fast
Trawler reverses and easily recovers gear
Preferred by some fishing associations
There are two approaches made by the offshore oil and gas industry when designing
structures for the seabed.
Pipelines and many well heads, manifolds and valves are normally designed to permit
trawling over them.
A common approach is to make the protection structures from tubular members with
infill panels in a truncated pyramid shape. The side slopes are typically 50° or less and
the height less than about 5 m (16ft). The panels are often hinged or removable to allow
access in the future.
Trawl boards can jam in any gaps left beneath or within the framework. Warps can hold
fast, or be guided by protruding bolt heads or other features and act as a cheese wire,
cutting into the structure. With high structures and steep sides, it is possible for the
rockhopper disks to tighten around the corner diagonals.
A lot of such protection structures, although still being installed as overtrawlable, are
not.
It is perhaps a surprise that some enlightened fishing associations (such as the SFF)
actually prefer structures not to be classified as overtrawlable but ‘fisher-friendly’. This
means that they are labelled as such on charts and fishermen avoid them. However,
should a trawl approach such a structure, the gear will not pass over it. The trawler can
reverse and recover the nets easily. This means that the structure should have no
overhanging snags or hooks that might cause the warps or bridles to be caught fast,
preventing recovery.
TRAWL GEAR VIDEO
Jee has carried out research on the interaction of trawl gear and pipelines. The video clip
shows the various types of trawl gear, their motion across the top of the pipeline and the
resultant loadings on it. These are discussed further in the next slide.
Note that the term ‘warp’ refers to the wire leading from trawler down to the trawl door
(or otterboard). For pipeline interaction, we are concerned with sea floor (demersal)
fishing for cod, flatfish and shrimp rather than the mid-depth (pelagic) species.
The picture shows two typical V-type, steel otterboards as used in the North Sea.
EFFECTS OF TRAWL GEAR
Effect Consequence Limit state Remedy

Impact Dent Fatigue or Coating or
Serviceability trench
Pullover Deflection and Ultimate Trench
yielding (local buckle)
Hooking Deflection and Ultimate Trench
yielding (local buckle)
Gear snagged Ultimate Inform
(gear loss)
Design methods 235
There are three main interaction effects due to trawl gear passing over pipelines.
The first is the impact when the gear first comes into contact with the pipeline. This is
similar to a dropped object impact and can result in a dent. The main protective
measure against it is to apply a coating to the pipe.
The second effect is the pullover force as the gear is pulled over the top of the pipeline.
This can drag the pipeline and bend it, in extreme cases resulting in a local buckle. The
remedy for this would be to trench the pipeline to get it out of the way of the trawl gear.
The third effect is hooking of fishing gear on the pipeline. In other words, the gear
passes under the pipeline and becomes entangled to the point where it comes fast. For
small diameter lines, when the fishing vessel pulls hard it will lift the line and release the
gear, so there is no permanent entrapment of the gear. The implication is that the design
of the flowline needs to accommodate accidental lifting of the line by a height sufficient
to release the trawl gear.
For larger diameter lines, 324 mm to 406 mm (12in to 16in) and above the vessel may
not be able to lift the pipeline sufficiently before the warps break and this tends to be
more of a problem for the fishermen than the pipeline.
(Protection using rock dump is covered elsewhere.)
FISHING INTERACTION - SUMMARY
Two approaches for structures

Overtrawlable and fisher-friendly
Significant impact and bending loads were
thought to be applied to small diameter
pipelines by trawl gear
Trenching small diameter pipelines was
previously the solution
Modern limit state design no longer
requires all pipelines to be trenched
Any questions?
We have covered the types of trawling that may impact with subsea oil and gas pipelines
and seabed structures.
The two approaches for protection are to make them fully overtrawlable or to ensure
that fishermen will be able to recover gear if they clash.
Previous pipeline design philosophy was to assume that trawl gear interaction could
impart significant impact and bending loads to small diameter pipelines.
In the North Sea, it was usually specified that small diameter pipelines were trenched to
protect them from trawl gear. However, modern limit state design codes applied to
recent pipeline designs has meant that some small diameter lines are no longer required
to be trenched to protect them from trawl gear interaction.
Design methods 237
VORTEX-INDUCED VIBRATION
DESIGN OF STEEL RISERS
Hydrodynamic loadings
Give rise to bending
Oscillatory loads
Waves and currents
Vortex shedding
Give rise to fatigue
The riser experiences hydrodynamic loadings from the seawater flowing past. The riser
is therefore subjected to bending. Fluctuating loads due to waves and VIV will induce
fatigue damage.
WHAT IS VORTEX SHEDDING?
As a fluid flows past any bluff body, such as a riser, it will not be able to stay attached to
the body. The flow separates from the body and vortices form behind it. These vortices
are unstable and are shed and drift downstream. This is illustrated above. The coloured
contours show the vorticity in the flow (i.e. areas where fluid is swirling).
Vortices are being shed alternately from either side of the riser. The shedding frequency
for a rigid riser depends only on the riser diameter and the fluid velocity. As the velocity
increases, so does the shedding frequency.
VORTEX-INDUCED VIBRATIONS
(VIV)
Vortex shedding frequency
Locked-in
Cross-flow
2 x Nat.freq.
Non-flexing
riser response
Locked-in
In-line
Nat.freq.
Flexing riser
response
Flow velocity
Design methods 239
The changing flow patterns cause fluctuating drag and lift forces on the riser. These
fluctuating loads cause the riser to oscillate. When the frequency of these forces is close
to the natural frequency of the riser span, the riser resonates and large-amplitude
vibrations occur. This effect is vortex-induced vibration.
Vortex-induced vibrations occur in two forms:

■ In-line vibrations (where the riser moves backwards and forwards in the same
direction as the current flow) and
■ Cross-flow vibrations (where the riser motion is at right angles to the current flow).
The figure above shows how the riser response changes with current velocity. Initially
the vortex shedding frequency increases linearly with the flow velocity. As the frequency
of vortex shedding approaches the natural frequency of the riser span, the amplitude of
oscillations increases. The riser oscillations then start to control the vortex shedding and
the riser oscillations and the vortex shedding lock-in at the natural frequency of the riser
span. At first this will be in the form of in-line vibrations.
As the current velocity increases further, the in-line vibrations die out and are then
replaced by larger-amplitude cross-flow motions at twice the natural frequency of the
riser.
TRIALS OF PIPELINE VIV - VIDEO
The video shows the results of a test of a pipeline span in a tow tank. The short section
of pipe is sprung at the ends in order to permit movement.
We first see the in-line vibrations from the top of the pipe, then as the velocity increases,
the camera angle moves to the rear and the more violent cross-flow oscillations occur.
PREDICTING RELATIVE RESPONSE

OF VIV
1.2
0.8
Amplitude a/D
0.6
0.4
In-line Cross-flow
0.2
0.15
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Reduced Velocity Vr = V / (Fn× D)
An overview of the response of vibrations is illustrated above. The axes are non-
dimensional amplitude and velocity.
As flow velocity increases, in-line vortex induced vibrations are initiated. The first mode
of in-line oscillations is caused by symmetrical vortices being shed. The second mode is
caused by asymmetrical shedding.
At higher flow velocities, the fluctuating loads due to the asymmetric shedding induce
vibrations in the cross-flow direction. These are of much larger amplitude.
VIV SUPPRESSION STRAKES
Strake mouldings
banding strapped
to pipeline
Strakes fitted to
CRP installing chimney for wind
strakes on stinger VIV suppression
Design methods 241
The oscillation of the pipe will give rise to fatigue damage. If the analysis of VIV
predicts that fatigue life will be too short, then the solutions are to support the riser
more frequently or to add VIV suppression devices (such as helical strakes) to the span.
Strakes are a familiar sight on the tops of tall factory chimneys. They disrupt the
vortices to give a confused but steady wake, thus removing the excitation force. They do
increase the drag (about double), so the hydrodynamic loadings need to be checked
again. Strakes are also used to suppress vibrations on long risers (where adding a guide
is obviously not an option).
Note that strakes are available in a range of pitches and heights.
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS
Since we are looking at technology issues in this course, here is a brief word about the
use of CFD (computational fluid dynamics), which in the broadest of terms is like finite
element analysis for fluids.
The above diagram shows a CFD model of flow around a straked riser. This analysis
was done by Jee in order to understand the behaviour of fluid flows around strakes with
different configurations.
This study was the first step towards improving and optimising the strake profile to give
maximum suppression for minimum drag.
OTHER VIV SUPPRESSION OPTIONS
More supports
Reduce effective span length
Shrouds
Fixed
Fairings
Fixed or rotating Perforated shroud with barnacles
Perforated Axial slatted Guide Streamlined Splitter plate Flexible

shroud shroud vane fairing fairing haired fairing
For rigid risers fixed to jacket legs using sleeves, one option is to reduce the effective
length between the supports. Guides will reduce the span length, increase the natural
frequency, lower the reduced velocity (perhaps moving the riser out of the cross-flow
regime) and reduce the bending stresses.
Shrouds or splitters can be used. A range of designs is shown above. They work in
slightly different ways.
Shrouds have the advantage in that they are omni-directional. They are effective from
whichever way the current comes. They disrupt the flow around the riser and break up
the vortices.
Where there is a dominant direction of current flow, fixed vanes or fairings can be used.
If the current direction is not constant, then these units need to be allowed to swivel
around the pipe. Streamlined fairings work by allowing the flow to remain attached so
that vortices are not formed in the first place. They have the advantage in that the forces
acting on the pipe can be greatly reduced. Splitter plates do not stop vortices forming,
but they separate the flow passing on each side of the riser and prevent the vortices from
interacting. This stabilises the flow and stops the vortices from being shed.
The photograph shows a square perforated shroud on a riser. However, it also shows
that the grill openings are ideal niches for marine growth, which may block and nullify
the protection.
Design methods 243
VORTEX-INDUCED VIBRATION -
SUMMARY
Loads on risers
Hydrodynamic forces
Oscillatory loads
VIV and fatigue
Strakes and shrouds
Any questions?
The main design aspects included bending forces due to structural considerations but
also wave and current loads.
The latter might result in fatigue caused by vortex-induced vibration.
Strakes and shrouds were examined as a solution to this problem.
CURRENT DESIGN METHODS -

SUMMARY
Limit state design

Numerical evaluation of risk
HP/HT and HIPPS
Long step-outs
Fishing interaction
Need for pipeline burial
Reduced fatigue life
Any questions?
By making use of limit-state methods and risk-based design, it is possible to provide a

logical basis for determining pipeline rupture frequency.
HIPPS makes safe use of thinner wall pipe on long step-outs.
Proper evaluation of fishing effort and activity enables unburied pipelines to operate at
appropriate levels of risk.
Reduction in VIV means extending the fatigue life of risers and spanning pipelines.
Common work
Common work 247
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Construction survey
Route preparation
Welding
Non-destructive testing (NDT)
Whichever method of installing the pipeline – be it flowline or trunkline – there are

some common activities which apply to all installation methods.
We are required to survey the pipeline route before and after pipelaying. This module
provides the common types and equipment used for surveys. The preconstruction
survey ensures that the route is clear. Here, we examine the particulars for this route
survey.
Where the seabed is not suitable, some activity may be necessary to clear or improve the
route.
At present most pipelines are welded. The main methods of welding are covered along
with the non-destructive testing needed at each and every weld.
CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
SURVEYS DURING CONSTRUCTION
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Year 10
TYPICAL PROJECT
Seismic exploration
Exploration drilling
Deep seismic Feasibility
and metocean Conceptual design
Front end engineering design
Desktop Detailed design

Procurement
Construction
Production drilling
Commissioning
Geophysical and Prelay,
Operation
geotechnical post-lay and
post-trench Inspection
As-built
As we saw earlier, a number of surveys are carried out during the construction period.
Here, we will particularly look at the pre-lay, touchdown during lay, post-lay, post-
trench, post-burial and as-built surveys.
Common work 249
PRE-CONSTRUCTION SURVEY
OPERATIONS
Confirms route remains clear

Additional survey for minor changes to route
Cover full width of anchor pattern
Towed sonar fish, ROTVs and AUVs
Detailed surveys for areas of remediation
Sandwaves to remove
Pockmarks to fill
Rock to clear away
Towed equipment and ROVs
Details of tie-ins at wellheads and riser
Length of spools
ROVs and divers
It is often the case that minor additions to the survey route will be required.
Occasionally, discrepancies in the original work need to be resurveyed to prove the route
remains clear of shipwrecks and debris. This work is usually undertaken using towed
fish, vessel-mounted sonar or remotely operated towed vehicles (ROTVs). Sometimes,
additional survey work is needed to cover the full width between the anchors: the final
anchor pattern is determined by the particular vessel and the client may not have
covered sufficient distance from the pipeline centreline. Autonomous underwater
vehicles (AUVs) can be used to undertake longitudinal and transverse lines efficiently.
Where there are mobile sandwaves, the area needs to be resurveyed to estimate the
volume to remove. Other areas that require improvement are often resurveyed in more
detail by the rock-dump or blasting sub-contractors. In addition to the towed fish,
remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) are ideal for detailed surveys of smaller areas. Where
improvements have been made immediately before laying, the new condition of the
seabed is resurveyed to confirm its condition.
It is useful to resurvey the tie-ins in more detail. This may be to confirm the orientation
of the wellhead and double check the length of the spools to be used. For these tasks,
we can use ROVs, or even divers in shallower waters.
At present, we do not re-test the soils along the pipe route – whereas for cable
installation, this is now becoming standard practice.
SURVEYS DURING & POST

CONSTRUCTION
Monitoring of touch-down point

Confirms stress in pipeline less than yield
Pipeline kept within construction corridor
±5 m or ±3 m (±15ft or ±10ft)
Tighter tolerance at pipeline ends, crossings and bends
ROVs and vessels
Post-lay
Checks for spans at undulations of seabed
Remediation requirements
ROVs and ROTVs
Post-trench and post-burial or rock dump
Cross-section of trench and depth of cover
ROVs and ROTVs
The touchdown point of the pipeline is continuously monitored to ensure no overstress

of the pipeline by whichever method of lay.
It is important that the line be maintained within the construction corridor. This is
generally set at 10 m (30ft) wide although at the ends of the pipeline and critical points
such as crossings and horizontal bends it may be less.
Following laying, surveys determine where spans need rectification. If the pipeline is to
be trenched, then the depth and shape of trench is measured. Where burial or rock-
dump is required, then the cover is checked to prevent upheaval buckling. Normally, a
combination of ROV and ROTV surveys provide assurance to the client that the
pipeline has been installed in accordance with specification.
Common work 251
CONSTRUCTION SURVEYS -
SUMMARY
Pre-construction
Route resurvey and preparatory work
Touchdown position
Avoid buckling of pipeline
Post-construction
Assure client that pipeline installed to specification
Any questions?
Pre-construction surveys are undertaken to assure the contractor that the design survey
has identified all obstructions and where preliminary work is needed.
Surveys are carried out at all stages of construction to provide assurance both to the
contractor and the client that the pipeline is being installed according to the
specification. That is, it has not been overstressed and it is within the corridor permitted
with no unexpected spans, and for trenched pipelines it is at the correct depth.
ROUTE PREPARATION
START-UP ANCHORS
Initiation target box

±3 m by ±5 m along centreline (±10ft by ±15ft)
Start-up anchors
Distant from end of pipeline – 5 to 8 x water depth
Fixed points Chains and rings
Large mooring anchors on seabed
in a pattern
Individually tested
Driven pile
Suction (can) Wire and chain
to laybarge
anchor Pipeline end
target box
Clump
A target box for the end of the pipeline will have been defined in the coordinate system.
The coordinates are often defined as Eastings and Northings with reference to the
universal transverse Mercator (UTM) for a particular geoid such as ED50 – the
European datum defined in 1950.
The fixed point is often a long distance from the target box. For high tension
installation methods, such as S lay, it can be 5 to 8 times the water depth beyond the end
of the startup point. Often, such anchor legs are referred to as having a ‘scope’ of 5 to 8.
The holding power of a number of standard anchors can be utilised. Each is individually
positioned and tensioned against the vessel’s own anchors or a temporary anchor laid
specifically for the purpose at the bow. The groundleg chains are joined with rings and
brought together to connect to the abandonment and recovery wire of the lay vessel.
Though four anchors are shown here, with very high tensions 8, 12 or 16 high holding
capacity anchors may be required.
Alternatively, a pile or suction anchor may be installed with an attached length of

groundleg chain. This pile is normally removed after the installation.
Common work 253
The clump anchor is the simplest method but it limited to shallow water and low
tensions. A dead weight of concrete and steel is placed on the seabed – it relies on
simple friction so the submerged weight needs to be three or four times the holdback
tension. It is most suited to sandy bottoms with higher friction coefficients than mud or
clay soils.
The wire is attached to the installation head on the end of the pipeline. Its length is
carefully adjusted to ensure the pipeline touches down within the box.
It is rare that a pipeline can be initiated using the existing structure of the platform. This
is because of the distance required and alignment. Also, the forces mean that the jacket
structure would need to have been designed with this use in mind.
ROUTE PREPARATION
Route preparation means clearing and

preparing the route for pipelay:
Debris removal
Rockdump rough terrain
Prepare start-up and laydown locations
Prepare crossings
Pre-sweep sandwaves
Debris removal involves shifting objects which may have been dropped or dragged onto
the route since the route survey. These will normally only be moved if they present an
obstruction (or in the case of unexploded munitions, a danger) to pipelay and cannot
easily be avoided. If the pipeline is to be trenched, disused cables, anchor chains and
wires will be cleared or cut so as to avoid tangles with the trenching equipment.
On the approaches to the Norwegian coast, there have been instances where large piles
of rockdump have been placed to support a pipeline across submerged valleys which
would otherwise have led to unacceptably long spans.
Startup and laydown locations sometimes need a layer of concrete mattresses to keep the
pipeline ends clear of soft soil, with the flooding valves accessible to ROV or divers.
Also, there are cases where a separate anchor or pile may be installed for the laybarge to
pull against, though this operation is usually done by the laybarge itself.
The sketch at the bottom of the picture shows a typical crossing construction, where
concrete mattresses have been placed either side of an existing pipeline. This allows the
new pipeline to be laid across, and then rock-dumped for stability and making the system
overtrawlable.
PRE-SWEEP SANDWAVES
120 m (400ft) max
Pre-sweeping to clear (or reduce) sandwaves is normally carried out by trailing suction
hopper dredgers, such as that shown schematically above and in the picture below. A
pipe with a suitable head is trailed at the required depth and the spoil sucked up into the
hold of the ship. Excess water is skimmed off.
The pre-sweeping is undertaken only a few days prior to the pipe-laying operation to
reduce the risk of the area being naturally backfilled prematurely.
The maximum operating depth for such a vessel is in the region of 120 m (400ft).
However, sandwaves typically occur where the water depth is less than this, and there is
a mobile sandy seabed with high currents.
Common work 255
TRAILING SUCTION HOPPER

DREDGER
Queen of the Netherlands, courtesy Boskalis Offshore bv
Typically the sand and water mix is sucked up and discharged into the hold. The water
and fines drain off and discharge directly to sea through the overflow. A plume of fines
is inevitably discharged into the sea.
It may take 2 hours to fill the hold before the vessel sails to the discharge site.
The sand can be discharged in three ways:

■ by directly opening the hopper doors and dumping through the water column onto
the seabed. Although some fines are lost in this way, the dump is rapid and this
minimises discharge of a plume
■ by pumping through a fall pipe or the suction pipes down to the seabed. This
results in a cleaner water column at the spoil site and may be needed for
environmental concerns.
■ by pumping through floating hoses or spraying from a ‘trumpet’ at the stern to
discharge onshore in a land reclamation area. Again this minimises the amount of
fines in the water
So it can be seen that most of the loss of fines in a plume is during the loading operation
rather than the discharge.
SAKHALIN - VIDEO
Glory Hole
SALM Buoy
Rock Pad
Pipeline
The Russian Sakhalin development – just north of Japan – has to contend with frozen
seas in winter. The SALM buoy is stored in a glory hole during these months.
The film shows the excavation and levelling of the glory hole using a trailing suction
dredger. Additional seabed preparation was carried out for the pipeline and to provide
scour protection for the platform.
Because the pipeline was only two kilometres (a mile and a quarter) long and the site is in
a new area of development, a crane barge was adapted with the addition of a stinger to
become the laybarge.
ROUTE PREPARATION - SUMMARY
Remove debris, soft areas and fill hollows

Prepare startup anchors
Prepare crossings of existing pipelines
Sand wave presweeping
Undertaken just days before pipelay
Any questions?
Common work 257
The route is prepared for the pipeline in advance of pipelay activities.
This means that any debris between the outer laybarge anchors may have to be removed.
Hollows or soft material along the route may need to be filled to provide a sound
foundation for the pipe itself.
At startup and laydown, there may be clearance requirements or deadman anchors may
need to be installed.
Where the route crosses existing pipelines, protection must be given to prevent damage.
If the route cannot avoid sandwaves then these are removed just days before the laying.
This avoids the waves reforming due to current movement.
WELDING
WELDING
Three welding techniques used on firing line

SAW sometimes used for double headers
Joint preparation - V or U shaped welds
Manual, semi and fully-automated
Welding specifications for steel pipe
Defects and defect detection
There are three welding techniques that are commonly used on laybarges to join the
individual pipes together on the firing line.
We are not including in these the SAW method that we saw used for pipe manufacture
and which is sometimes used to join two 12 m (40ft) sections into a ‘double header’ or
‘double joint’. This necessitates rotating the pipes in a separate bay.
For all three techniques, we are going to examine the preparation of the pipe ends, the
shape of which is determined by the welding method and whether it is manual or
automated. The former produces V shaped welds, the latter produces the more efficient
(narrower) U shape. The standard bevel end to a pipe is for V slots: the alternative J
preparation is for U slots.
We will touch on the need to prepare full welding specifications and look at the methods
and types of defects which need rectification.
Common work 259
WHAT IS WELDING?
Most expensive operation for offshore lines

General welding requirements
Means of melting or fusing metal
Strength at least that of pipe wall
Other physical properties to be acceptable
Testing coupons
Exclude air from weld
Remove oxides from the weld
Field-welding is the most expensive factor in construction and is the most common
method of joining pipe sections for oil and gas pipeline construction.
The weld deposits should have a tensile strength at least equal to the parent metal, and
with a compatible chemical composition.
Most welding methods used for pipelines use a filler material (electrode) and an electric
arc between the electrode and the pipe to melt the metal.
Test coupons are used to prove the other properties of the proposed welding method.
These relate to the brittleness and toughness of the surrounding pipe steel as well as the
weld.
Air needs to be excluded from the weld deposit. This is done by the use of a gas as a
shield. Some methods also use a flux, which forms a layer of slag over the solidified
weld material.
WELDING
General welding considerations

Welding techniques
SMAW - stick
GTAW - TIG
GMAW - MIG
Welding methods
Manual
Semi-automatic
Fully automated
A number of techniques are used for field jointing of pipelines, the most common being
shielded metal arc, gas-tungsten arc and gas-metal arc welding. Their common names
are stick, TIG and MIG respectively.
The latter two of these lend themselves to semi-automatic and fully automatic processes.
The shielded metal arc is solely a manual method, during which the welder fully controls
the position of the electrode and the speed of the formation of the weld. This ‘stick’
technique is very common where there is a skilled workforce readily available. This
includes the USA. Repairs of defects in automated welding are often undertaken by
trained welders using SMAW.
By semi-automatic, we mean that there is some input from the welder. He needs to
adjust the lateral position of the ‘bug’ to ensure that the weld follows the correct track.
This is a very common method in Europe.
Fully automatic welding employs a laser device so that the bug can be guided
automatically. The welder is only required to fit the track and start the operation. This
is yet to gain common acceptance in the offshore pipeline industry for field-welds but is
often used for factory operations - such as the SAW method for pipe manufacture.
Common work 261
SHIELDED METAL ARC (SMAW) -

STICK
Flux coating
Arc between Consumable

electrode and pipe electrode
Evolved gas shield
Slag layer
(to be removed)
Core wire
Weld metal
Parent metal or previous weld pass
Shielded metal arc welding is also known as stick welding or manual metal arc (MMA).
Heat is provided by an electric arc that melts a consumable electrode and also some of
the parent metal. When it cools, it hardens to form one pass of the weld.
The consumable electrode serves as one pole of the arc, the pipe steel being welded as
the other pole. Electrode, steel pipe and arc make up an electric circuit back to the
power source, which may be either DC or AC. A covered electrode has a solid metal
core and an outer layer of material that insulates the core from accidental contact with
the pipe wall. The core covering also provides gas to shield the weld from air and it
may also contain special elements to improve weld quality.
Manual methods using stick electrodes are limited in the amount of weld metal that can
be deposited in a single operation. This is due to the volume of metal contained within
the electrode. Before a new electrode is started, the weld metal needs to be exposed by
removal of the slag layer.
SMAW is mainly used on steels, including carbon steels, stainless steels and nickel alloys,
and can be applied over a wide range of thicknesses. Materials require cleaning
following welding, but because of the flux/slag, some minor contamination is
acceptable.
SMAW CROSS-SECTION
Cap pass
Filler passes
Hot pass
Root pass
30° angle bevel

25 mm (1in) plate
1.5 mm (1/16in) root face
Courtesy of CRC-Evans
The first two welds - the root and hot passes - may be completed by the line-up team,
with the bulk of the welding finished by follow-up welders. The thinner capping layer
aims for a smooth finish to eliminate stress concentration build-up. The root pass is
critical - it can “burn through” the wall and melt away the metal, dropping it into the
pipe. A removable copper ring is sometimes attached to the line-up clamp in order to
prevent this.
The aim is to deposit a similar amount of weld material on each pass. It is not desirable
to place too much in a single pass because of stresses that build up on cooling. Cracking
of the adjacent parent metal may then occur.
The root pass can be made from inside the pipe and subsequent passes from the outside
(though normally, all would be made from the outside). Slag needs removing before the
next weld pass or coating repair. Thin-walled pipe may only require one filler pass.
Limitations of this method are that it is not an easily controlled process, and can
therefore result in shape defects, slag inclusions, Hydrogen Induced Corrosion Cracking
(HICC) and arc strikes. The direction of welding (whether it is from above, or vertical
or even from beneath) must be taken into account. Access for the welder and the length
of the rod must also be considered, especially when working underneath the pipe (in the
overhead position).
Common work 263
SMAW METHODOLOGY
Consumable stick
electrode with covering
(usually cellulose)
Weld shielding by CO2
released from electrode
coating
Welder positions electrode and
compensates for electrode consumption
Welder has to stop when electrode fully
consumed
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC (GTAW) - TIG
Ceramic gas nozzle
Gas shield Tungsten electrode

Arc Reel feed
Filler wire
Weld metal
Parent metal or earlier weld pass
An inert gas shield is required when welding with tungsten electrodes using the gas-
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) process.
This process is particularly suited to welding thin material and to depositing the first
weld bead (root pass) because penetration can be controlled more easily than with other
welding processes. Good heat control is possible with this process and it is possible to
weld with or without filler metal.
The non-consumable electrodes are not deposited as part of the metal weld. The steel
being welded is melted, and the electrode serves only as one pole of the electrical circuit.
Usually with pipeline welding, however, a filler wire is fed into the weld joint, providing
additional material. The filler wire is supplied from the reel feed.
GTAW METHODOLOGY
Also known as Tungsten

Inert Gas (TIG)
Semi-automatic or automatic
Non-consumable tungsten
electrode
Filler metal wire fed
continuously to weld
Shielding by inert gas -
supplied externally
GTAW can be used on all weldable materials including steels, stainless steel, nickels,
aluminium, magnesium, copper and reactive metals such as titanium. It can weld up to
around 6 mm (0.25in) joint thickness if done manually.
Automated GTAW methods can weld thicker sections. The materials must be very
clean both chemically and mechanically as there is no flux/slag as in SMA.
Its limitations include

■ Can result in tungsten inclusions in weld
■ Root concavity
■ Limited penetration/fusion
■ Crater pipes and porosity
■ Needs high pressure inert gas supply with own inherent safety issues
■ May need water cooling supply to torch
Common work 265
GAS METAL ARC (GMAW) - MIG
Reel feed
Gas
nozzle
Gas shield
Arc
Consumable
electrode
(filler wire)
Weld metal
Parent metal or earlier weld pass
This is similar to GTAW but the electrode is now consumed from the reel. It also
provides filler material for the weld.
This is the method used by the CRC-Evans automatic welding machine - a popular and
well-proven method dating from 1980s.
GMAW METHODOLOGY
Also known as metal inert gas (MIG)

Semi-automatic or automatic
Consumable electrode wire fed continuously to
the weld
Shielding by externally supplied inert gas (usually
argon)
No flux build-up
‘Fast and furious’
Use of surface tension transfer (STT) – more control
Similar end preparation to GTAW
Gas metal arc welding also uses heat from an electric arc. The arc is covered by an inert
gas, such as argon or helium. The inert gas shielded metal arc process uses a
consumable, continuous electrode. Since this process requires no flux, no slag is
produced on top of the weld. Gas for shielding is delivered to the weld area through a
tube. GMAW is particularly applicable to difficult metals and alloys susceptible to

contamination from the atmosphere and porosity. CO2 can be used as a shielding gas in
this method.
It can weld similar metals to GTAW and weld joint thicknesses from thin to very thick
sections. Pre-cleaning of the parent materials is required as there is no flux/slag.
Its limitations include

■ Lack of fusion
■ Porosity
■ Silica inclusions
■ Solidification problems (cracking etc)
When compared with GTAW, it has been described as being fast and furious. Some
weld specifications require the root and hot pass to be undertaken in GTAW, with the
filler and capping passes in GMAW. However, other specifications reverse this; it
should be noted that either method can be used for the whole weld.
The newer process of surface tension transfer (STT) overcomes the lack of control with
conventional MIG, and yet provides rapid controlled welding with minimal weld spatter.
This is commonly used for oil and gas pipeline installation though comparatively
unknown in other industries. The voltage and current are continuously monitored and
adjusted throughout the welding operation: it detects when a ball of molten metal is
discharged from the end of the wire electrode altering the potential and throughput
accordingly.
WELDING PROCEDURES AND

TESTS
Site welding
Welding procedures
Repair procedures
Welder tests
Weld tests
Non-destructive tests (NDT)
Destructive tests (sample coupon)
Tensile strength
Hardness
Toughness
Before any welding takes place on site, a full set of welding procedures are drawn up and
agreed. These will cover all standard welds to be used on the contract, agreement on
what defects can be allowed, what must be repaired, the method of repair for different
defects, and what will require a cut-out.
Welders will be tested to prove their individual competency on these procedures. These
welds will then be tested to prove the procedures are correct. Normally, non-destructive
testing is first carried out over the whole weld to identify defects, and then sections of
Common work 267
each test weld will be cut out to ensure that the tensile strength is greater than that of the
pipe wall, and that no problems exist with the weld hardness or toughness which might
give rise to brittle fracture.
JOINT PREPARATION
Weld bevel cut using 2.8 mm

pipe facing machine (0.110in)
Two pipe ends aligned
(0.312in)
7.9 mm
using line-up tool/clamp 1.0 mm 1.5 mm 1.6 mm
(0.060in)1.6 mm (1/16in)
(0.040in)
Normally semi-automatic (1/16in)
12.7 mm
(0.5in)
welding using GTAW or
GMAW
Applicable codes
(0.867in)
22.2 mm
UK - BS 4515, BS EN 288-9
USA - API 1104
Line pipe is usually manufactured and delivered with ends prepared at a standard 30°
bevel. To increase productivity with semi-automatic welding, this is modified to a J
shape resulting in a U shaped weld and reduced weld filler material. It is possible to
reduce the number of individual passes, saving both time and material.
The end of the pipe joint is prepared using a pipe facing machine which cuts a bevelled
edge. This operation normally takes between 2 and 5 minutes, depending on the pipe
wall thickness and skill of the operator.
The two bevelled pipe ends are then aligned using a line-up clamp. The root pass and
hot pass are made and the line-up clamp is removed. The filler passes are then made
using one or two automatic welding units.
JOINT PREPARATION
Line up & internal welding clamp
Joint facing machine
Joint aligning machine Dual-nozzle welding Single nozzle bug in

Photos courtesy of CRC-Evans machine (bug) use inside shack
Proper joint preparation is the first step in preventing weld defects. The ends of the
pipes must be clean and, if bevelled, must have the proper angle and thickness of bevel.
The gap between the ends of the pipe, if specified, must be prescribed for the pipe size
and welding methods used, and two joints must be properly aligned before welding
begins. Other factors affecting weld quality include proper welding current and proper
electrode angle.
Line-up clamps should be internal to provide concentricity of pipe bore and must not
cause scoring or otherwise damage the pipe surfaces. Each joint of pipe should be
swabbed with a leather or canvas belt disc of the proper diameter or cleaned to remove
dirt, grease, loose mill scale, or other substances before line-up. Pipes should be kept
free of dirt when work is not in progress. Open ends of pipe should be closed with an
approved cap or plug, securely fixed to prevent unauthorised removal.
Before welding, joints should be cleaned free of all paint, grease, oxide, rust and other
contaminants. Cleaning should extend for at least 30 mm (1.2in) from the joint on both
internal and external faces. Burrs, score marks, indentations or other small
imperfections may require smoothing out by filling or grinding. If these are serious, then
the pipe end may require cutting back and the joint re-preparing. If moisture is present
then the pipe may require drying, so that joints are completely dry. Welding is then
weather dependant.
Common work 269
SEMI AND FULLY AUTOMATED

WELDING
Semi-automatic
Fine positioning of electrode
controlled by welder
GTAW or GMAW
Automatic
Electrode controlled automatically
SAW, GTAW or GMAW Courtesy of CRC-Evans
Cap pass
Filler passes
Hot pass
Root pass
The manual method SMAW uses a fixed stick electrode that is consumed as the weld is
made. The welder controls the position of the electrode and arc, and compensates for
the consumption of the electrode end. Once the electrode is fully consumed, the welder
has to stop and replace the electrode. He then chips away to remove the slag in order to
restart the next welding rod on clean metal.
Manual welders often have to work in unpleasant conditions: the weld may need
protection to prevent the wind blowing in dirt and grit, moisture and cold - all of which
can have an important effect on weld quality. To some extent, semi and fully automated
welding techniques remove some of the restrictions. Use of continuous wire eliminates
the restrictions on the maximum volume of metal contained in stick electrodes, so fewer
passes are needed. Semi-automatic methods use a consumable wire electrode or filler
that is fed automatically to the welding head. The welder still manually controls the
position of the electrode and arc, but does not have to stop to replace consumed
electrodes.
Among the advantages of automated welding machines are an increased weld deposition
rate, reduced volume of weld metal, improved consistency of weld strength, toughness
and NDT quality, reduced vulnerability of weld quality to human error, reduced physical
strain on welder/operator, ease of training operations, reduced manpower and
equipment requirements for heavy wall and large diameter pipe.
SEMI-AUTOMATED WELDING
Fewer welders but

increased support
Internal root
Change from standard welding
30° bevel to J shape

Line up clamp Bug rail
Bug rail attached

Pre-heat pipe
Operator monitors
bug position &
adjusts for accuracy
Photo courtesy of Pipeline Induction Heat Ltd
Prior to welding, the pipe is usually pre-heated using propane burners or induction units.
The induction type uses rapidly alternating electrical fields to induce eddy currents in the
pipe wall, which gives a uniform heat throughout the wall of the pipe. The pre-heating
causes the evaporation of any moisture near the weld site and allows a slower cool-down
rate after the welding. This reduces the problems associated with rapid cooling,
particularly hydrogen embrittlement.
Specialist line up clamps can be used to complete an internal bead run, which allows
greater tolerances on the joint fitting operations. Alternatively the bead (or root pass)
can be undertaken from the outside with just a simple clamp used to keep the two ends
together and aligned.
An external steel band is used as a rail to run the ‘bug’ or welding machine. The
operator needs to watch the bug ride along the band and make corrections using a
horizontal adjustment knob in order to correctly align the welding machine with the
centreline of the joint. The torch oscillates from side to side of the weld to ensure filling
of the gap.
The welds are made on one side of the pipeline from the top (12 o’clock position) down
to the bottom of the pipe (6 o’clock location). The weld on the other side of the pipe is
then completed, again in the downward direction. Immediately after the internal or
external root bead, the hot pass is completed. Then a number of fill passes are carried
out (dependent upon the thickness of pipe). Finally a cap weld is added in the same
manner. Typically, on large diameter lines, the whole operation from clamping to
completion of the root bead is a matter of a few minutes, with rates of 1 - 1½ m/min (3
to 5ft/min) for the filler runs. Multiple stations are used on laybarges to increase
productivity.
Common work 271
WELDING STEEL PIPE
Useful specifications
BS 2633 Class 1 arc welding of pipework
BS 2971 Class 2 arc welding of pipework
BS 4677 arc welding of stainless steel pipework
BS 4515 welding of onshore steel pipelines
BS EN 288-9 welding procedures
ASME B 31.3 process piping
API Std 1104 welding of pipelines
Company procedures or national standards
Local conditions - low ambient temperatures
The above provides a list of common standards used worldwide for welding and NDT.
There may also be company or national standards specified for a particular contract,
which take into account the particular conditions - perhaps the local steel quality or
particularly low ambient temperatures.
WELDING - SUMMARY
Three main types of welding

SMAW (stick welding, MMA)
GTAW (TIG)
GMAW (MIG) including SST
Joint preparation
Manual, semi and fully-automated
Welding specifications for steel pipe
Any questions?
There are three main methods of welding:

■ SMAW (Shielded Metal Arc Welding), also known as stick welding or MMA
(Manual Metal Arc) welding
■ GTAW (Gas Tungsten Arc Welding)

■ GMAW (Gas Metal Arc Welding)
Prior to welding, we need to prepare the joints to maximise weld integrity. Various
automated methods of welding are used in pipeline construction to increase efficiency.
Common work 273
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING (NDT)
STEEL WELD DEFECTS
Imperfections caused by
Poor welding technique
High residual stresses in component
Steels susceptible to
Porosity Axial crack
Transverse crack
Cracking
Solidification
Hydrogen
Reheat
Weld repair Slag inclusions Root crack
Lamination
in parent plate
initiates crack in weld
or lack of fusion
Full details and records should be kept on all welds and welders. Then if faults occur,
problems with a particular welder or his equipment can be identified. Strict controls on
weld quality means that testing must be done to ensure weld integrity. Comprehensive
inspection of all completed welds is also required. Weld defects must be identified and
prevented in future.
Cracking can be caused by:

■ hydrogen generated during the welding process
■ residual stresses acting on a welded joint
■ rolling laminations in the pipe itself or poor bonding with the adjacent steel.
Cracking is related to the parent material composition, thickness, heat input, stresses and
the presence of hydrogen
If a weld does contain imperfections (other than cracks) they may be repaired, but a
repair should only be attempted once at each weld. All imperfections should be
removed by grinding to clean sound metal. Should laminations, split ends or
longitudinal seam defects be discovered in pipe, the whole joint should be removed from
the line.
NDT METHODS
Dye penetrant inspection (DPI)

Also known as penetrant flaw detection (PFD)
Magnetic particle inspection (MPI)
Principle is magnetic flux leakage
Radiographic inspection
Ultrasonic inspection
DPI is a surface-only inspection method, applicable to all non-porous, non-absorbing

materials.
The advantages of DPI are:

■ it can be used on non-ferromagnetic materials (such as stainless steel)
■ it has the ability to test large parts with portable kit
■ it is simple, cheap and easy to interpret
Its disadvantages are:

■ it only detects defects open to the surface
■ careful surface preparation is required
■ it is not applicable to porous materials
■ it is temperature-dependant
■ it is not possible to retest indefinitely
■ compatibility of chemicals needs to be assured
Magnetic Particle Inspection detects surface and sub-surface imperfections in

ferromagnetic materials. A magnetic field is induced in the component and any defects
disrupt the magnetic flux. Defects are revealed by applying ferromagnetic particles.
The advantages of MPI are:

■ it detects some sub-surface defects
■ it is rapid and simple to understand
■ pre-cleaning is not as critical as with DPI
■ it works through thin coatings using cheap and rugged equipment
■ it is a direct test method

■ that it is applicable to ferromagnetic materials only
■ there is a requirement to test in two directions
■ demagnetisation may be required
■ odd-shaped parts are difficult to test
■ it can damage the component under test.
Common work 275
Although useful, DPI and MPI are not the prime means of ensuring that pipeline butt
welds are free from defects. For this, we use radiography and ultrasonics.
RADIOGRAPHY
Radiography can be X-ray or gamma ray

Permanent record of weld
Hazardous to health
Does not pick up all flaws
Access needed on both sides of weld
Pipe weld X-ray by Applied Inspection Ltd JME pipeline crawler
Radiography or ‘bombing’ imposes electromagnetic radiation on the test object, causing

radiation to be transmitted to varying degrees dependant on the density of material
through which it is travelling. Variations in transmission are detected by photographic
film or fluorescent screens. It is applicable to all metals, non-metals and composites. A
film is wrapped onto the outside of the pipe weld along with identifying alphanumeric
lead markers. A radioactive source on the inside of the pipe is exposed briefly from its
lead-lined container.
Its advantages are:

■ it provides a permanent record showing internal flaws
■ it can be used on most materials, giving a direct image of flaws

■ it is a health hazard so cannot be used adjacent to other workers (such as the
welding crews)
■ it is sensitive to defect orientation and has limited ability to detect fine cracks.
■ access both sides (internal and external) is required
■ it is limited by material thickness
■ the weld must cool down enough to place the film around the pipe, so this may be
the critical activity in the pipelay operations
■ Skilled interpretation is required, which results in relatively slow results with high
capital outlay and running costs.
PD 8010 requires 100% radiographic inspection for all welds in areas where leakage is a
hazard (e.g. offshore, road, rail, and watercourse crossings) or where repair is difficult.
API 1111 requires at least 90% (and preferably 100%) of welds be inspected by
radiography, UT or another form of NDT.
ULTRASONIC TESTING
Automated ultrasonic testing (UT)

growing in popularity
Close proximity to welding
Cool down for couplant
Heerema
Cost comparable to automatic
radiography pipeline
UT system
Shows weld defects in 3D
More confidence in
small defects
Wall thickness
has no effect Manual UT of
test weld
by Applied
Inspection Ltd
Until recently, pipeline weld inspection has been traditionally solely the domain of
radiography. With the advent of mechanised GMAW, ultrasonics as a method of
nondestructive examination has proven to be an effective option to detect non-fusion
defects orientated unfavourably for radiography. The mechanised UT of pipeline girth
welds is now readily available. However, the codes require the presence of a skilled
operator, able to undertake a manual review in order to confirm and verify the results of
the automatic UT.
With ultrasonic inspection, high frequency sound waves are introduced to material,
interfaces between materials of differing acoustic properties reflect or transmit sound,
the reflected sound is displayed on a monitor. Both manual and automatic techniques
are used - sometimes in conjunction with each other or with radiography. Although UT
can be used near the welders, the pipe does need to cool down before the couplant is
applied.
With mechanised UT inspection, the array of probes is moved around the girth weld by
a motorised carrier, which travels along the same track the welding apparatus uses.
Signals received by the ultrasonic instruments are monitored by electronic gates and both
amplitude of signal and its time of arrival can be collected. In evaluating the scan results,
the operator makes a decision as to weld acceptability based on the length of the signal
exceeding a threshold. Acceptability criteria for ultrasonic NDT is currently being
prepared.
Its advantages are:

■ it is sensitive to cracks at various orientations
■ it is portable and safe, with the ability to penetrate thick sections
■ it measures depth and through-wall extent
■ with automatic UI, the actual shape of the weld defect can be determined in 3D.
This enables acceptance of some minor defects that might have required repair
when using radiography
■ modern computer systems can give a pass/fail automatically, with only the
occasional need for further interpretation.
Common work 277

■ it is not easily applied to complex geometries and rough surfaces (though this is not
a problem with straight runs of line pipe)
■ it is unsuited to coarse-grained materials
■ it requires highly skilled and experienced technicians.
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING -
SUMMARY
Defects and defect detection

Methods
Radiography
X-ray, gamma ray
Ultrasonic
3D visualisation
DPI and MPI
Any questions?
After welding, the integrity of the weld needs to be confirmed, and several methods of
weld testing have been discussed along with the defects that they can find.
The two main methods are radiography and the more modern method of ultrasonics
which provides a 3D visualisation of the defects – giving confidence with smaller flaws.
COMMON WORK - SUMMARY
Surveys before and throughout installation

Towed fish, vessel, ROTV, ROV and divers
Preparation of seabed for laying
Soft sediment, holes, crossings and sandwaves
Startup – pipe initiation in target box
Welding methods
Semi-automatic and manual on firing line
Testing of every weld
Buckling at touchdowns and difficult to repair later
Any questions?
Surveys are needed throughout the lay process by a variety of methods.
The seabed generally requires some preparation prior to lay and a fixed point is needed
for initiation of the pipe lay.
The welding methods used for pipelay are covered. It is important to assure that every
weld is acceptable prior to laying because the pipeline experiences high stresses at
touchdown and repairs after laying are costly. Also, a flaw in the weld may result in
accelerated localised corrosion affecting the operating life of the pipeline.
Installation methods
Installation methods 281
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Rigid steel pipeline installation

S-lay – commonest method
Anchored or DP vessels
J-lay – deep water installation
Dynamic positioned vessels
Reel-lay – flowlines
Subjects pipe to plastic yield – stress analysis
Quayside construction – rapid layrate
Bundles and towed methods – flowlines
Land-based construction
Flexible pipelines – flowlines
Umbilical cables
This module introduces the major methods of installing pipe.
By far the commonest method is S-lay. This can be used for all water depths and for
flowlines and export lines.
In deeper water, the slightly slower J-lay method is employed. This requires DP to
maintain station. There is less pipeline stress near touchdown.
With reel-lay, bundles and towed methods, the pipelines are assembled on land and
either loaded onto a reel or towed to the field. Lay rates are more rapid, but the
methods are limited to the smaller diameters (or lengths) used for flowlines. With reel-
lay the pipeline is yielded as it is loaded onto the reel and again when it is straightened.
However, once it leaves the barge, it is installed in a similar manner to that of the J-lay
with minimum stress at touchdown.
Flexible pipelines and umbilical cables are installed in a similar manner. However, the
stresses are kept lower still because of the relatively non-robust nature of these items.
S-LAY
WHAT IS S-LAY ?
Takes its name from the shape of the

suspended pipe
Pipe must be tensioned to hold its shape
Overbend Area
Sagbend Area
Tension
S-lay takes its name from the suspended shape of the pipe at the end of the barge, which
lays in a gentle ‘S’ from the stinger to the seabed. The crucial feature of this method is
that the pipe must be held under high tension to hold its shape.
SAIPEM PIPER ANCHORED S-LAY

BARGE
The above picture shows a typical S-lay anchored barge.
This takes 12 m (40ft) lengths of pipe, which can be seen stacked on its deck. It places
these in a firing line, running down the centre of the vessel, and welds them up. The
pipe then runs out of the stern of the vessel down the stinger and into the water.
As the pipe is welded up, so the vessel is winched forward on an anchor system. It has
12 anchors, and 2 anchor tugs to position them, though only one anchor is moved at a
time.
LORELAY DP S-LAY BARGE

The above picture shows the Lorelay in front of a platform. The stinger at the back of
the boat is lifted, showing that it is not yet in pipelay mode.
As with the previous barge, it assembles 12 m (40ft) joints into a welded pipeline and S-
lays them onto the seabed.
The main difference is that it is a ship-shaped vessel rather than a barge, and applies the
necessary tension through dynamic positioning thrusters. The thrusters make it easier to
manoeuvre close to platforms than for anchored laybarges, which have to carefully
position their anchor cables to avoid clashes with the jacket legs during barge movement.
SOLITAIRE
Entered market in 2000

3 times size of Lorelay
Seven double joint or 24 m (80ft) weld stations
A further S-lay barge is the Solitaire, which is three times larger than the Lorelay and is
aimed at large diameter trunk lines. Welding and coating repair operations are divided
equally between seven workstations. The length of the vessel means that it is able to use
double-jointed pipes, so speeding up the lay rate.
On the Magnus EOR 610 mm (20in) line, it achieved an average lay rate of 8 km/day (5
mile/day) and a peak of 9.3 km/day (5.8 mile/day).
SAIPEM S-LAY - VIDEO
The Saipem video features the lay process of the Zeepipe.
The pipe was laid by two semi-submersible laybarges, the Castoro Sei and the Semac-1
with a fleet of support vessels including pipe carriers, supply vessels, anchor handling
tugs, guard vessels and survey vessels.
The continuous (24 hour) pipelay process is fully explained, including line-pipe leaving
the pipe coating facility, double joint length production, passage through the firing line
and barge movement.
INSTALLATION ENGINEERING
Working out how a particular vessel will

install the pipeline
Firing line sequence

Pipelay curve settings
Start and finish of lay

The purpose of installation engineering is to work out how a particular vessel will install
a pipeline.
It is the domain of the vessel owners and has two key activities. The first is determining
the firing-line sequence to spread the time needed to make the weld evenly amongst the
welding stations. The second activity is to set the pipeline curve. This is addressed in
the next slide.
Normally, pipelines which run from land will be laid from beach to platform. Interfield
lines can be laid in either direction. The initial holdback wire tension anchoring may be
the decisive factor.
LAY STRESS ANALYSIS
The installation contractor checks the

stresses in the lay curve
Anchor locations to ensure correct tension
Horizontal
firing line
Hog bend
Sag bend Lay

Stinger
curve
Anchor
Tension cables
The installation contractor will check the stresses in the lay curve, and from this will
determine the optimum stinger settings (these cannot easily be adjusted once pipelay has
commenced) and the tension to apply for a given water depth.
Inshore, the detailed anchor pattern locations will be worked out in order to avoid any
obstacles and yet provide the necessary tension at the sag bend. This needs knowledge
of the soil conditions on either side of the laying centreline.
ADJUSTING THE LAYING STRESSES
Adjust
Stinger roller settings (radius of curvature)
Stinger angle
Find
Tension for
given water
depths
Operating
conditions
Hold station
A&R
The installation vessel controls the stresses in the pipeline by setting of the stinger angle
and roller positions, and by controlling the tension.
At each water depth, the necessary tension to maintain the pipeline within safe stresses is
determined.
Each barge will have a maximum sea state for laying operations and holding station.
There will also be more severe weather conditions when the pipeline needs to be
abandoned - and the improved seas in which it can be recovered (A&R procedures).
TENSIONERS
The above pictures show tensioner sets. These are pairs of caterpillar tracks that are
hydraulically brought together to grip the pipe and apply a back tension.
Dead band for pipe tensioners is between +25% and -10% of set level, so normally the
pipeline is still. If it moves, then the welding kit moves with it.
The photographs show two pipe tensioners manufactured by SAS Gouda

(www.sasgouda.nl). The one mounted within the laybarge has a concreted pipeline being
launched though it. The unit still in their manufacturing facility is rated at 200 tonnes
(441 kip).
FIRING LINE SEQUENCE
Firing line is a production line where pipe

joints are welded and tested
Coating NDT Tensioners Weld stations
The firing line can be viewed as the factory assembly line for the pipeline. It runs down
the centre of the barge. The figure above shows the firing line for the Lorelay. In this,
new pipes are aligned and root-welded forward in the vessel (near the bow) and then
passed from right to left through the welding stations, having a filler welds and a cap
weld added.
As weld is added, the pipe passes through multiple sets of tensioners to the non-
destructive testing stations, where a radiograph is taken of the weld. From there, it
passes to the back of the ship where a field joint coating is applied, after which the pipe
passes down the stinger and into the water.
The key to the firing line is to make sure that the time taken to complete the entire
process is divided evenly amongst the stations. For example, if it takes 45 minutes to
complete the operation from alignment through to field joint coating and there are 9
stations, then the objective would be to spend 5 minutes at each station. If it were
necessary to spend, for example, 10 minutes at one station (and 4½ minutes at the
others), then this would slow the vessel speed to half and so would double the cost of
construction.
S-LAY PERFORMANCE AND COST
3rd generation laybarge:

4.5 km/day (2.8 mile/day) for single pipe
2 km/day (1.25 mile/day) for pipe-in-pipe
Guide cost $350 000/day
Typical depth limit 500 m (1640ft)
due to anchor mooring systems
Solitaire:
8 km/day (5 mile/day) for single pipe
Depth limit about 2500 m (8200ft)
due to 400 tonne (kip) tensioner capacity
The above slide contains some ball-park information on pipelay speeds, limitations and
vessel costs. However, it should be noted that these vary considerably from vessel to
vessel.
The pipelay market is an opportunity rather than a commodity market. The prices do
not necessarily reflect the cost of building and running the vessels. Instead, they climb
in busy years and drop in quiet years.
Two points of comparison. Firstly, due to its length and number of welding stations, the
Solitaire goes twice as quickly. Its DP system avoids the 500 m (1640ft) depth limitation
of anchor mooring, meaning that its limit is due to tensioner capacity.
Secondly, pipe-in-pipe systems take about twice as long to lay because they require about
twice as much welding. Typical figures are a maximum of 2 km (6600ft) per day, average
1.6 km (5250ft) per day.
An interesting point to note regarding the anchoring depth limitation and the type of
opportunity market, is that an anchored laybarge is being used for a large contract in
1100 m (3600ft) of water because of the lack of availability of other vessels in the
contractor’s fleet. The slower operations due to anchor movement did not increase
costs prohibitively.
S-LAY - SUMMARY
S-lay is horizontal assembly and laying in

an S-curve under tension
Large anchored and DP vessels
Installation engineering optimises the lay
rate
Any questions?
The S-lay method derives its name from the shape of the lay curve. The ‘S’ shape arises
from having a horizontal assembly or ‘firing’ line on the vessel deck. The pipe is then
laid under tension down to the seabed.
The high forces required to keep the pipeline under tension means that the installation
vessels need to be substantial in size with strong anchors or Dynamic Positioning (DP)
thrusters to react the required tension.
S-lay vessels usually utilise around four weld stations, and the lay-rate can be optimised
by the correct distribution of weld passes as the pipe joints travel along the firing line
through the weld stations.
J-LAY
WHAT IS J-LAY?
Name from shape of lay curve Upending Ramp
Single work station Work

station
Low touchdown stress Horizontal
pre-assembly pipe racks
Deeper water =
steeper angle
J-lay takes its name from the shape of the suspended pipe, which forms a ‘J’ going from
the surface of the vessel to the seabed. This curve is similar to a catenary and develops
lower stress levels in the pipe than S-lay.
Its main limitation is that it has a single work station in which to assemble the pipe.
Consequently, most J-Lay systems make use of pre-assembled strings of 4 to 6 pipes.
The additional time spent making a joint at a single work station is compensated for by
attaching 4 to 6 pipe joints rather than just one.
The figure shows the ramp at a relatively shallow angle. This is needed for installing in
shallow water - perhaps near landfall. In deeper water, the angle becomes steeper -
almost vertical.
BLUESTREAM PROJECT - VIDEO
The deepwater section of the Bluestream project was laid using the Saipem 7000 J-
Laybarge. The 50 m (164ft) quad joints were offloaded from the pipe transport barge
and stored on deck. The corrosion coating of the quad joints was inspected and then
the ends were bevelled. A turning device rotated each quad joint by a quarter turn to
avoid alignment of the longitudinal seals in adjacent sections.
The quad joints were upended and hoisted to the top of the J-Lay tower, where a line-up
clamp aligned them with the previous section. Welding was performed using three
Presto twin-torch welding units mounted on a rotating carousel. After welding, the quad
joint was lowered a few metres to the NDT and field joint coating station on the floor
below, where 100% automated ultrasonic weld inspection took place. It is common
practice to separate the welding area from the coating area for cleanliness.
After the field joint coating was applied the tensioners were activated. The tensioners
have a lay capacity of 252 tonnes and contingency holding capacity of over 1000 tonnes.
The S7000 has a dynamic positioning system which allows the correct tension to be
maintained in the pipeline as it is lowered to the seabed. The system enables the
laybarge to remain stable in winds approaching 30 knots.
J-LAY PERFORMANCE AND COSTS
Performance
Lay speeds up to 2.3 km/day
(1.4 mile/day) - half of S-lay rate
Vessel cost up to $350,000 per day
Ideal for deep water Stationary Stationary
clamped clamped pipe
Improve speed line pipe
One-shot welding or Internal

mandrel
Mechanical connectors
Consumable ring
rotated and
compressed radially
Acergy’s radial friction welding system
The above slide shows ball-park lay speeds and vessel costs.
This system is ideal for use in deep water, where the low lay stresses and low horizontal
tensions required lend themselves to installation from dynamically positioned vessels.
Although quicker one-shot welding methods have been developed, they have yet to be
used for a contract. Acergy’s radial friction welding system is shown.
One further way of improving the speed of assembly at a single work station is to use
mechanical connectors, similar to those used downhole.
Reluctance by operators to use what is perceived as novel technology means that neither
has been adopted to speed up J-lay installation.
J-LAY - SUMMARY
J-lay is vertical assembly and laying in a

J-curve with low horizontal tension
Large DP vessels
Less power needed than S-lay DP
Approximately half the lay rate but similar
costs to S-lay
Potential for deepwater, connectors and
rapid welding
Any questions?
The J-lay method has a ‘J’ shaped lay curve due to the vertical assembly line located in a
tower that is fitted to the vessel deck. This has the advantage over the S-lay method that
lower horizontal tensions are required to maintain the required bend radius at the
bottom of the lay curve.
The lower tensions mean that the vessels do not require anchoring, so usually operate
with Dynamic Positioning (DP) thrusters. These will use less power than DP systems
for S-lay vessels. Because the vessels are dynamically positioned, they are able to operate
in deeper water.
The lay rate is approximately half that of the S-lay process because there is only a single
weld station on the assembly line. However, the cost of vessel deployment is about the
same. This is offset by the ability of J-lay vessels to operate in deep water.
The single weld station is usually the limiting factor in the speed of pipe installation.
Therefore, there has been a demand for research into the potential for connectors and
rapid welding techniques to improve the efficiency of this installation method.
REEL-LAY
REEL LAY
Pipe yielded as it is unwound from a big reel

Laid in J-curve from DP ship
The picture above shows a reel of pipe on board the Technip Apache. The construction
site is at Technip’s Evanton facility loading pipe onto the Deep Blue.
Reeling is a technique where the pipe is assembled into long lengths onshore and is
wound onto a reel on the vessel by yielding the steel.
At the field it is then unwound, straightened and J-laid down to the seabed.
The dynamically positioned vessel is able to lay rapidly because there are no welds to
complete.
TECHNIP APACHE - VIDEO
This video shows the capabilities of the ‘Apache’ rigid pipe reel-lay vessel, operated by
Technip. It discusses the following aspects of reel-lay from the Apache in more detail.
This and other vessels have now been used for deeper reel-lay operations.
The welding, testing and joint coating of pipe joints to form the pipeline section to be
reeled are undertaken at an onshore spoolbase. The onshore facility can provide a more
controlled environment for welding and testing and so joint integrity can be ensured at a
lower cost than if performing offshore welding of joints. Technip have three permanent
spoolbases in the world. One on the west coast of Scotland at Evanton, one in Norway
and another in Brazil. However, temporary spoolbases can be constructed around the
world as required.
In 1995, the Apache vessel underwent an upgrade that provided the vessel with a main
permanent single reel capable of carrying 2000 tonnes (2205 ton) of 406 mm (16 in)
diameter pipe. This is the equivalent of 10 km (6.2 mile) of 406 mm (16 in) pipe or 24
km (14.9 mile) of 254 mm (10 in) pipe. It also carries two smaller auxiliary reels for
smaller diameter pipe. The pipe on these smaller reels can be installed in parallel or on
“piggy-back” with the main pipeline being laid. The updated configuration has been
used to install pipe to a depth of 1400 m in offshore Brazil.
HELIX ENERGY’S EXPRESS
The Express shown above can accommodate reeled rigid steel or flexible pipeline. The
rigid line requires straightening prior to installing using a similar curve to that for J lay.
At the stern of the vessel, the straightener system can be seen on the adjustable angled
tower. Below them, there is a tensioner system which fixes the pipeline temporarily to
permit anodes to be attached.
REEL-LAY PERFORMANCE AND

COSTS
Up to 406 mm (16in) pipe diameter

457 mm (18in) on Deep Blue
Thick pipe needed to avoid buckling on reel
D/t<22 for Apache (thinner on Deep Blue)
Ductile steel - higher grades unsuitable
Between 5 and 50 km (3 - 30 mile) per trip
1 km/hr (0.6 mile/hr) installation rate
No concrete coating
Need onshore fabrication site
Guide cost $200 000 per day
Reeling has a set of performance characteristics and constraints which are quite different
to those of S-lay and J-lay.
Current vessels are limited to a maximum pipe diameter between 324 mm and 457 mm
(12in and 18in), because larger pipelines would buckle if one tried to reel them at the
radii of the present drums.
Once on site, the installation rate is very quick - 1000 m (0.6 mile) per hour, 24 km (15
mile) per day This compares to say 4 to 8 km/day (2.5 to 5 mile/day) for S-lay and J-lay.
Attaching a piggyback line will roughly halve the lay rate.
The other main limitations are:

■ To avoid buckling and wrinkling during reeling, the pipe needs to have a diameter to
thickness ratio less than 22. In other words, they need to be quite thick. The larger
size of reel on the Deep Blue will relax this requirement somewhat.
■ It needs a ductile steel, so high strength steels may be unsuitable.
■ There is a volume and weight limitation as to how much pipe can be taken per trip.
However, longer lines can be assembled using a number of trips.
■ One major constraint is that one cannot reel a concrete-coated pipe. The concrete
falls off. However, the requirement for stability is met by using a thick-walled steel
pipe, which is also a requirement for reeling in the first place.
■ A fabrication site is needed in order to make up the pipe and reel it on to the vessel.
These are already available in established areas such as the UK, Norway, Gulf of
Mexico, Brazil and Angola.
ACERGY FALCON
Mix of all three methods

Stock of linepipe in hold – no land construction site
Horizontal firing line
Bending and straightening as per reel-lay
J-lay installation
curve
One further pipelay vessel is the Acergy Falcon (formerly the Stolt Seaway Falcon). It
uses a mix of all three methods.
It has a single welding station in the horizontal on the deck. The pipe is lifted and
yielded, runs over the top of the reel, is re-straightened on the ramp and is then J-laid
from there.
It can lay in areas where there is no convenient spool base at a rate comparable with S-
lay barges but with low residual tension.
REEL-LAY - SUMMARY
Onshore fabrication and reeling

Offshore straightening and J-lay
Falcon an optimised mix of systems
Any questions?
The reel-lay method has the advantage over the S-lay and J-lay methods in that the welds
can be made efficiently onshore and then the pre-welded pipeline can be quickly
unreeled from the vessel at a high lay-rate. The unreeling process involves straightening
the pipe after the plastic bending deformation induced during reeling of the pipe onto
the spool. Then the pipe is laid from the stern of the vessel through a J-lay type tower.
The disadvantage of this lay method is that a limited length of pipeline can be carried to
the installation site in one trip.
BUNDLES AND TOWED INSTALLATIONS
TOWING
Bundle or single pipe assembled on land

Towed from the beach to site using tugs
Several towing practices
Surface tow (including Flow-lay)
Controlled depth tow (mid-depth)
Bottom and near-bottom tow
As with the reeled pipe, an onshore facility is needed for pipeline assembly for towed
installation methods.
However, instead of the jetty and berth required for the reel-laybarge, a gently sloping
sheltered bay is needed for bundles. The bundles are trimmed for a buoyancy of around
-30 N/m (-2.1 lbf) prior to towing to site.
A number of methods have been used to tow flowlines to site. These are classified by
the buoyancy in the pipeline and hence the height in the water column at which the tow
takes place.
Single lines are sometimes installed by the near-bottom tow or surface tow methods.
SURFACE TOW METHODS
Surface tow methods must ensure

Pipeline in wave zone only for short periods
May be liable to fatigue problems
Impact with vessels or objects
Use of buoys Strap and release
Float-and-lower mechanism
Flow-lay Reusable PE
buoyancy pipe
Reusable PE pipe
Concreted flowline
Flowline
with coating
Surface tow systems use shore-based construction sites and then float the pipelines to
the offshore field. There they are flooded and laid in position.
The method is sometimes used for landfalls, where temporary buoyancy is attached to
the pipeline as it leaves the laybarge or construction site to make it easier to reach the
shore. The buoys are then disconnected to sink the pipeline in place.
Such a float-and-lower method is widely used throughout the world. In the sheltered,
shallow sea to the west of Trinidad, long lengths of pipelines are assembled on the
beach. They are then towed out to sea and the buoyancy tanks removed once the pipe
string has been lowered down to the seabed. There the individual strings are diver-
connected together using conventional bolted flanges. No expensive laybarge is needed,
only small floating plant.
Surface towing of bundles has not been widely used due to fears of bending fatigue, and
also the risk of collisions with vessels crossing the path of the bundle during tow.
The ‘Flow-lay™’ system minimises the fatigue problem by limiting the tow-out
operations to only a few days in good weather/seas whilst maintaining tension on the
trail tug. It was developed from bundle towing technology. Either the flowline or the
carrier can be flooded, depending on the relative weights and buoyancy of each, and the
on-bottom stability requirements. The PE pipe is then released to the surface where it is
recovered for future use. It promises considerable savings over other systems of
installation for single or double lines in remote areas of the world.
OOOGURUK - BEAUFORT SEA
Flatpack bundle in very shallow water

Wells drilled from man-made offshore island
2.7 m (9ft) deep trench 9 km (5.6 miles) long
Backfill protection against uplift, strudel scour and gouging
Pipe-in-pipe flowline Gas Spacer
injection
Annulus vacuum and Diesel fuel
pressure monitor
Trench to
shore
Gas
Oil Concrete
Water Insulation
Water
P-I-P flowline injection
Pioneer’s Oooguruk field development is in Harrison Bay of the Beaufort Sea, North
Slope, Alaska. Some 40 to 60 wells will be drilled (early 2007) from a 7 m (23ft) high
island standing in less than 1.5 m (5ft) of water some 9 km (5.6 miles) from shore. First
oil is scheduled for early 2008. The 2.4 ha (6 acre) island was constructed during the
coldest months by trucking gravel on an ice haul road build over the frozen sea.
The flatpack (or open) bundle takes the production fluids ashore and supplies water and
gas injection facilities plus diesel fuel to the island. The flowline is 323.8 mm by 406.4
mm (12in by 16in) pipe-in-pipe. This and the other lines are connected with 250 mm
(10in) wide spacers at 6 m (20ft) intervals. Pioneer will employ an annulus vacuum
monitor or pressure monitoring system for environmental protection. The inside of the
internal pipe operates at about 40 bar (580psi); hence if high pressure is detected in the
annulus then an internal leak has been detected. If low pressure is detected, this signifies
a potential external leak.
All lines are grade X52 or higher for compatibility with potentially high operational
strains.
The 0.6 m high by 1 m wide (2ft by 3ft) bundle is to be installed in a 2.7 m (9ft) deep
pre-excavated trench in the seabed, giving almost 2 m (7ft) of cover when backfilled in
order to prevent uplift buckling. Backfill to the trench also protects against ice gouging
and strudel scour (where river water flows offshore over the ice each summer, scouring a
hole through the floe and whirl-pooling down into the seabed beneath). The pipeline
will continue onshore for a further 3.7 km (2.3 miles), making the pipeline length a total
of 12.7 km (7.9 miles).
Source: Offshore Engineer June 2006.

BUNDLES
Pipelines fabricated onshore

Placed inside carrier
Towed to site
Britannia Bundle
Test flowline
Methanol flowline
Heating flowline
Production flowline
Gullfaks Bundle
Bundles as depicted in the picture above are groups of flowlines encased within a carrier
pipe. The carrier pipe provides buoyancy, which allows the bundle to be completely
fabricated onshore, towed offshore and then the annulus flooded to sink it in place and
provide stability.
CONTROLLED DEPTH TOW
Recent records for longest towed bundles:

7.5 km (4.7 miles) – Land and Marine Projects
7.2 km (4.5 miles) – Subsea 7
Trail Tug Tow Tug
Transponders
Trailhead
Towhead
Ballast chains
Controlled-depth tow, as the name implies, is towing the bundle such that it stays in
mid-water between the seabed and the surface. When one considers that bundles may
be 5 to 7 km (3 to 4½ miles) long and the water depth may be 100 m (330ft), it is quite a
feat to keep the bundles straight and steady without perturbations, which could take it
either to the surface or the seabed.
PRINCIPLE OF CDT
Small amount of buoyancy

is countered by chains
Neutrally
buoyant bundle
Webbing
straps 2 m to 3 m
Ballast (6ft to 10ft)
Wire Chain above seabed
chains
‘Extra’ links on seabed for stability

during trimming for tow and at field location
For a controlled-depth tow, the carrier pipe is sized so that the bundle is slightly
positively buoyant and then chains are attached to the underside. The bundle is then
towed out into a sheltered bay. Being positively buoyant, the carrier pipe rises from the
seabed and lifts the chain until enough links are suspended to counteract buoyancy.
Divers then work their way along the bundle to see how many links are left on the
seabed and to trim these as necessary to give an even negative buoyancy.
Once trimmed, the whole bundle is tensioned between a leading and trailing tug and
towed to site. As the speed increases, the chains slope backwards. This generates lift as
well as drag as they pass through the water. This means that, at a certain speed, the
bundle will become neutrally buoyant and will rise from the seabed. The speed of the
tugs is adjusted to maintain the lowest point of the bundle about 10 m to 15 m (30ft to
50 ft) above the seabed and the tow and trailheads at a similar depth below the surface.
BOTTOM TOW
Near-bottom tow Question coming up

three pages on...
Used in the Gulf of Mexico: Please look up from your
Up to 10 km (6 mile) sections notes
Seabed conditions required:

Flat
Clear of other lines and obstacles Towing vessel
Buoyancy Transponder Towhead structure
Chain ballast
Bottom tow, as the name implies, is where the bundle is dragged along the bottom.
However, the improvement shown above is near-bottom tow. The carrier and buoyancy
is sized to ensure that the bundle is just positively buoyant. Chains are then attached to
give a controlled amount of submerged weight.
This technique has been used successfully in the Gulf of Mexico, where bundles were
constructed along the beach, launched into the surf zone and then pulled along the
seabed to site. The tow route to the offshore field can be hundreds of kilometres (miles)
long, following a detailed pre-surveyed route avoiding such features as coral and rock
outcrops, and as many pipeline crossings as possible.
DEEPWATER BUNDLES
Girassol project
Deepest installation
of a pipeline bundle
at 1350 m (4430 ft)
‘Wet bundle’ system Girassol
Field layout
Established technology Courtesy: Elf Exploration Angola
can be applied in water depths

of 1000 m (3280 ft)
Systems now being designed for 2600 m
(8530 ft)
Use of unpressurised carriers (which remain flooded) means that the insulation needs to
be able to resist the full water pressure at the field.
This means, however, that essentially any depth can be achieved - though the insulation
can be costly.
DEEPWATER BUNDLE DESIGN
Controlled depth or bottom tow

Main issues for deepwater
Safety of N2 on Conventional CDT bundle
construction site near for depths to 250 m (820ft)
plant and personnel
Initial pressurisation of
flowlines/carrier
Super-pressurise flowlines
and decant into annulus at
holding location
Flood at holding station
and bottom tow to field
Wet or flatpack bundle
In deepwater, bundles can be installed using controlled depth or bottom tow methods to
transport them to location from the fabrication site.
There are safety concerns in pressurising gas above 25 bar (363 psi) in a thin-walled
carrier on the construction site. Plant may impact and rupture the pipe, causing an
explosion adjacent to personnel.
The picture shows the relative thinness of the carrier used for the Gannet development.
Although not a deepwater bundle, a similar thickness might be used for deep water. It
cannot be made thick enough to withstand hydrostatic collapse because its weight would
increase too much.
Normally, bundles counteract the hydrostatic pressures at the field by pressurising the
carrier pipe annulus with nitrogen. In deep water, the substantially higher pressures
cannot be provided prior to launch. Health and safety considerations require that the
differential pressure never exceeds around 25 bar (360 psi) at the construction site.
The total mass of the bundle needs to remain constant during all stages of the mid-depth
tow-out. Injecting additional nitrogen at an intermediate-depth holding station would
increase the weight, making the bundle too heavy. So the flowlines can be super-
pressurised for the initial loadout to the parking area in around 200 m (650 ft) water
depth. There, the pressure in the flowlines and carrier is equalised by venting the gas in
the flowlines into the carrier annulus. Thus the higher hydrostatic pressures at the field
can be counteracted. Alternatively, from the parking area, the carrier can be flooded and
a bottom tow method used.
Finally, the whole bundle can be towed out ‘wet’, as used for the Girassol Project. The
insulation was designed to resist the full hydrostatic pressure with no need for flooding
at the field.
WHY BUNDLES?
What are the advantages and

disadvantages of bundles compared to
other forms of pipelay?
BUNDLES PROS AND CONS
Pros Cons
Good for many parallel Only straight routes or
pipes – narrow corridor gentle curves
Use of pipe-in-pipe All eggs in one basket
Include manifold and pre-
Short lengths
commission
Good for heating and Difficulty of monitoring or
insulation repair of individual lines
Include umbilical Installation restricted to
Carrier offers protection fine weather (summer
No concrete needed for months)
stability
Land-based construction
costs are lower
Bundles have many advantages. They are economic for many parallel pipes. In some
cases, it is possible to install the manifold pipework in the tow head and to pre-
commission this and the control system. It is also possible to arrange for heating and/or
insulation of pipelines. This may be done by including pipe-in-pipe or re-circulating
heating lines.
The umbilical no longer requires armouring and can be pulled inside the carrier for
protection. The carrier pipe, once installed, is non-pressure containing and forms a good
structural barrier against fishing interaction and dropped objects, meaning that there is
no requirement to trench the bundle.
The drawbacks of bundles are that they are restricted to short routes and relatively short
lengths. The longest controlled depth towed bundle to date is 7.5 km (4.7 mile), whereas
the longest bottom towed bundle is about 20 km (12.4 mile).
Finally, ‘all your eggs are in one basket’ with a bundle. If, for any reason, there is a
problem, then all your flowlines and manifolds are out of commission until the problem
is sorted out. It may be difficult to monitor corrosion of the annulus with heating
systems.
TOWED SYSTEMS
Projects Contractors
Troika Subsea 7
Gulfaks Land and Marine
Skene RJ Brown
Britannia Acergy
Green Canyon
Girassol – wet bundle
Oooguruk – flat pack
Towed bundle and pipe-in-pipe systems have been installed in relatively deep waters.
Girassol is 1350 m (4430ft) deep but uses the ‘wet bundle’ method without a pressurised
annulus. This avoids the health and safety concerns during launch when there are high
differential pressures in the carrier. These are needed to counteract the hydrostatic
pressure at the field.
Because the only vessel requirements are two tugs for the short tow period, these can be
hired as needed on the open market. A number of contractors are able to offer this type
installation.
The 9 km (5.6 mile) long open (flatpack) Oooguruk bundle is currently being
constructed in Alaska for installation between an artificial island and the shoreline on
behalf of Pioneer Natural Resources.
BUNDLES - SUMMARY
Bundles
Allow low cost high quality onshore fabrication
Permits rapid offshore installation
Good for multiple parallel lines
Limited to flowline diameters and lengths
Any questions?
Bundles have the advantage over single rigid pipelines that they can contain several
individual flowlines within a single carrier pipe. The installation of a bundle then
becomes a very efficient method of installing multiple parallel lines along a single route.
However, the installation efficiency of S-lay and J-lay methods is heavily constrained by
the time required for welding the pipe joints together. The make-up of joints for
bundles requires the welding of the multiple flowlines of various lengths making bundle
installation by S-lay or J-lay methods unfeasible; and the only alternative is to lay
individual flowlines.
Bundles are fabricated at low cost onshore facilities and then towed out for installation
on the seabed.
FLEXIBLES AND UMBILICALS
WHAT IS A FLEXIBLE?
External sheath Pressure vault

External sheath
Armours
Pressure
vault
Armours
Pressure Pressure sheath Carcass
sheath
Carcass
A flexible pipe is one that is designed to bend to (relatively) small radii without damage.
The above diagram shows a typical construction:

■ The carcass is a corrugated steel structure that supports the pressure sheath against
collapse inwards from gas that has diffused out of the oil into the armour layers
■ The pressure sheath is a plastic layer (nylon, PE or polyamide) that provides a seal to
contain the flow and a corrosion barrier to stop the internal fluids corroding the
windings
■ The pressure vault consists of interlocked hoop windings that resist the hoop stress
■ The armour windings are non-interlocking wires laid more in the axial direction.
They resist tension and pressure end cap force
■ Outside is the external sheath, which is a continuous plastic layer (PE or polyamide)
to keep sea water out of the windings
INSTALLING FLEXIBLE PIPE
Flexible pipe
loaded onto
vessel carousel
Quay adjacent to
fabrication yard
The flexible flowline is wound off its reels in the factory, over a conveyor belt or roller
system, onto the vessel and into the carousel, as shown in the picture above. This
means that the quayside needs to be adjacent to the fabrication yard.
The carousel is normally horizontal in the vessel hold, but modular spools can be located
on deck.
FLEX-INSTALL CAPABILITY
DP vessels
Fast lay
Low stress curve
Flowline rather than
trunkline market
Primary concerns
Gripping flexible
without damage
Where the lay tension (mainly due to self weight of the flexible) is high, the pipe is
routed through a vertical lay tower such as that shown above. It passes over the set of
curved rollers at the top, then vertically through the tensioners and down into the water
below.
The tensioners normally have 3 or 4 gripping points around the circumference of the
pipe. This minimises the ovalisation of the pipe. In addition, the tensioners need to
work over a long-enough length to avoid crushing the internal layers of the pipe.
Where lay tension is small (shallow water) the flexible may be laid over a curved chute,
or over the curved vessel stern ramp.
With water depths over 400 m (1300ft), it is normal to install over a guide as shown
above.
SMD UMBILICAL CABLE ENGINE
Used for deep water

Umbilical wound
five times around drum
Held by drum friction
Wraps shifted laterally
14 mm (½in) to
150 mm (6in) diameter
For shallower water, umbilical cables can be lowered using a horizontal tensioner and
chute system similar to that used for flexible pipelines. However, for deeper water, the
tension can put the cable at risk.
If a cable is wound five times around a drum, then there are enough friction losses to
hold any tension applied to the cable.
However, if the drum is a simple one, the cable will spool right off one edge.
This SMD (formerly Soil Machine Dynamics Ltd) cable engine keeps the position of the
five wraps constant relative to the edges of the drum enabling the whole length to be laid
without conventional tensioners.
It is capable of supplying 40 tonne (88 kip) at a payout rate of 2 to 4 m/s (4 to 8 knots).

It can be used for jobs ranging from 14 mm (½in) lightweight cable up to 150 mm (6in)
for armoured cable.
WHO INSTALLS FLEXIBLES AND

CABLES?
Technip Helix
Sunrise 2000, Deep Blue Intrepid
Acergy
Condor, Falcon
Subsea 7
Kommandor 3000,
Seven Seas, Skandi Navica
Helix
Express, Intrepid
SapuraCrest
Sapura 3000
Most of the major contractors are able to install flexible pipelines or cables.
The equipment required is easily fitted onto any DP work vessel.
The photo is that of the Intrepid which can install cables and both flexible and rigid
reeled pipelines.
PERFORMANCE OF FLEX-INSTALL
Laying speed
12 km/day (7.5 mile/day)
Maximum diameter
480 mm (19in) - bore
Multiple line installation
Up to 3
Can be re-used (Petrobras)
The laying speed is comparable with that for the reel-lay method. There is no need to fit
anodes during the laying operations but care is needed in handling the flexible pipeline
or cable.
Remember, that flexible pipelines are specified by their internal diameter and this is set
by the manufacturing process rather than any limitation on laying.
By using multiple spools, it is possible to lay up to three flexibles or umbilicals at the

same time.
Petrobras has recovered and refurbished a number of flexibles for reuse. These are long
flowlines and risers in deep water. However, in Australian fields, where there are
shallower water depths and shorter lengths of line, the risk assessment favours disposal
over reuse.
FLEXIBLES AND UMBILICALS -

SUMMARY
Flexibles are stored on carousels

Laid vertically in deep water
Laid overboard in shallower water
Cables use tensioner or drum winch
Any questions?
Flexibles are stored on carousels and unreeled to install them on the seabed.
For deepwater, they are laid vertically in a J-lay configuration to maintain the required
tension, similar to the reeling process. In shallow water, they can simply be laid
overboard using a chute and tensioner.
Deepwater cables can be laid using a drum winch rather than a tensioner system.
INSTALLATION METHODS -
SUMMARY
Main installation methods

S lay, J lay, reel lay, bundles and flex lay
S-lay commonest and used for trunk lines
J-lay for deepwater lines
Reel and bundles assembled on land
Rapid installation of smaller diameters
Flexibles and cables laid similar to J lay
Continuous lengths without need for joints
Any questions?
The main installation techniques for rigid pipelines, bundles and flexibles have been
presented. We have highlighted where modifications are needed to these methods for
deepwater lines.
Construction support
Construction support 319
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Basic activities for landfalls

Trenching pipelines and cables
Reasons and methods
Main commissioning activities
Trunk pipelines generally bring oil or gas to shore. We will introduce the basic activities
required for landfall construction.
Smaller diameter pipelines are often buried. We look at the reasons and main methods
for the trenching and burial of pipelines on the seabed.
Finally, the main activities for pre-commissioning pipelines for product receipt are
introduced.
LANDFALLS
SCHEMATIC OF LANDFALL
Cofferdam
through tidal zone
Winch &
Cutter dredges trench
reelwinder
to laybarge depth
Laybarge
The landfall, as the name implies, is where a pipeline comes onshore. The construction
process is shown schematically above and is focussed on preparing the site for the
laybarge to install the pipe.
The preparation activities are:

■ Drive a sheet steel cofferdam through the tidal zone and excavate inside it. The
cofferdam holds the trench open against the wash of the tide.
■ Continue the trench from the cofferdam using a cutter dredger. Keep dredging until
the laybarge arrives to maintain this trench open against tidal and wave action.
■ Excavate the remainder of the trench up the beach to the winch site.
■ Install the linear winches and cable storage drums on the beach. This is normally
attached to a sheet pile anchor to react the pulling force.
A typical trench depth is 3 m (10ft) to ensure that the pipeline stays buried well below
any future erosion of the beach. The trench is normally dredged out to about 12 m
(40ft) LAT (that is, 12 m water depth relative to the lowest astronomical tide). This
ensures that the remainder of the pipeline can be post-lay trenched using offshore
trenching equipment.
NORFRA LANDFALL, DUNKIRK
Dredging of landfall at Dunkirk

Wing walls protect
dunes from flooding
Cofferdam keeps
beach trench open
Jackup piling
Spud-leg dredger
nearshore trench
The landfall was required for a 835 km (519 mile), 1067 mm (42in) high pressure
pipeline bringing natural gas from the Draupner E platform in the Norwegian North Sea
sector to the coast of France.
This landfall required the installation of a cofferdam and pipe pull-in equipment,
levelling of sandwaves at the shore approach, stabilisation and protection of the laid
pipeline with rockdumping and finally tie-in between the section of pipeline at the
landfall and the other section laid from the platform towards Dunkirk.
The wing walls to the cofferdam helped protect the area behind the beach from
flooding, should the dune protection be breached by storms. These are generally
constructed using land-based piling hammers and crane equipment.
The long cofferdam ensured that longshore drift of sand did not refill the trench
between high and low water marks. The jackup barge was floated in to shallow water at
high tide and the legs deployed. This meant that it could continue to pile throughout the
tidal cycle unaffected.
A spud-legged dredger used its cutter suction arm to open a trench in the nearshore
section.
SHEET STEEL PILING
U section (Larssen)
‘Clutch’
‘Pan’
Clutch details
Z section (Frodingham)
‘Clutch’
Clutch details
Arcelor-Mittel manufacture two styles of sheet steel piles: the U and Z sections. These
are also known as Larssen and Frodingham piles. See www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com for
available section sizes and design software. Elsewhere in the world other similar designs
are used. See www.pilespecs.com for a world-wide list of sheet pile specifications.
The difference between the two is the location of the clutches that link the steel piles
together. The Larssen has the joint near the neutral axis of the complete section. If the
clutch holds well, then there is no movement between the adjacent piles and a large
section modulus can be developed. The Frodingham does not rely on clutch friction to
develop its full section modulus because the pile spans between the extreme fibres in
tension and compression.
Steel grades for these piles are to EN 10027 or ASTM:

■ S270GP yield stress 270 N/mm² (39 ksi)
■ S355GP yield stress 355 N/mm² (51 ksi)
■ A328 yield stress 270 N/mm² (39 ksi)
■ A572 Grade 50 yield stress 345 N/mm² (50 ksi)
CUTTER DREDGER
Excavates shallow water trenches
The diagram shows a cutter dredger. The arm is lowered to the seabed, cuts the soil and
lifts it in a slurry to the vessel, thence to a floating hose leading from the stern. This
excavation occurs prior to the pipeline being brought ashore.
The cutter head moves from one side to the other and then back, as the dredger moves
forward along the line of the trench. This is accomplished by first lifting one of the spud
legs and swivelling the whole barge and cutter arm around the second leg by
pulling/releasing the forward anchor wires. At the end of each cut, one spud leg is
lowered and the other lifted, causing the barge to move forward along the line of the
trench: the anchor winch wires sweeping the arm back across the face of the excavation.
For a landfall, the slurry is typically pumped 100 m (330ft) from the vessel through a
floating pipe, and is placed in a spoil heap. Once the pipeline is in place, this spoil is
redredged and placed back over the pipe.
BEACH PULLS
Buoyancy to reduce seabed friction

On finishing pull-in
Laybarge continues laying offshore
Pull head cut off
Welded to pre-laid
landline section
pipe-by-pipe
Isolating flange
Anodes offshore
Impressed current
onshore
Shoreline ESD
isolation valve
The beach pull, as illustrated in the picture above, is where the pipe is assembled on
board the lay vessel and pulled into the pre-dredged trench using cables and a linear
winch. Temporary buoyancy has been attached to the pipeline to reduce seabed friction.
Once the shore pull is complete, the laybarge continues laying the pipeline towards its
offshore location. The pulling head is cut off and the section up to the pre-laid landline
is completed pipe-by-pipe. It is common to have an electrically-insulating flange just
before the shoreline emergency shutdown (ESD) valve. This maintains separation
between protection systems –sacrificial anodes are used offshore, whilst impressed
current is commonly used for the landline section.
An alternative (not shown) to pulling onshore from the laybarge is to pre-assemble the
pipe onshore and use a pull-barge to pull it offshore. As before, the end can be picked
up with a lay barge and laying continued offshore.
If the pipeline is laid from the offshore end towards the shore, and then laid down prior
to the installation of the landfall section, a tie-in will be necessary. This can be done
above water by the laybarge using derricks to lift the two ends above the sea level and
completing a weld alongside. The excess length of pipeline is then laid in a loop on the
seabed.
However, most pipelines would start from the landfall and go out to sea.
GOLDENEYE PIPE-PULL - VIDEO
The 100 km (60 mile) long Goldeneye pipeline and piggyback were installed during the
summer of 2003 at St Fergus on the north-east coast of Scotland. Because the dunes
were to be breached and the area is of sensitive environmental interest, the opportunity
was taken to install a second landfall line at the same time for future pipeline connection.
This is the Atlantic Cromerty pipeline.
At St Fergus, seven gas pipelines have their landfalls. These bring ashore most of the
UK supply and are connected to three adjacent gas treatment plants. Gaining approval
from the national security services to breach the dunes in this environmentally and
security-sensitive area was a major challenge.
Van Oord, the landfall contractor first constructed a cofferdam 130 m long and 25 m
wide (426ft x 82ft). An anchor wall was also piled to provide a deadman for the two 350
tonne (772 kip) linear winches.
The Goldeneye pipeline was trenched out to 1200 m (4000ft) from the beach to provide
cover of 2 m (6.7ft) nearshore and 1 m (3.3ft) offshore. This was undertaken by the
barge ‘Manta’ using a jetting machine (above), which excavated the soil and pumped it
out through a pair of eductor tubes into two windrows either side. High and low
pressure water was supplied through hoses using pumps on board the Manta. Some of
the anchor wires from the vessel required a mid-line buoy to ensure vertical separation
from the existing live pipelines.
A second vessel, the ‘Coastal Worker’ completed the shallowest sections of the trench
inshore using a suction pipe lowered from the side of the vessel and sidecasting the
material through a discharge pipe.
Finally, the dunes were carefully reinstated and stabilised using marram grass.
DIRECTIONALLY-DRILLED
LANDFALLS
Main benefits
Minimum disruption to environment
Minimal third party disturbance
Less risk of flooding than with open cut method
Pipeline installed at great depth
The overhead shows the drilling rig site and the reel barge in position at a landfall site in
Northern Holland (plus an artist’s impression of the method).
DRILLING RIG
The photograph shows a typical directional drilling rig.
Horizontal directional drilling is now established as a method of installing pipelines and

cables under a range of obstacles and in a number of cases has replaced traditional open
cut techniques.
LAND AND MARINE DRILLING -

VIDEO
Stitch drilling
Pilot hole drilled from shore from jack-up
Pilot hole widened as barge lays out pipeline
Pipeline drawn back to shore behind reamer Directional control of pilot
The video shows how a landfall can be accomplished with minimum environmental
disruption by drilling first a pilot hole using a land-based rig out to a laybarge. Then the
pilot hole is widened using a reamer, allowing the laybarge to lay a section of the pipeline
onto the seabed which can be drawn back to shore.
The alternative (shown top right) is to drill from a jack-up barge and pull the pipeline
from shore. Using a development of this technique, sometimes known as ‘stitch
drilling’, it is possible to accomplish long distances in sections of around 1.7 km (1 mile).
During construction of the Hoover offshore crude oil pipeline system, it was necessary
to cross Quintana beach to reach Freeport Texas. To avoid disrupting the sensitive
ecosystem, it was deemed necessary to run the pipe underground. This was done by
drilling 1200 m (4000ft) from the mainland to the sea.
A land-based directional drilling rig with a 127 mm (5in) washpipe and 76 mm (3in)
drillstring opened the hole beneath the beach and out to a barge where successively
larger reamers were attached and pulled through the hole, opening it up to 914 mm
(36in) – around 25% larger than the pipeline. Meanwhile, the 508 mm (20in) pipeline
was laid on the seabed by the Horizon Lonestar S-lay barge.
After the final reamer pass, a diver attached it to the pipeline via a swivel and universal
joint. The pipeline was drawn through the hole using a force of 2.2 MN (500kip) in 17
hours.
LANDFALLS - SUMMARY
At the landfall, you need to:

Prepare a trench
May need a cofferdam
Position laybarge as close as possible
Pull the pipe up the beach into pre-dredged trench
Backfill trench in surf zone
Reinstate beach
Directional drilling alternative
Minimise environmental disruption
Any questions?
Above is the procedure for constructing a landfall.
Initially a trench will be prepared through the surf zone, which may require the use of a
cofferdam to prevent the walls collapsing and the trench refilling.
Then the laybarge will be positioned as close to the shore as possible using either
anchors or DP. The pipe is then laid from the back of the lay vessel and pulled to the
beach by linear winches.
Once the pipeline is installed, the trench can then be backfilled to bury the pipeline in
the surf zone.
Finally the beach will be reinstated to remove evidence of the pipeline installation.
At many low-lying landfall sites throughout the world, it is important to avoid

disturbance to the natural beach protection. Directional drilling requires only a small site
to drill a hole deep beneath the beach area. Many of the operations and environmental
disruption caused at a conventional landfall are thus avoided.
TRENCHING AND BURIAL
TRENCHING AND BACKFILLING
Lowering the pipeline below the natural

seabed level for protection or stability
Three methods are used
Any ideas what they are?
Plough
Jet
Cut
Trenching means removing the soil under the pipeline so that it falls below the natural
seabed level. It is normal to undertake trenching after the pipeline is laid on the seabed.
However, umbilical cables are often laid and buried in one operation and occasionally
pipelines are laid into a prepared trench - such as we have just seen at landfalls.
Backfilling means replacing the soil so that the pipeline becomes buried. Not all
trenched pipelines are backfilled because the shape of the trench itself can provide some
protection.
There are three methods of trenching: ploughing, jetting and cutting.
Each method has a preferred range of soils for optimum trenching.

PLOUGH
Ploughing spread is
One DSV ($100 000 per day)
Two tugs ($30 000 per day per tug)
The picture above shows a plough. It has skids at the front (left hand side) and a
ploughshare at the back.
Offshore, the plough is lowered over the pipeline with the share open. (It splits in half
down a vertical plane and opens about a hinge at the top of the plough). The pipeline is
picked up by rollers at the back and the share is closed underneath. Tugs or an anchored
laybarge then pull the plough forward via a warp attachment at the front. The share digs
in and produces a triangular trench under the pipe into which it falls as the plough
moves forward.
CTC PLOUGH INITIATION - VIDEO

The animation by CTC shows how their plough is lowered from the vessel on a wire and
located over the pipeline with its split shares open. Lights and cameras on the ROV
allow this to be accomplished safely using the plough’s onboard thruster units.
The pipeline is lifted into the forward and stern roller boxes and the shares closed using
the ram. By lowering the skids at the front, the depth of cut is adjusted as the plough is
pulled forward by the bridle chain.
It is necessary to check the stresses in the pipeline during the initiation and trenching
(with pipe resting at the base of trench to the stern).
PIPELINE PLOUGH PERFORMANCE
Soft clay 800 m/hr (2600ft/hr)

Stiff clay 100 to 200 m/hr (330 to 660ft/hr)
Cu > 400 kPa (58psi)
Loose sand 500 m/hr (1650ft/hr)
Med/dense 75 m/hr (250ft/hr)
Dense sand 20 m/hr (65ft/hr)
V. dense sand Refusal
Chalk/rock Variable, rough trench
Typical values for plough performance are given in the table above. The point to bring
out here is that it is capable of working on nearly all types of soil, including friable chalk
and rock.
The major difficulty that it encounters is very dense sand, where the permeability is low.
The reason for refusal in dense sand is that, as the plough tries to cut and lift a segment
of the sand, it requires water to fill the void created.
In low permeability sand, the water cannot reach the interstical voids between the grains
and a hydraulic lock results. Some ploughs pump water down to the share tip to prevent
this.
Ploughs can be employed in water depths down to about 400 m (1300ft), although
deeper water is possible using large DP tugs and careful control of the bollard pull to
within 5 tonnes (11 kip).
PIPELINE JET SLED
Jetter spread
Typically flat bottom barge
with water jet pumps
$70 000 per day
Also requires two anchor-
handling tugs
$20 000 per day each
The above picture shows the Jet Sled. A barge on the surface pumps seawater down to
the sled which discharges out through the jetting arms and blasts away the soil. The sled
is towed by the jetting barge.
This tool is used extremely effectively. There are two main points to consider. The first
is that the soil is whipped away and dispersed, so is not available as backfill. The second
is that the machine works best in consistent conditions. For example, if it is on full
pressure to excavate some stiff clay and moves into an area of soft sand, it could
excavate a large unwanted crater in seconds.
JET SLEDGE PERFORMANCE

Firm clay 100 to 200 m/hr (330 to 660ft/hr)
Stiff clay refusal (surface fractures)
All sands 400 m/hr (1300ft/hr)
Chalk/rock refusal (surface fractures)
The above table gives some general characteristics which indicate that the jet sledge is
best used in sand or soft to firm clay.
Jet sledges work in depths down to about 200 m (650ft), the limitation being current
forces and the length of umbilical power cable or water hoses. In deeper waters, ROV
jetting or cutter machines can be employed.
PIPELINE MECHANICAL CUTTER
Mechanical cutter spread is specialist

support vessel ($150 000 per day)
Allseas’ Digging Donald
As the name implies, the mechanical cutter is a device that drives along the pipeline with
mechanical teeth or buckets excavating a trench. Mechanical cutters are well suited to
hard seabed soil conditions. The above picture shows the Digging Donald - a tracked
vehicle with two chainsaw arms reaching under the pipe. The Digging Donald has the
advantage that it does not need to make contact with the pipe during the trenching
operation.
MECHANICAL CUTTER
Trenchsetter with Digging Donald
This picture shows the Digging Donald being deployed from the Allseas Trenchsetter
support vessel.
CUTTER PERFORMANCE

but may sink or skid
Stiff clay 100 to 200 m/hr (330 to 660ft/hr)
Loose sand 200 to 300 m/hr (660 to 990ft/hr)
Med/dense 200 m/hr (660ft/hr)
Dense sand 100 m/hr (330ft/hr)
Very dense 75 m/hr (250ft/hr)
Chalk/rock variable high tooth wear
Again cutters can be used in most types of soil. Their particular ‘bête noire’ is to cut
through chalk or soft clay, where boulders or flint embedded within the soil tend to
break or blunt the teeth on the cutters.
Cutter units are limited only by the means of deployment and length of umbilical cable
being acted upon by the ocean current.
TALON TRENCHER
Swords on ROV
Cutter and jetter
options
Used for deep
water flowlines
Insulation of soil
‘Flies’ to location
In deepwater, it becomes difficult to plough due to the length and flexibility of the
towing warps. A conventional jetter also has problems following the line of a pipe when
being slung from a barge.
Devices such as the Talon Trencher, pictured above, have therefore been developed.
They have of a pair of ‘swords’ mounted under an ROV (remotely operated vehicle)
which can ‘fly’ down to the pipeline and commence burial. The swords can either be jet
arms or cutters, depending upon the soil conditions. They fit either side of the flowline
and lower it to depth.
The machine is usually used for deepwater lines, which may require burial for insulation
reasons rather than protection against trawler impact.
DEEPWATER TRENCHING
Used for thermal insulation in deep water

No requirement for stability or trawling protection
Challenges:
Soft soils
Equipment sinks in
Trench walls unstable
Plough tow rope catenary cannot give even pull
Plough tends to surge and damage pipe
ROV cut or jet methods required
Trenching may be used in deepwater for thermal insulation. It is not required for
stability in waves or currents because the effects of both are reduced in deep water. Nor
is there as much trawling effort in such depths.
However, we tend to find soft soils which prevent the use of tracked equipment.
Trench walls in such soil tend to collapse more readily.
Ploughing methods for pipelines cannot be used much below 400 m (1300ft). This is
because the catenary in the wire results in the plough surging forward and then stopping
until the tow vessel moves forward and reapplies the force. During the surges the
plough may deviate off line and damage the pipe.
This means that ROV cutting or jetting methods are preferred. The ROV uses the
pipeline as a ‘monorail’ guide and support.
UMBILICAL AND CABLE BURIAL

SYSTEMS
Towed sled
cable plough
Tracked jetting cable burial system
Cutter wheel
for rock
The same three methods are used for burial of umbilicals and cables. Costs are lower
because less soil needs to be removed because of the smaller diameter of these
compared with pipelines.
Similar equipment is used for umbilicals and cables, so these will be examined together.
Sometimes, these terms are used interchangeably, but a cable usually provides power
through copper cables or data down optical fibre links. An umbilical usually has small
bore chemical injection or hydraulic lines as part of the bundle.
This tracked jetting vehicle is used to bury umbilicals and cables after laying as a separate
operation.
It needs a firm seafloor to operate but the cable is trenched and buried in one pass. The
cable is passed though a protective tube in the ploughshare. Jetting is ideal for silty and
sandy seabeds.
Where the ground is softer a towed sled plough system may be employed. This operates
best in coarse sand, silt and clay. The plough displaces a wedge of soil upwards and then
lets it drop back down burying the cable.
In harder ground or rock, a cutter wheel may be used to make a slot. Again the cable is
laid into the bottom of the trench.
CTC CABLE JETTER
The CTC tracked trencher can jet cut and disperse the seabed sediment lowering the
cable into a trench.
UMBILICAL AND CABLE BURIAL
Single pass - lay and bury

Slower production
Single vessel
Dual pass - lay then bury
Or trench then lay
Care needed with umbilicals
Single pass minimises tension
Ensures alignment of trencher follows umbilical
Catenary to allow for wave and current movement
Armouring to protect against rock impact
English Channel electricity cables - pre-cut slot
Where possible, a single pass lay and bury system should be used. This generally results
in a slower lay rate since the operation is dependent upon the speed of trenching.
However, a single operation means that total costs may be lower.
If this is not possible, the commonest practice is to lay the cable first and then trench
and backfill. If the umbilical follows the route of a pipeline, then it may be laid into the
previously cut trench. That is, three operations - lay the pipeline, cut the trench, lay the
umbilical.
Whereas pipelines have some inherent strength, the smaller diameter of umbilicals and
cables inevitably means that there are additional risks of them parting due to high
tension. This is especially true when the trenching and burial is completed as a separate
operation and the alignment of the trench is not exactly that of the umbilical.
Single pass helps minimise the tension in the unit. However, a suitable design of
catenary from the vessel into the trencher must account for the wave and current
movement of the cable and the vessel.
In cut rock trenches, there may be the need for additional armouring to provide
protection against the rock rubble that backfills in on top of the cable.
When electricity cables were laid across the English Channel in 1986, a trench was pre-
cut in the chalk and a guide wire laid into the trench. The wire was removed in a
separate operation when the slot was cleaned out and power cables were then laid. The
trench then backfilled naturally with sand.
CTC CABLE PLOUGH
The CTC plough is located over the cable, which it lifts into the guide chutes before
being towed forward by the tug. Depth of trench is controlled using the forward skids.
It is different from a pipeline plough in that the ploughshare is very narrow, enabling it
to trench and bury the cable in a single operation.
PIPELINE BACKFILLING
Natural backfill
Backfill plough
Rockdump
Although umbilical cables are generally backfilled in the same operation as trenching,
this is not so for pipelines other than those lowered by sand fluidisation (jetting).
Having trenched the pipeline, it is sometimes necessary to backfill it (for protection or

thermal insulation). Note that pipeline trenches can also be left open under some
circumstances.
There are three main ways of doing this, which are presented here in order of escalating
cost:
■ Natural backfill means leaving the pipe in the trench and waiting for tide and waves
to wash the soil into the trench and to fill it over the pipe. This has the advantage of
being free and the disadvantage that it may take some time and is only feasible in
certain areas like the Southern North Sea which have sufficiently high sediment
transport. It would be very slow in the Central North Sea and negligible in the
Northern North Sea.
■ The next level up is to use a mechanical backfill plough to push the soil from the
sides of the trench back over the pipeline.
■ If there is no soil to pull back over the trench, then the third method is to rock
dump. This is shown in the picture above: a ship with gravel and a digger in the
hold. The digger shovels gravel onto a conveyor system and drops it down a fall
pipe. The fall pipe runs from the ship down to close to the seabed and can be seen
in the inset. It has thrusters and sensors on the end to position the rock over the
pipeline. Larger vessels are available to supply the quantities of rock needed for
trunk pipelines. They are typically fitted with longer fall pipes suitable for water
depths of 800 m (2600ft) or more.
TRENCHING AND BURIAL -

SUMMARY
A variety of techniques to trench and/or

bury pipelines and cables
Depends on the type of soil
Granular sands and gravels
Cohesive clays and silts
Soft rock
Cables can be trenched and buried
Three types of backfill
Any questions?
There are several methods used to trench/bury pipelines. The selection of the method is
dependant on the type of soil in which the pipeline must be buried. The ploughing
method works well in most soil types, except for very dense sands. The jetting method
will not work in stiff clays and chalk or rock. Cutters are suited to all soil types but are
particularly suitable for working in chalk and rock.
Similar methods can be employed for umbilicals and cables, but it is common for the
trenching and backfill to be undertaken in a single operation.
Where trenches need to be backfilled three methods are used depending upon whether
there is available spoil or natural backfill conditions. The final option of rockdump is
the most costly because of the need to import fill material.
PRE-COMMISSIONING
WHAT IS COMMISSIONING?
Commissioning
Operations for first product delivery through the line
What then is ‘pre-commissioning’?
Sometimes the terms commissioning and pre-commissioning are confused.

PRE-COMMISSIONING OPERATIONS
Flooding
Flood the pipeline with treated water
Fresh water for flexibles with 316 SS
Send through gauging pig
Hydrotest
Pressurise to prove strength and leak tightness
Dewater
Pig out the water and dispose of it
Dry (gas lines)
Hygroscopic swab and air or vacuum dry
Intelligent pig run (baseline)
The pipeline is flooded with treated water in order to be able to strength-test it. (Water
is used rather than air in order to keep the pressurisation energy to a minimum, and so
too the consequences of any failure.) At the same time, a gauging pig is passed through
the line to prove that the bore is clear. This is more fully explained in the flow assurance
module.
The water used is generally filtered seawater containing:

■ Oxygen scavenger to prevent rusting
■ Biocide to prevent bacteria which might produce hydrogen sulphide
■ Fluorescent dye to help with tracing any leaks
Because of environmental concerns, the biocide or fluorescent dye are sometimes

omitted. If the line is being commissioned quickly afterwards the biocide may not be
needed. It may be better if the dye is only pumped in when the hydrotesting has
determined that there are some leaks.
Flexibles with a 316 stainless steel carcass will need fresh water since the material is
prone to chloride stress corrosion-cracking.
The sequence of events is normally to flood the line after trenching and burial.
However, in some cases the extra weight is beneficial, so the line is flooded prior to
trenching. This is particularly so of flexibles which are normally pressurised (to a low
pressure) prior to trenching. It is also true of pipelines with low relative density, where
there is a risk of flotation during backfilling.
The remainder of pre-commissioning is to hydrotest and dewater as explained in the

following slides.
Good practice would suggest the use of an intelligent pig to provide a baseline of defects
for the future integrity management operations. How can we be sure of wall thickness
loss without having the initial data to compare with?
PRE-COMMISSIONING AND
DOCUMENTATION
Check integrity of ancillary equipment

Power and communications
Gas compression equipment
Product transmission
SCADA monitoring systems
Check efficiency and safety
Produce documentation for commissioning
Operations manuals
Emergency procedures
Maintenance manual
Including inspection regime
The pre-commissioning phase should also be used to check the integrity of the ancillary
equipment to the pipeline, which includes the equipment and the systems shown above.
Some of the checks might be:

■ Are the gauges giving the correct readings?
■ Are pumps and valves operating correctly
■ Is the correct information being displayed on the SCADA screens?
■ Are flows being registered within tolerances?
The full set of manuals for operating the line through its life need to be handed over.
This should include proposals for decommissioning at the end of the pipeline life.
DEFERRED COMMISSIONING
Early phase of field development

Commissioned following season
Left filled with treated water or inert gas
Water filled - biocide, fungicide, oxygen scavenger,
all air removed
Dry inert gas (N2) - kept at a positive pressure
Survey to check for leaks
It may be necessary to have a deferral period between testing and commissioning.
If this is case, the line should be filled with a temporary fluid to minimise internal
corrosion. Suitable fluids for deferral include dry inert gas, product gas and product, oil
or water to which biocides and fungicides are added. If using water, then care should be
taken to ensure that all the air is removed from the pipeline and that the water contains
no corrosive materials.
It is also advisable to leave the pipeline under a small positive pressure and check the line
periodically for leakage until commissioning commences.
HYDROTESTING PRESSURES
Strength test
1.5 times MAOP or 90% hoop stress for 24 hours
Gas lines may test to 105% SMYS
Pre-yielding helps with cyclic loading fatigue
Risers and other preformed bend sections
Separate strength test prior to installation
At a higher pressure for thicker wall
Leak test
Tie-in joints may be leak-tested at 1.1 times MAOP
for 3 to 6 hours to prove valves and fittings
Normally, the hydrotest pressure on the pipeline is set to 1.5 times maximum allowable
operating pressure or 90% of hoop stress, whichever is less.
The test is held for 24 hours. This is for three reasons:

■ By starting and finishing at the same time, a complete daily temperature range is
accommodated.
■ To ensure that small leaks are detected.
■ In the past some failures have been shown to be time-dependent and have occurred
within the 24-hour period.
The US codes have slightly reduced requirements at 125% or 140% of maximum design
pressure held for just 8 hours.
In the ‘Pipe Size and Route’ module, we mentioned that risers are often designed to a
lower design factor with thicker walls. This in turn means that they should be strength-
tested to a higher pressure. Therefore, they are typically strength-tested in a fabrication
yard prior to being assembled into a pipeline system.
Once the pipeline, the spoolpieces, the risers, the valves and the pig traps have all been
strength-tested individually, the pipeline is assembled and leak-tested to 1.1 times
MAOP for 3 to 6 hours, or as long as it takes to prove that all assembly joints are sealed.
When conducting hydrostatic tests on gas pipelines, it is may be necessary to take the
test pressure to 105% SMYS (dependant on national codes). The resulting yielding in
the pipeline serves to smooth out any stress concentration points that may have
developed from incomplete weld penetrations. This helps to improve fatigue properties
which is important in gas lines as they tend to undergo more cyclic loading than oil lines.
HYDROSTATIC TEST
Pressure test various sections of the

pipeline (risers or crossings for landlines)
Usually conducted after backfilling on land
All air & debris removed
Filtered clean water
Safety precautions
Test longest sections possible
Safe disposal of water
Hydrostatic tests involve filling sections of the pipeline with water and then pressurising
them to check for possible leaks or defects. With landlines, the operation may be
required to be undertaken only once, after burial because it is possible to dig down and
repair leaks. However, this is difficult with offshore lines, so it is common to undertake
hydrotests at a number of additional stages such as after laying and after trenching. For
the main pipeline sections, the hydrostatic test should take also place after backfilling to
identify any possible damage to the pipeline that has occurred during to the backfilling
process.
It is vital that all trapped air is removed prior to full test pressurisation. The air pockets
need to be removed as they can be compressed (which means the pipe takes longer to
reach the full test pressure) and would also become a hazard if the pipe were to rupture.
To prevent air becoming trapped, it is usual to install the water behind a pig. The air
being flushed out is then kept backpressured to prevent the pig running away from the
water. Also to be noted is that valve bodies, bypass pipework, etc. need to be vented
and sealed to relieve the air.
The water for use in a hydrostatic test needs to be clean and filtered. Filtering is
particularly important if the water is being taken from a natural source like the sea, rivers
or streams. If water is being taken from the sea then it may also require desalinating
when hydrotesting pipe containing 316 stainless steels (some clad pipe and flexibles).
When releasing the water back into the environment after the hydrotest, it is important
that the test water has been cleaned of any harmful corrosion inhibitors, bactericides or
other chemicals.
Safety precautions will also need to be adhered to and should include measures to
protect public and personnel, prevent pollution or damage to roads, waterways and
rivers, and obviously to ensure that no work is still being undertaken on sections being
tested.
With arctic landlines, it may be necessary to use heated water for the hydrotest to
prevent freezing. Here, quite unusually, the use of air for the pressure test may be used
since these lines are generally remote from personnel and any explosive rupture would
do little damage to third parties.
COMMISSIONING
Remove hydrotest water and dry pipeline

Introduce product
For oil or petroleum
Pig train used to minimise interface mixing
Temporary vessel to separate product/water mix
For hydrocarbon gases or liquefied gases
Water displaced by air or dewatering pigs
Drying required
Methanol swabbing, dehydrated gelled pigs, dry air or
vacuum drying
Usually the final steps in pre-commissioning is to remove the water from the hydrotest
and dry the pipeline if necessary. For oil and petroleum based products, the drying and
introduction of the product is simpler than for hydrocarbon gas products. With
flammable or toxic products that are liquid at ambient temperature (e.g. oil and
petroleum), it is acceptable to displace the water with the product and use a series of pigs
to minimise the water/product interface. It may be necessary to provide a temporary

separator at the end of the pipeline to separate the product from the oil for the first
stages of operation as water may have collected in valves and fittings that may take a
while to be flushed out.
If the pipeline is to convey products that are flammable and gases at ambient
temperature (e.g. LPG, natural gas, hydrogen, etc) then the pipeline will require the test
water to be removed independently of the product and for some products the line will
require drying. The choice of drying method depends on the degree of dryness required.
A common method for gas and LPG pipelines is to swab through with pigs to remove
the majority of water. Then methanol is conveyed between a series of pigs. After the
methanol, the pipeline is purged with dry nitrogen.
Where gas is being delivered to the end user, then vacuum drying or air drying is needed
as a final step.
When introducing products, precautions should be taken to ensure the mixtures of the
gases or liquids is not done in a way that may result in explosive combinations.
DEWATERING
Water &
Nitrogen Methanol Methanol mix Water
For a gas line, fill with nitrogen prior to drying Flow

For an oil line, introduce product directly
For gas trunk lines, dewatering would be done with a train of pigs, perhaps with gel or
methanol between, as shown in the above diagram. The line would then be vacuum-
dried to remove all traces of water before the introduction of export quality gas.
Such a procedure would not be necessary with a two-phase flowline or an oil trunk line,
where the likelihood is that the water would be displaced by a pig train driven by the
production fluid.
AIR/NITROGEN DRYING OF
PIPELINE
Foam pig swabs – absorb & push water out
Warm desiccated air or nitrogen

Reduction in outlet hygrometer readings
Indicates reduction of dew point
Completion of drying
Typically a differential of 5C° (9F°) between inlet and outlet
Usually completed within
a few days even for large
diameter trunk lines
Foam pig trains may initially be run to act as swabs, removing any condensed water from
the walls and push any liquid out in front of them.
Then warm dry gas is delivered to the inlet. Either air or nitrogen is used. The latter is
an inert gas so has the advantage for hydrocarbon lines in that we can safely introduce
gas without fear of explosion.
The picture shows BJ process air drier unit. This can deliver -73°C (-100°F) dewpoint
air which is used to achieve extremely low dewpoints during pipeline drying.
As the differential dew point readings reduce, the drying process is completed. It is
common to achieve a final dewpoint of -20°C (-4°F).
This is a rapid process, but which may be followed by additional vacuum drying.
VACUUM DRYING
Export and sour gas lines only

Follows nitrogen drying
A - Pump down phase
B - Vapourisation/evacuation phase
1E3 C - Dehumidification/vacuum purging phase
(check for ice crystal formation – allow to re-melt)
Pressure (millibar)
Logarithmic Scale
D - Vacuum release & return to atmospheric pressure
A B C D
0
0 Drying Time 30
(days)
Vacuum drying means attaching vacuum pumps to one or both ends of the pipeline and
drawing a vacuum. It is only used for gas lines where water vapour would be a problem.
If you reduce the pressure above water, you also reduce its boiling point. An example of
this is that mountaineers find that water boils at less than 100°C (212°F) at altitude, and
consequently boiled eggs take longer to cook.
Inside the pipeline, the pumps reduce the pressure to the point where water will boil at
(say) 4°C (39°F), or whatever the ambient temperature is. The drawdown curve flattens
as the water vapour comes off.
The finishing process involves stopping the pumps and checking whether the pressure
rises. As the pipeline reaches that of the seawater, further vacuum will freeze ice crystals
on the inside of the wall. Thus the air will initially appear to be fully dried. However, by
releasing the vacuum slightly, these crystals will melt. Only when all the water is
converted to vapour and removed from the system will the graph stabilise.
It only works where the line has already been dried using other means. Puddles of water
take a very long time to clear. If necessary at pig traps, valve chambers etc, it may be
possible to enter the line and remove standing water using squeegees.
The process can last for 4-12 weeks, depending on the pipeline size and length.
For this reason and the costly delays, it is avoided wherever possible.
PRE-COMMISSIONING - SUMMARY
Prepare documentation
Hydrotest
Flood
Pressurise
Dewater
Flush out with nitrogen or product
Dry – swabs and air dry
Vacuum dry for sour gas or consumer gas line
Any questions?
The activities required in pre-commissioning an installed pipeline ready for product

transfer are shown above. The first task will be to prepare the required documentation,
which include the operating and maintenance manuals and the emergency procedures.
Then the pipeline will be hydrotested to ensure its integrity. The hydrotest procedure is
shown above. Initially the pipeline is flooded with water and then pressurised.
Then the hydrotest water is removed either using nitrogen or the product. If the
product is to be gas it may be necessary to dry the line using swabs or warm air. The
costly process of vacuum drying is needed for certain gas lines.
CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT -
SUMMARY
Basic landfall activities

Use of pre-trenching
Post-lay trenching and burial
Main pre-commissioning activities
Any questions?
The basic aims for landfall construction are to protect the trench through the beach area
whilst avoiding flooding of the land. Once the pipeline is brought ashore, it is buried
deeply to protect it in the surf zone. It is one of the few times that a trench is normally
preformed prior to laying the pipeline.
The reasons and main methods for the trenching and burial of pipelines on the seabed
have been covered. The amount of seabed soil to be removed with post-lay trenching is
much less than for pre-lay because the position of the pipeline is known. The methods
to protect umbilicals are similar, though smaller plant is used.
Tie-ins, spools and risers
Tie-ins, spools and risers 355
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Connecting in pipelines to
topsides jacket or floating host
Flanges and hub connectors
Spoolpieces and jumpers
Installation of rigid risers
Flexible risers
Spoolpieces and risers are needed to connect the pipeline to the platform or FPSO.
The usual method for linking between the pipeline and spoolpiece is using flanges.
However, other proprietary systems are available.
We show how flexibles are manufactured although we mainly concentrate on the

installation methods.
TIE-INS AND SPOOLS
SPOOLPIECES, FLANGES AND

HUBS
Subsea pipelines allowed to expand U - shape
Spoolpieces take up expansion Dog-leg

or Z-shape
L - shape
Typically 30 m to 100 m (100ft to 330ft)
Weld-neck mated with
swivel ring flange
Soft iron ring in groove
Proprietary connections
Lighter flanges
Taper-lok
Clamps using hubs
Grayloc
Collet and hubs
Spoolpieces are required to connect between the end of the pipeline and the riser or
wellhead.
Subsea pipelines are normally allowed to expand on the seafloor. This is in contrast with
buried onshore lines with thrust blocks to resist movement.
The length of the spoolpiece is kept as short as possible to enable it to be lowered into
position without damage yet long enough to take up the expansion in bending. For this
reason, it is common to use L, U or Z shaped thick-walled spools with formed 5D (or
gentler) bends.
When connecting the spool to the end of the pipeline, it is possible to use either
standard API weld-neck flanges mated with a swivel ring flange. The swivel permits the
bolt holes to be aligned without applying torque forces. The seal is made using a soft
iron ring (either oval or hexagonal in cross-section) fitted into a standard groove in the
flanges.
Alternatively, it is possible to make use of proprietary systems. These may be lighter

weight flanges (Taper-lok) or use hubs and clamps (Grayloc) or collets (vertical
connections in GoM).
RIGID STEEL SPOOLPIECES USING

DIVERS
Metrology
Measure spool length and four angles for flanges
Fabricate on deck and lower to seabed
Use of flanges or connectors
Commonest method
Flange leaks at make-up, testing or operation
Not too loose nor too tight – crushing of seal
Lifted and welded at barge
Shallow water only
Hyperbaric welding – dry habitat on seabed
Used in North Sea and Australia
Divers first need to measure the spoolpiece distance and the angles (vertical and
horizontal at both flanges) between the pipeline and riser ends.
This is then reproduced on the deck of the workbarge and pressure tested prior to being
carefully lowered the seabed.
Flanges or connectors are then made up by the divers. This is by far the commonest
method.
However, flanges can and do leak. The force on the bolts needed to draw the ends of
the spool up (accounting for any mis-measurement) and make the seal is undertaken
once. This then usually must serve for the hydrotest and operational conditions with no
further adjustment. The pressure at hydrotest can make the pipeline and spool move
and is greater than will be experienced in normal operation. For hot lines, the final
condition may mean further movement. It is important not to undertighten the bolts
nor to overtighten and crush the soft iron seal.
An alternative approach that can be used in shallow water – 30 m (100ft) – is to use

derricks on the barge to lift the end of the pipeline out of the water and weld on the
spoolpiece and riser.
In deeper water, hyperbaric welding can be undertaken. This eliminates connectors

entirely but is costly. The divers operate in a dry habitat at the seabed.
FLANGE LEAKAGE PROBLEM
Gaskets held with locally-produced skillets

Skillet
Misalignment and poor seating
Crushed during flange tightening
Seal required for:
Make-up
Initial over-tightened
Hydrotest
Crushed
Bolts ‘flogged up’ gasket
Yielding of bolts
Further crushing
More leaks
Operation
Jee Ltd was called in to investigate a problem with flange leakages during a spoolpiece
installation. Concern was raised by the client as to whether the seal obtained on
hydrotest would leak further when the higher temperature and lower operational
pressure were imposed.
There were many possible causes suggested, including the arrangement of the spool
lengths, the thickness of paint on the flange faces, the out-of-specification dimensions of
flanges and bolts, the material grade of the gasket and flanges, the sub-contractors’
experience and their actual tightening procedures (which differed slightly from those laid
down).
Subsea, it is common to tighten the bolts once at make-up. They should initially be
tightened to leave a residual tension of just under half their yield. This single operation
should then maintain the seal during the hydrotest and operational phase with no further
adjustment. During make-up, there is no internal pressure and ambient temperatures,
but there may be some mis-measurement (angular or axial) or fabrication tolerance of
the spoolpiece and flanges, which needs to be pulled in. At hydrotest, the internal
pressure is the highest it is likely to experience but there is no increase in temperature.
Spoolpieces may move from their initial position; flanges may rotate slightly and pull
apart. For the operational phase, temperatures may cause expansion of the pipeline and
further movement may occur.
The conclusion reached following analysis was that the cause was related to the method
of holding the gasket during tightening operations. The gaskets were located within
locally-made skillets to ensure they aligned with the flange grooves. The skillets’ inner
holes were not concentric within the rims. Because they did not hold the gaskets
centrally between the bolts, the gaskets were crushed during the initial make-up
operation. At this stage, the bolting up procedure using bolt tensioners caused over-
tightening and crushing of the soft iron.
Leaks were detected during the hydrotest and this then resulted in individual bolts being
‘flogged up’ further with no regard to equalling out the load in each. It is suspected that
this operation caused some of the bolts to yield, as well as further deforming the gasket
seal.
The solution was to renew the gaskets, skillet and bolting, and to revisit procedures to
prevent a recurrence.
DIVERLESS CONNECTION
METHODS
Saturation diving limit

Normal safe maximum 200 m (656ft) - Europe
Absolute limit 300 m (984ft) - US
Deepwater challenge:
Reliable diverless connections between components
Alignment of components
Vertical or horizontal makeup
Divers are often used to connect a rigid pipe spoolpiece from the bottom of the riser to
the end of the pipeline. However, divers cannot work in the deepest water.
Diving is at its absolute limit at 300 m (984ft) water depth using saturation methods.
Normal safe maximum operating depths are less at 200 m (656ft). This range covers
most of the fields in the waters around the UK and the North Sea.
In deep water, the connections between components in a subsea production and

flowline system have to be made without the use of divers.
The challenges associated with diverless connections are:

■ Reliability - we may need to operate the connectors many times during the life of the
pipeline. This means that we want it to make and break every time for all units
throughout the service life. We cannot go down and adjust something or repair a
damaged flange if the connector system goes wrong!
■ Alignment - this is often achieved using different mechanisms for initial line-up and
final seal
■ Orientation - some systems can only make horizontal connections, others can also
connect directly to vertical risers.
Diverless systems originally developed for deep water are now also used in diving
depths.
WHY DEEPWATER
Elephant fields in Gulf of Mexico

Each is the size of North Sea reserves
Kings Peak 40·106 m³ (250 MMboe)
Thunder Horse 160·106 (1000)
King Kong 40·106 (250)
Llano 160·106 (1000)
GOM Developments in >450 m (1476ft) water depth
The world’s shallow water oil and gas reserves have been developed. The continuing
demand for oil is driving the need to develop more difficult reserves in deeper waters.
There are considerable deep water reserves in the Gulf of Mexico and other parts of the
world, and we are seeing rapid technical advances being made so that these reserves can
be exploited.
MMboe - Millions of barrels of oil equivalent
WEST AFRICA
Similar story
elsewhere
Offshore
West Africa
Girassol, Angola
Bonga, Nigeria
120·106 m³
(750 MMboe)
Courtesy of
Van Oord ACZ
Offshore West Africa is another area of considerable deep water reserves and we are
seeing much activity in this region.
DEEPWATER AREAS AND BASINS
NWECS (UK)
Southern
Caspian Sea
Eastern
Southern CA Canada Egypt
GOM
Nigeria
Equatorial Indonesia
Guinea Angola-
Campos Congo
Gabon
Basin
Namibia
South Africa
The above map – produced by Offshore Magazine and Mustang Engineering – shows
where the major deepwater basins lie and where future developments may take place.
Current development areas are named in yellow with new and future regions indicated in
red. The white area offshore of California is now deemed a former area.
Where:
■ NWECS (UK) = Northwest European continental shelf (United Kingdom)
WHAT IS DEEP?
In 1975, the 813 mm (32 in) Forties line laid

in 150 m (500 ft) water was considered deep
Now, figure is about 1000 m (3300 ft)
However, not everyone agrees with this arbitrary definition of deep at 1000 m (3300ft).
Flexible riser manufacturers, ROV buoyancy suppliers, fishermen, sport and commercial
divers all have different views. This also changes around the world.
DEEP PIPELINES
(m²) Pipeline difficulty (water depth x diameter)

(ft²)
2500
Oman-India
25 000
2000
Measure of difficulty
Mensa BlueStream MedGaz

20 000
(Lorelay) (J-lay)
1500
TransMed Pipelines Marlin 15 000
(Castoro Sei) (Apache) Diana
1000
Messina Strait 10 000
(Castoro Sei)
500 5 000
Forties
(Castoro Due)
0 0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 Year
This figure illustrates the advance in deep water pipelines. The axes show difficulty, here
defined as water depth x diameter and plotted by the year. We can see that currently we
are going through a period of rapidly increasing difficulty.
Along with deeper pipelines, we have correspondingly increased depths for platforms
and associated risers.
PIPELINE CONNECTION SOLUTIONS
Principles: Alignment
Necessary methods:
requirements Flexible jumper
Reversible connection Rigid pipe spool
Retrievable seals
Straight pull-in
Often desirable
Deflect-to-connect
No hydraulics remaining
on seabed Example systems:
Preferably one ROV trip DMaC
Self-seal on opening
KOSCON
Pressure balanced
Testing of seal
MATIS & UTIS
BRUTUS
For diverless connection of spoolpieces to connect the end of the pipeline to the bottom
of the riser there are a number of principles common to all methods.
The two essential principles are that the connection can be reversed if something goes
wrong and that any seals can be retrieved and replaced if they become worn or damaged
during the installation or during subsequent operation.
It is also better if we leave as few hydraulic parts on the seabed as possible. After a
number of years, these will almost certainly cease to function and cannot be serviced. If
there are a number of connections to be made, then it is preferable that all go down to
the seabed at the start of operations. The ROV can pick up the necessary part when
needed. It takes a long time for an ROV to be recovered to the surface to have a new
tool or part added and then return down to the seabed. If possible, any hose fittings
should self-seal when the connection is opened and such items should be pressure
balanced to avoid large make-up forces. Many systems are able to test the seal prior to
the hydrotest.
There are four basic methods or configurations for making subsea connections, as listed
above.
Note that these methods apply to both diver and diverless connections and tie-ins. The
basic principles of connection (reversible connection and retrievable seals) again apply to
both diver and diverless connections. However, they are more technically challenging
and costly to achieve for a diverless system.
INITIAL SPOOL ALIGNMENT

METHOD
Flexible spool
Wire pull-in - flexible flowlines
Fly-to-place - umbilicals and cables
Direct pipe pull-in - no thermal expansion
Only at one end of the pipeline
Rigid flowline spool - accurate fabrication
Spool pull-in - joint made at seabed
Deflect-to-connect - joint made at seabed
J-tube pull-in - joint made at top
Rigid or flexible spool with vertical stab
Installed on guide posts
Flexibles are commonly stabbed horizontally. A number of proprietary systems use

wires and small winches on the ROV to bring the end of the flexible pipe towards the
riser. For umbilicals and cables, the ROV can directly ‘fly’ the ends together.
Where thermal expansion of the pipeline is not a consideration, the pipeline itself can be
pulled directly into the manifold structure either using diver or ROV intervention and
the topside vessel crane. This method can only be used at one end of the pipeline.
In contrast to flexibles, all rigid spools require accurate measurement and fabrication, in
combination with an alignment system that can apply considerable force to bring the
ends together.
Three methods can be used for the initial alignment of a rigid spool. A direct pull-in can
use wire (as for the flexible) or rams on the ROV tool. Deflect-to-connect makes use of
buoyancy on the line to reduce seabed friction and wires bring the ends together. We
will examine the J-tube method in the Risers module.
Rigid spools can also be made up using vertical stab-ins at either end. These spools are
an inverted U shape and are aligned using guide post systems.
FLEXIBLE PIPELINE PULL-IN
1 Run pull-wire from porch 2 Connect to flowline pullhead
4 Remove
pullhead
3 Wire pull-in 5. Make-up connection
The above slide shows a diverless pipeline pull-in sequence.
INTEC DMaC FOR RIGID OR

FLEXIBLE - VIDEO
The DMaC connector is extensively used in the West of Shetlands in the north of
Scotland. The procedure follows that shown on the previous slide. It is used for both
rigid and flexible pipeline spools.
Other proprietary designs exist that do not require as accurate a rotational alignment of
the end of the pipeline. However, they operate on similar principles.
The picture shows a DMaC manifold unit containing a number of connection ports.
DEFLECT-TO-CONNECT AND
VERTICAL STAB
Risers on
fixed platform
Vertical
stab lowered
Set down of Pull-in wire into place
rigid pipe end
within tolerance
Deflect-to-connect
rigid pipeline
with buoyancy and chains
Deflect-to-connect can be used with the ends of rigid pipelines. Even large diameters up
to 914 mm (36in) have been installed in this way.
Pipelay initiation must ensure that the end sits within a rigid target box. The weight of
the pipe is minimised using buoys and chains. A wire pulls the end of pipe over to the
riser. The ends are finally connected using collets or clamps.
Care must be exercised when recovering the buoyancy modules, since without the
weight of the pipe, they surface rapidly.
Vertical stab-in risers can be lowered down using barge or platform cranes. An ROV
helps guide the spool onto the ends of the riser and pipeline.
FINAL MAKE-UP AND SEAL
Collet connectors Guide post for lowering

down on wire
Clamp and hub systems
Flanges
Collet Clamp
Pull-in and connection

system retrievable
Collet type connector Kongsberg UTIS
For deepwater developments, dedicated remote pull-in systems have been designed.
They may utilise diverless technology such as collet connections or clamp and hub
systems combined with retrievable pull-in tools. Alternatively, lightweight or standard
flanges may be used. These require much larger equipment to install the bolts and
tighten the nuts.
In all cases, as much of the equipment as possible is recovered for use on the next
connection. Ideally, only the connectors themselves should remain.
The photograph shows one type of collet connector tool.

VERTICAL STAB AND HINGE-OVER
Collet connector Collet connector Connector assembly hinges ROV makes hot-stab
assembly is lowered on assembly lands in over to make up and test
flexible or rigid flowline receiver pyramid during pipe lay-away connector assembly
It was originally perceived to be easier to use vertical stab-ins because these can be
lowered into place.
This slide illustrates the vertical stab and hinge-over system used for initiating and
connecting the first end of a flexible pipeline.
DIVERLESS INSTALLATION
Rigid spool with vertical stab
The picture illustrates a rigid spool with vertical stab connections.

DIVERLESS INSTALLATION
Vertical spool
1
Easier to lower and align
Both ends connected together
Minimises makeup forces and
moments at ends
Requires hinged PLET
2 3
This sequence illustrates the vertical stab subsea tie-in being made.
Vertical spools are the common method used in the Gulf of Mexico where trawling snag
risk is low.
It is much easier to lower the spool and connect up both ends in one operation.
Provided the metrology has been undertaken carefully, the make-up forces and moments
are almost eliminated. However, the pipeline must be laid with a vertical bend on a
hinged pipeline end manifold (PLET).
BIG INCH ARTICULATED

CONNECTOR - VIDEO
One problem associated with diverless rigid spool tie-ins is misalignment of the
connection hubs.
The Big Inch articulated connector illustrated above allows for up to 5° of misalignment.
Connection is first made using funnel and guide post, then the seal is made by drawing
the ends together using a clamping mechanism. The seal can be pressure tested prior to
commissioning.
FLANGE MAKE-UP
MATIS system
Lightweight or
standard
flanges
Minimum
equipment left
on seabed
The above slide shows the MATIS (Modular Advanced Tie In System) diverless make-
up system, which can effect subsea diverless connections utilising a variety of connection
systems.
The system operates by aligning the ends of the pipes using conventional remotely
operated pipe handling frames to bring the flanged ends within the flange alignment
frame.
Once final alignment has been achieved and a gasket has been inserted, the flange faces
are brought together and a cassette compatible with the flange type is lowered into the
frame. This cassette inserts the studs into the bolt holes in the flanges and then runs the
nuts onto the studs.
When each stud has a nut on it, the whole assembly is tensioned up to the particular
flange’s specific requirements.
One advantage of MATIS (or other similar systems such as BRUTUS) is that only
normal bolted flanges remain at the seabed.
TIE-INS AND SPOOLS - SUMMARY
Flanges and proprietary hub systems

Above-water welding
Hyperbaric welding
Spoolpiece shapes and metrology
Diverless connection principles
Initial alignment techniques (soft land)
Flexibles and rigid lines
Horizontal and vertical spools
Final make-up (hard land)
Collets, clamps or flanges
Seal testing
Any questions?
We have covered the main approaches to connecting the end of the pipeline to the riser.
These are usually connected with standard flange and a swivel ring flange.
However, there are certain times when the pipeline and spool are lifted and welded
above-water. In some parts of the world, hyperbaric welding is undertaken by divers.
In deep water, beyond the limits for divers, we have to use reliable systems. The main
principles for these were listed.
There are normally two stages in connecting spools: there is the initial alignment which
brings the end within the reach of the tool, and the final make-up when the seal is made
between the hubs or flanges. These stages are sometimes referred to as soft landing and
hard landing.
Ideally, the seal can be tested by the ROV prior to commissioning.

RIGID RISERS
Risers Fixed to Jacket
RIGID PIPE FIXED RISER DESIGN
Pig trap ESDV
Anchor flange
Design as for pipeline
Watch for:
Guide
Thicker wall
5D bends
Hang from top, free at base
ESDV and SSIV Guide
Splash zone corrosion protection Space to
Site for pig traps, facing out to sea flex down
Fatigue due to waves and VIV
The pipe wall thickness design for a riser is fundamentally similar to that for the pipeline
in terms of meeting pressure containment, bending, and hydrostatic collapse
requirements.
However, there are additional aspects to watch out for:

■ The wall thickness will be higher due to the lower design factors. This is to give an
increased measure of safety on pressure containment close to habitation.
■ The bends need to have a radius of at least 5 diameters in order to facilitate
intelligent pigging. This can have a marked effect on the space requirements for the
larger diameters.
■ The normal configuration is to hang the riser from an anchor flange and constrain it
laterally using guides. It is therefore important to allow space under the base for it
to flex (e.g. as it heats up), otherwise it will go into compression and this will
exacerbate the bending due to wave loading.
■ The emergency shutdown valve (ESDV) will be the first fitting at the top of the
riser.
■ Splash zone corrosion can be problematic in that the area is wetted, exposed to
oxygen but not protected by the cathodic protection system. Elastomer cladding is a
typical solution.
■ Pig traps usually face out to sea to cater for the unlikely event that they eject a pig.
■ Riser fatigue is invariably a big issue, and we consider it in detail.
■ Subsea isolation valves (SSIVs) are not compulsory on non-gas lines but are often
installed up to 500 m (1640ft) from the jacket. They may be a ball valve for an
incoming line or a non-return clapper valve for an export line.
RETROFIT RISERS
Existing risers, J-tubes, guide slots

Jacket member spacing for clamp supports
Threading
riser inside
jacket legs
Rails
Lifting
tackle
When retrofitting risers to a jacket, there are additional issues to consider. The first is
whether there was any provision at the construction stage to put in spare risers, or J-
tubes, or conductor slots, or riser support brackets. If so, the retrofit riser can make use
of these.
With no provision, the normal approach is to fit mechanical clamp/guide assemblies

around jacket members, and to install the riser in sections into the guides. The picture
above shows the second of three sections of the 355.6 mm (14in) Montrose riser being
installed on Forties Charlie. Most of the riser ran up the outside of the jacket. The swan
neck in the picture went uppermost and routed the riser inside the jacket below the
splash zone.
One point to note is the slenderness of the riser, and the inherent difficulties in lifting
and upending without overbending it.
J-TUBE
Yields pipe twice

J-tube
Large diameter
Large radius bends
Bell mouth above seabed
Plug seal
Inhibited water in annulus
Seal plug slung on clamp
A J-tube is typically a 508 mm to 762 mm (20in to 30in) tube with a 30D bend. Through
this a small diameter (102 mm to 324 mm or 4in to 12in) rigid steel (or flexible) riser may
be pulled up. In pulling up the J-tube, the rigid steel riser will be yielded round the bend
and then yielded straight again as it is pulled in.
Because the annulus between the J-tube and the riser itself cannot be easily inspected, it
is common to seal the bottom end with a plug and fill the annulus with inhibited water.
The photograph shows a typical sealing plug (black and yellow) slung on a lifting clamp.
The picture shows a finite element analysis of a J-tube installation undertaken by Jee on
the Nuggets Field Development. Not shown in the analysis is the bell mouthed orifice
at the bottom end, which aids location of the riser in the J-tube.
Steel Catenary Risers
STEEL CATENARY RISER

STRESSES
Flex joint
Pipeline
High bending
≈ 20% at touchdown
Stress
Yield
Bending
(without
flex joint) Total
Stress Bending
Weight
Vessel Touchdown Distance
High fatigue High fatigue
The above diagram illustrates the shape of a steel catenary riser and the associated
stresses. The riser is simply a steel pipe hung from the vessel to the seabed. Compared
to the length of the span, the pipe stiffness is small and the behaviour of the pipe
approximates to that of a chain, hence the term “catenary”. However, in practice this
type of rigid riser is highly stressed/fatigued at the flex joint and at the touch down
point, yet lowly stressed over the majority of its length.
Firstly, let us look at the stress and fatigue characteristics of the riser. The stress pattern
is a function mainly of its self-weight and bending as shown in the graph above. For the
majority of the riser, the stress and fatigue levels are low. At the top, high bending
stresses would result if there were a rigid connection to the vessel. Therefore a flex joint
is introduced (see subsequent slide) which also serves to relieve the bending fatigue due
to wave loading.
At the touchdown there is a region of high bending and high fatigue. The fatigue is
caused by a magnification of the vessel motions at the touchdown; i.e. if the vessel
heaves a distance x, the touchdown point moves a distance many times x. Titanium pipe
is sometimes used in this area (see details below).
FLEX JOINT
Flex joint allows riser to

pivot at vessel Attachment
flange with
Low bend moment centre-ball
Typically ±5°
Elastomer
Solves fatigue
Reinforcement
problem at top
Body
Bend stiffeners Extension
unsuitable for rigid risers
Fatigue checks still
needed along riser length SCR
FlexJoint
VIV and touchdown
With flexibles, bend stiffeners are used to avoid over-bending of the riser.
Steel pipes in themselves have a much greater rigidity than bend stiffeners and the length
of such stiffeners is limited, so they cannot provide enough protection to rigid steel
risers.
Instead, rigid steel risers are typically fitted with flex joints at the vessel. This permits
limited angular movement with a low bending moment.
Using flex joints avoids fatigue failure at the vessel, but checks are needed that the
remaining length of the riser is not over-bent.
Fatigue at the touchdown point tends to dominate the design life of such risers. Careful
modelling of the soil-pipe interaction is needed. In strong currents near the surface but
below the wave action, vortex-induced vibration (VIV) fatigue may also be an issue.
TOUCHDOWN POINT
Highest bending stresses

Amplification of vessel
movements
Compression waves
Soil interface
Bending moment
Laydown
Lift
Top vertical actuation
At the touchdown point, the vessel motions are amplified due to the shape of the
catenary. Sending the touchdown point backwards and forwards over the seabed tends
to form a trench. This was replicated in the tests above, and the resultant increase in
force to lift the riser out of the mud is shown in the graph.
Rails running 10 m (33ft) along the harbour wall allowed the trials to include lateral
pullouts of the pipe. The graph shows the best technique for identifying the soil suction
effect. It relies on comparing a riser lift-up with a lay-down. The lift-up will feel the
suction forces, the lay-down will not. By reversing the lay-down data and placing it on
top of the lift-up, the suction effects can be estimated by the difference in the curves.
One particular point to watch for is the generation of compression waves in the riser if
the vessel heaves faster than the riser is able to freefall through the water. This can
cause buckling and/or a whiplash effect at the touchdown point.
STEEL CATENARY RISERS -

INITIATION
Lay from reel lay or J-lay vessel

Attach buoyant or strake sections
Stakes or
fairings
A&R wire
Buoyant
section
Pull head
A typical installation sequence for a SCR or LWSCR riser up to an FPSO is as follows:

■ The flowline installation vessel would lay the riser section as normal towards the
location of the FPSO
■ For a LWSCR a buoyant section is added
■ Fairings, shrouds or stakes may be required in the upper section to combat VIV
effects.
■ A standard laydown procedure would be undertaken using the A&R wire and winch
attached to a temporary pull head.
RIGID STEEL CATENARY RISER -

CONNECT
Host vessel recovers riser using winch

Turret
Support FPSO (or TLP)
vessel
Recovery
wires
Pull head
When the host vessel arrives and moors, it attaches a wire to the riser end, and winches
it under the turret.
To avoid excessive stresses at touchdown, it is common to use an auxiliary craft to

provide horizontal tension.
The riser is pulled further into the FPSO and a dry connection made on the turret. (The
turret allows the vessel to weather vane without twisting up the moorings and risers).
Some FPSOs have the turret at the bow. In areas with a predominant current, wave and
wind direction, it is not necessary to have turrets. In this case, the SCR is brought along
the side.
The riser configuration is then complete.
SCR RECOVERY
SCR docking
off platform
FlexJoint
Monkeyface
Two pull wires
A typical docking of a side-mounted SCR of a semi-sub. An Oil States’ FlexJoint docks

into the open socket.
Two pullwires and a monkeyface are used to maintain sufficient touchdown tension to
prevent buckling.
Top Tensioned Risers
TENSIONED (RIGID)
Heidrun tension leg platform (TLP)

with rigid risers
Tensioned risers are primarily used in conjunction with ‘floating’ facilities such as the
tension leg platform illustrated, semi-submersible drill rigs and production platforms
(e.g. Buchan) and drill ships. The riser response to wave and currents loads and to
vortex-induced vibration (VIV) is controlled by the application of tension.
TOP TENSIONED STEEL RISER
Pros Cons
TLPs and spars More weather
Bigger diameters sensitive
Greater pressures Taper stress
and temperatures joint required
Can do localised Complex
repairs anchor base
Used for drilling, Host above
completion and well template
workover operations
Production and
export risers
The above slide summarises some of the benefits and problems associated with vertical
tensioned steel risers. These are usually used on hosts such as TLPs and spars where the
well template is immediately below the vessel.
We can accommodate larger diameter lines at higher pressures and temperatures.
Because the riser is vertical and under high tension, the riser is essentially in a fixed
location so it is possible to undertake inspection and repairs.
The same configuration can accommodate all types of operation as well as production
and export.
However, the response of the riser is extremely weather sensitive.
The high tension needs to be resisted by additional fixity to the seabed through the
casing grouted to the upper layers of soil. Moments at the base demand a taper stress
joint and a complex base design.
MARS TLP
Mars platform Derrick

4 pontoons Deck
Tendon on foundation piles Hull
for TLP vessel anchorages Pontoon
20 wells
Risers assembled using Well
pipes
drilling derrick
Tendons
Proprietary connectors
Lowered and fixed to 20 wells
template anchorage Piled
bases
The Mars tension leg platform is designed for deep water drilling. It is built to withstand
the winds and heavy seas of hurricanes. Mars drills wells and processes oil and gas from
its own 20 wells as well as flowlines from other well clusters.
In addition to the risers, there are 12 flexible tendons (3 at each corner) which move
with the sea but firmly anchor each pontoon of the rig. These tendons are linked to
piles in the seafloor some 900 m (2940ft) below.
The Derrick is used to assemble the risers which are made up from standard lengths
with proprietary connectors. Once at seabed, the taper joint is connected to the
anchorage and the tension is transferred to the floor.
Hybrid Risers
HYBRID RISERS
Buoyancy
Export lines
Flexible from
FPSO to SPM
risers
Rigid
riser
tower
Control
Girassol field umbilicals
with hybrid risers
and flowline bundles
Hybrid risers involve a combination of tensioned rigid and flexible pipe. The example
above shows the rigid pipe used for the (long) vertical portion and the flexibles attaching
from the top of that vertical portion in a catenary to a floating production vessel.
Hybrids are seen as a potential deep water solution, where the use of flexibles is limited
by the weight of the flexible being held at the top. The rigid part of the system is limited
to the lower depths where the hydrodynamic loadings are low.
The export monobuoy Single Point Mooring (SPM) enables visiting tankers to
‘weathervane’ around it, thus minimising wind and current forces acting on the vessel.
GIRASSOL MULTI-RISER SOLUTION
Subsea swivels
Flexible
risers
Rigid
Articulated tower
joint
Girassol risers
Courtesy of
Acergy
An example for a more benign West African environment is the Girassol configuration
above. Here a cost-effective solution is obtained by spanning most of the 1400 m
(4600ft) water column with tensioned (by buoyancy) steel risers, and spanning a short
step from the top of the tower to the moving vessel with flexibles.
The floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) ship is used because it is more
economical than a fixed platform in deeper water.
GIRASSOL MULTI-RISER TOWER
Section Six X65 219 mm (8in)

through by 13.6 mm wall
tower product and injection risers
Four gas lift lines
559 mm (22in) core pipe
X65, 25.4 mm (1in) wall
Cathodic protection
Insulation seals and foam
Interlocking syntactic
foam blocks
Two 56.8 mm (2in)

by 3 mm wall
Riser tower super-duplex service lines
assembly on
beach Strapping
Pictures courtesy of Acergy
The riser towers were assembled on the beach in the manner of the wet bundles used for
the flowlines to the wellhead manifolds. They were then towed out to the field.
There, they were pulled down to pre-prepared fixed bases. Connections at the seabed
were undertaken by ROV. The flexible sections between the flotation unit at the top of
the towers and the FPSO was completed using divers.
RIGID STEEL RISERS - SUMMARY
Rigid steel risers slung from jacket

J tube for small diameter steel pipelines and cables
Steel catenary risers (SCR)
Flex joint at top – touchdown groove in seabed
Top tensioned risers using connectors
Taper flex joint
Hybrids used on Girassol Project
Any questions?
Traditionally, rigid steel pipe risers are slung from the platform topsides and held
between guides on the jacket legs. Small flowlines may be pulled directly into a J tube.
The end is sealed to prevent hidden corrosion.
Steel catenary risers to floating facilities usually have a flex joint at the top, but care is
needed at the touchdown point to avoid dragging the pipeline laterally out of the groove
in soft sediments.
Top tensioned risers are lowered from the vessel with connectors joining each section.
The bottom end is subjected to high bending stress, necessitating the use of a taper flex
joint at the seabed.
On the Girassol project, where due to the depth of the field, it was necessary to make
use of ROV connection systems at the seabed. A rigid bundle section was used from the
seabed to diving depths. This is able to move slightly, but currents and wave action
means that this section remains almost fixed. The riser pipes are insulated and buoyed
throughout their length but have a large buoyant unit at the top. From here to the
FPSO vessel, flexibles were used. They could be connected using divers and were better
able to resist the wave and current action near the surface.
FLEXIBLE RISER INSTALLATION
Flexible Pipe Manufacture
WHY HAVE FLEXIBLES?
The cost of materials and manufacture is

more than for rigid steel lines
So why use them?
Capability
Dynamic risers
Can accommodate large movements
Cost effectiveness
Rapid installation
Integral risers and jumpers
Flexibles of a given diameter contain more steel than the equivalent rigid line. Due to
their complexity of manufacture, they are inevitably more expensive to make than rigid
lines - so why use them?
As the slide indicates, the primary driver to develop flexibles was for dynamic risers
which connect a static pipeline to a vessel or some other facility that is moving on the
waves. Rigid lines are not capable of performing this function.
Other applications for which they prove cost effective are jumpers (spoolpieces between
wellheads and manifolds) or integral flowlines, where the flexible can run from the
production facility all the way to the manifold or wellhead without any joins. The latter
two are often cost effective due to their rapid installation.
A flexible may be ten to twenty times the price of a rigid steel line but the installation
vessels will be considerably cheaper. The purchase/installation cost ratio for rigid is
30%/70% whereas flexibles the ratio is reversed - 70%/30%.
FLEXIBLES SIZE AND PRESSURE

RANGE
Flowline (rather than trunkline) range

Working pressure for flexibles
800
Pressure (ksi)
600
Pressure (bar)
6
400
3
200
0
0 100 5 200 10 300 15 400 500 20
Internal diameter - bore mm (inch)
The requirement to bend conflicts with having large-diameter, high-pressure flexibles.

However, as shown in the graph above, the diameter and pressure ranges for flexibles
entirely cover the flowline market. Note that the diameters refer to the inside diameter
of the pipe, which contrasts with rigids where the diameter is the (nominal) outside
diameter.
Flexibles also cover the complete range of requirements for deep water, and are being
evolved to address deeper and deeper applications as such fields are developed. The
largest flexibles to date are 483 mm (19in) inside diameter. One has been developed by
Technip for the Bonga export pipeline.
FLEXIBLE CROSS SECTION DESIGN
A number of choices affect the design:

Smooth or rough bore (gas)
High pressure or low pressure
Dynamic or static
Normal or deep water
Incorporation of
umbilical controls
Small bore hydraulic
and electrical lines
Insulation
Comfoam tape
Each of these subjects is considered below.
The picture shows Wellstream’s gas lift umbilicals (GLUs) riser flexible. This consist of
a number of individual bore, gas lift lines surrounded by the structural and protective
layers.
Where additional insulation is needed a foamed tape is wrapped helically around the
flexible prior to the outer protective seal layer.
SMOOTH OR ROUGH BORE
SMOOTH BORE ROUGH BORE
Plastic Steel carcass
Smooth bore flexibles can be used on non-gas services (such as oil or water injection).
Because they have a smooth plastic inner bore, they offer less resistance to flow.
However, should the product contain gas or dissolved gas, it will be necessary to have a
steel carcass on the inside of the plastic. Gas naturally permeates through the plastic at a
low flowrate due to diffusion. Should the bore be vented, the build up of gas outside the
plastic tube could have sufficient pressure to cause it to collapse, which would ruin the
pipe. The carcass acts to prevent such collapse and renders the flexible a ‘rough bore’.
The carcass is generally made of 316 stainless steel flat strip, which is bent and
interlocked to give a layer resistant to external pressure.
HIGH OR LOW PRESSURE
Crosswound tensile armours
Zeta interlocked spiral

55° structure
Pressure loads Pressure loads

+
Tensile loads tensile loads
For high pressures (i.e. most in-pipeline applications) a separate pressure vault layer is
needed to withstand the pressure loads as shown in the left hand picture. For low
pressures, the tensile armours can be wound at the ‘magic angle’ of 55°, which is ideal
for the dual function of resisting tensile and hoop pressure loads without twisting. The
angle is a result of the hoop stresses being twice that of tensile stresses when resisting
internal pressures.
DYNAMIC OR STATIC
STATIC DYNAMIC
Steel to steel contact Anti-friction plastic tape or sheath
For risers, which are a dynamic application where the pipe is continually moving and
thus the layers are continually rubbing over each other, it is necessary to have anti-
friction layers as shown on the right. Note that it is not possible to change from one
structure to another without an end fitting, so if a pipe is to form a static flowline and a
riser in one length, then it must all be made to a dynamic specification.
NORMAL OR DEEP WATER
NORMAL DEEPWATER
Zeta (Technip) Dynamic Teta Static Teta
Pressure vault Projected for

very deep water
Plastic sheath
Carcass
For normal water depths, the Zeta layer (or equivalent layer for other manufacturers) has
sufficient bending strength (EI value) to resist hydrostatic collapse.
For deep water, a greater EI (or stiffness) value is needed, as offered by the Teta design
(amongst others).
NKT FLEXIBLE PIPE

MANUFACTURE - VIDEO
The main points covered are:

■ Extrusion of plastic layers
■ Winding of pre-formed wire layers using ‘cable-winding’ machine as pipe is pulled
through the centre of the machine
■ Storing on large reels in between processes
■ Quality control to ISO 9000
MYTHS DISPELLED
End fittings
Gas permeation
Hydrolysis
Damage
Integrity
monitoring
Gas released
and monitored
Phoenix Beattie
unflanged end
Flexibles are a widely-used, high-integrity product.
Here are some myths exploded:

■ End fittings have failed in the past due to extrusion of plastic layers on thermal
cycling. This is now well understood. Any vulnerable fittings were recalled and
replaced. Current fittings have a different design, and are sometimes baked to
remove the plasticiser. This process may take over a month to complete.
■ Small amounts of gas will diffuse through the plastic layers. The gas is collected in
the annulus and vented at the end fittings. A spin-off is that this provides a means
of monitoring the integrity of the flexible.
■ Some plastics (nylons for example) suffer hydrolysis in the presence of water. With
time, this leads them to soften and go to a mush. This is also well understood, and
alternative plastics would be used in the design of flexibles subject to water in the
flowstream.
■ The outer sheath can suffer damage during installation and operation. This allows
water to flood into the windings where it may combine with permeating gases to
corrode the windings. The windings are therefore designed to cope with this
environment by using steels that are resistant to hydrogen-induced cracking and
sulphide stress corrosion.
■ Integrity monitoring is necessary for flexibles, and particularly for dynamic risers. It
is available through a number of inspection and monitoring routes. The approach
has been set out in ISO 13628-2 (API 17J).
Installation Analysis
FLEXIBLE RISER ANALYSIS
Confirm configuration will stand all loads

Final condition
All stages during installation
We consider the following:
Static
Dynamic
Software
Remedies
Having established the different riser configurations and cross-section designs, we will
now look at flexible riser analysis: the computer prediction of the response of risers to
wave and vessel motions. This will cover the following:
■ Static analysis to find mean configuration and response to currents and vessel drift
■ Dynamic analysis to find response to waves and vessel motions
■ Software to carry out the analysis
■ What to do if the riser is outside its capability
STATIC ANALYSIS
Inputs Excursion
Flow Ebb
Riser weight, stiffness Tide
Buoyancy, anchors, constraints

Overall geometry
Load cases
Current, tide, vessel drift (3D)
Outputs
Shape, including minimum bend radius
Tensions
Vessel and anchor loads
The above slide lists the inputs, load cases and outputs for a riser static analysis.
It is normal to first determine the boundary envelope for the shape of the riser
considering the above input forces. Remember, that this will be in 3D rather than 2D
shown above.
At this stage minimum and maximum tensions, vessel and anchor loads may be found.
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Inputs/loads as per static plus

Regular or random waves
Vessel response amplitude operators (RAOs)
6 degrees of freedom
6 phase angles - differ with varying frequencies
Analysis
Time or frequency domain
Outputs as per static plus Heave
Motion envelopes (clashing) Yaw Surge

Compression waves Sway Roll
Fatigue Pitch
Vessel motion
Dynamic analysis needs to build on the static analysis.

It considers the full response of the vessel and riser to a regular wave train. If this
analysis proves acceptable, a simulated random wave set may be used for more detailed
work.
Either time or frequency domain analysis may be used depending upon the power (and
cost) of the computer.
We can now determine whether a pair of risers are likely to clash and cause impact
damage.
Compression waves can be a concern. This can be likened to a whip effect, where the
wave, initiated by the vessel dropping into a wave trough, travels down the flexible riser
until it reaches the seabed. At this point, the riser crushes and is damaged.
Fatigue of the wires in a riser can be a problem where there is an inadequate bend
stiffener at the surface or the curvature of the riser at the mid-water arch or the seabed.
This causes repeated bending in the wires and eventually fatigue of the riser.
SOFTWARE
Orcaflex (see www.orcina.com)

Flexcom (see www.mcs-international.co.uk)
ABAQUS (see www.abaqus.com)
Offpipe (see www.offpipe.com)
The above software can be used for both static and dynamic riser analyses.
ORCAFLEX DYNAMIC ANALYSIS -

VIDEO
The above animation shows the motions of a flexible riser passing over a mid-water arch
and spanning up to a vessel. The waves not only put lateral loads on the riser, they also
make the vessel and arch move.
REMEDIES
Adjust inertia to drag ratio

Adjust configuration
Arches
Anchors
Buoyancy
Add bend stiffener
Add bend
restrictor
Two bend
stiffeners
Bend on flexible
prior to
restrictor shipping
What can be done if the riser is overbent, or clashes, or is in some other way deemed
unsuitable by the static or dynamic analysis?
Remedies are as follows:

■ Make the pipe denser, increasing its inertia to drag ratio. This generally improves
the dynamic response. If the riser is too light, it may not ‘fall’ through the water as
fast as the vessel, leading to compression waves as the vessel heaves.
■ Adjust the riser configuration to one more suited to the conditions (see previous and
following slides for descriptions of configurations).
■ If the problem is overbending at an end termination then add a bend stiffener. The
picture shows two bend stiffeners. Their purpose is to support the riser as it arcs,
such that it deflects over a longer length and does not lock-out or overstress at the
minimum bend radius. Bend stiffeners need to be analysed carefully.
Riser Configurations and Equipment
CONFIGURATIONS
Flexible riser configurations

J-tube
Catenary
Lazy S and steep S
Mid-water arch
Lazy and steep wave
Distributed buoyancy
Compliant wave and S
The flexible configurations can be:

■ Within a J-tube. We examined J tubes earlier for rigid risers. But flexibles can also
be brought up though one.
■ In a simple catenary.
■ In a S shape or a wave. Lazy or steep S risers use submerged arches. Waves use
distributed buoyancy. The compliant S and compliant wave are variations developed
by Technip for improved response to environmental forces.
These configurations are given in more detail in the following slides.

FREE HANGING CATENARY RISER
FPSO
Top stiffeners
prevent overbending
Protection needed
against wear
at touchdown
Bend stiffeners on catenary
risers beneath a platform
The free hanging catenary riser is the simplest flexible riser configuration. It is only
suitable for moderate environmental conditions or for set-ups with negligible heave
motions such as on a Tension Leg Platform (TLP).
Bend stiffeners are increasing in length. They may be up to 14 m (46 ft) long.
S RISER
FPSO Locating
clamp
Top stiffeners
Mid-water
arch
buoyancy
Arch units
Steep-S Lazy-S
Tethered Tether
clamp
Clump weights Clump
base
The S-configuration riser is good for satellite tie-backs, where vertical access from FPSO
to a drilling template is not necessary.
The mid-water arch is produced by a single buoyancy unit anchored to the seabed. A
number of risers can pass over a single buoyancy unit, which fixes their separation
relative to each other. The configuration gives very good dynamic response but arch
behaviour may restrict its use in shallow waters; that is, less than 90 m (295 ft).
The steep-S configuration is particularly good for multiple riser situations where seabed
space becomes restricted.
The locating clamps hold the flexible centrally in the buoy. The two trumpets prevent
overbending of the pipe during installation. An appreciation of the size of the mid-water
arch is given by the photograph of the two men stood within the CRP unit (produced by
Trelleborg).
WAVE RISER
Buoyancy Banding system

FPSO mouldings for buoyancy
Top stiffeners
Distributed
buoyancy
modules
Steep Lazy
wave Bottom wave
stiffener Clamp sections for Titanium band
Clump weight fixing to flexible and bolts
CRP advanced fixing system
for distributed buoyancy
The lazy wave riser is good for deep water diverless installation. Dynamic response is
very sensitive to cross currents due to lack of any anchoring. This riser configuration is
not recommended if a large number of individual risers must be accommodated within a
single anchoring sector.
The steep wave configuration is good for congested seabed developments. However it
is limited to single or well separated lines. The steep wave gives a very good dynamic
response.
When fitting the buoyancy, it is now common practice to use a GRP-epoxy clamp with
Kevlar or titanium banding rather than steel clamps with long bolts (see the tethered
clamp on the compliant wave).
Titanium has a lower Young’s modulus and greater strength than stainless steels so
permits the flexible to expand during operation whilst keeping sufficient tension to hold
the clamp.
BUOYANCY
Used on flexibles and hybrid risers

Similar problems to
insulation foams
Creep
Water ingress
Attachment point
stresses and heat
Dual use as insulation
in some cases
Installing
flexible with
distributed
buoyancy
Buoyancy is often needed with risers.
It is made from similar materials to the insulation coatings described earlier.
However, special design detail is needed at the attachment point.
COMPLIANT WAVE RISER
FPSO
Technip
development
Top stiffener Hybrid between lazy
wave and steep wave
Distributed
buoyancy Advantages of lazy
modules
wave
Dynamic
Pliant
behaviour
wave Tethered
of steep
clamp wave
Clump weight Bottom
tethered
clamp
Technip has developed the compliant wave riser. This was used at the Foinaven
development in the West of Shetland (WoS), north of Scotland.
This hybrid combines the advantages of the lazy wave with the dynamic behaviour of
the steep wave. The position of the lower tethered clamp means that the length of the
flexible on the seabed can be laid in any direction.
MULTIPLE RISERS
SFPS vessel
Compliant wave
Footprint of risers
Compact at vessel
Fans out
Compact at wells
Easily installable
Non-clash
The figure shows a semi-floating production system (SFPS). It has catenary anchor
cables with multiple compliant lazy wave risers. The tails of the risers are brought
together on the seabed directly beneath the vessel.
In this case, work is done close to the seabed end.
By fanning out, the risers can be designed not to clash with each other or the vessel’s
anchor cables.
COMPLIANT-S RISER
FPSO
Technip development
Controls riser touch
Top stiffener down behaviour
Mid-water
Shallow waters and
arch harsh environmental
buoyancy
conditions
Bend
restrictor Tethers
Clump weight Installing CRP

flexible with Linksyn
bend restrictor restrictor units
Technip has also developed and patented the compliant S riser. This improves on the
lazy-S characteristics by controlling the behaviour of the riser at the touch down point.
It is very effective in shallow waters and harsh environmental conditions.
The photograph shows installation of a flexible fitted with a bend restrictor. In this
instance it is used to limit bending radii adjacent to an end manifold. Trelleborg
manufacture the Linksyn units used for bend restrictors. Restrictors do not permit the
flexible to be bent to a tighter radius than that specified.
FLEXIBLE RISER COMPARISON
Riser Catenary S Wave

type
Pros Simplest design Very good Good for deepwater,
and installation dynamic diverless installations
configuration response Economical for small
Good for risers
restricted seabed Compliant wave good for
space congested seabed space
Good for with many fanned-out
multiple riser identical risers
situations
Cons Only suitable in Restricted in No anchoring, so very
moderate shallow waters sensitive to cross-
environmental by motion of currents
conditions arch Lazy wave unsuitable for
Requires platforms large numbers of different
with negligible diameters risers due to
heave (TLP or clashing
Spar)
The critical water depths where one option gives way to another will depend upon the
environmental loadings, the response of the vessel and the number of risers (their
dynamic envelopes must not clash with each other).
FLEXIBLE RISER INSTALLATION -

SUMMARY
Unbonded layers of steel and plastics

Different make-up to suit usage
Consider total cost of supply and installation
Size limited by working pressure
Maximum 480 mm (19in) bore
Problems with early flexibles now solved
Configurations of flexible risers
Simple catenary
Lazy, steep or pliant S
Lazy, steep or pliant wave
Analysis and equipment needed for each
Any questions?
Flexible pipelines are unbonded layers of wire and plastics, each contributing to the
behaviour of the whole.
Different arrangements of these layers are required for the particular requirements or
usage of each flexible.
It is necessary to consider the total cost of supply and installation rather than just the
initial cost of purchase, which is much more than for a rigid steel pipe.
However, flexibles are usually limited to flowline sizes because of the strength of the
various layers.
We examined various problems with flexibles and how they have been solved.
We have examined the shapes taken up by a number of different flexible riser

configurations, plus the equipment needed for each.
TIE-INS SPOOLS AND RISERS -

SUMMARY
Spools and jumpers

Connections methods
Welding (above-water or hyperbaric)
Flanges or proprietary hubs with clamps or collets
Rigid riser installation methods
Fixed, J-tube, SCR, TTR and hybrid
Flexible risers
Manufacture, installation and equipment
Any questions?
Typical methods of installing tie-in spools and risers have been reviewed.
The options for connecting the pipeline to the spoolpiece will depend on the water
depth, but traditional flanges are commonly used.
The risers can be either made using rigid steel pipe or flexible pipe. The method of
manufacture of flexibles has been covered.
Introduction to integrity
Introduction to integrity 405
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Aim to prevent incidents

Loss of containment
Lack of operability
Safe for people, equipment & surroundings
Extend facility’s life
Why a PIMS is needed

What it should include
We will illustrate why a structured approach is required to integrity management and

describe how we avoid accidents.
We aim to keep the number of incidents to a minimum and operate the pipeline safely
for as long as possible.
The best way of doing this is by setting up a pipeline integrity management system
(PIMS). We examine what it should include and how it should be operated.
FAILURES : FREQUENCY AND INCIDENTS
BATHTUB CURVE
Changes in failure rate through life
Design mistakes
Construction incidents
Inherent defects
Number of failures
Component replacement
Wear and tear effects
End of pipeline life

Lack of inspection
Inadequate repairs
Out-of-date or
ignored procedures
Operator error
Stable failure rate
Third-party influences
Life of pipeline or component
Pipelines are like any other mechanical or electrical component used in industry.
Initially, there is a high rate of failure. Some of these are due to mistakes made by the
designer or the interpretation by the supplier, fabricator or contractor. These inherent
defects with the pipeline system have not been detected by the assessment or inspection
regime.
Gradually, though, the rate of failure drops to near zero, and for most of the pipeline’s
life it remains reasonably stable. Events are often as a result of third party failures or
damage – perhaps adjacent equipment may suffer a failure and impact on the line or
fishing interaction with a pipeline.
Eventually, however, the equipment wears down or corrodes away through old age.
This even applies to us as our teeth fall out and joints creak.
Even when the defect is found, it may not be easy or convenient to repair. When a
component is replaced, unexpected changes may occur because the part is slightly
different from what it has replaced. The adage, “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it” has some
truth to it.
Another common source of failure can be traced to operating or inspection procedures

and regimes not being maintained up to date. By this time, the original designer or
writer of a procedure has long since disappeared and his intention may be lost.
Operators tend to become slipshod in adherence, missing out steps or developing their
own fix to events without referring back up for review.
Below are just three incidents showing events at the three stages of the bathtub curve.
We include them to make people aware of some incidents that have happened – after all,
it is better to learn from others than suffer from our own mistakes.
PLUTO - PIPELINES UNDER THE

OCEAN
Lead-lined pipeline
Second world war
Pressurised laying
Hydrostatic collapse
Low through-put
Increased pumping pressure (re-inflated line)
The PLUTO lines were laid during the second world war to supply petrol (gasoline) to
the allied forces for the re-occupation of France. Two types of different cross-sections
were used: codenamed the HAMEL and HAIS.
The former was rigid steel pipe, laid using floating drums, whilst the latter was the first
use of pipeline reel lay vessels. HAIS line was based on telegraph cable technology but
with the inner core replaced by continuously-cast lead pipe. Trials showed that it needed
to be laid whilst pressurised to offset hydrostatic collapse.
The final specification of the HAIS pipeline shown above was for a flexible pipe
comprising an inner lead pipe of 76 mm (3in) diameter, two layers of prepared paper
tape, 1 layer of bitumen prepared cotton tape, 4 layers of mild steel tape, jute bedding,
steel armour wires and an outermost layer of jute servings.
However, even with internal pressure, the external hydrostatic force caused these to
flatten slightly during installation. This may have been due to inadequate control of
tension, resulting in greater bending at touch-down compared with what could be
achieved today.
Because the through-put was not initially what was expected, the operators increased the
pressure trying to overcome what was thought to be more line friction than had been
estimated. However, this pressure increase fortuitously had the effect of ‘re-inflating’ the
lines over time and so fuel supplies were restored.
HURRICANE GEORGES 1998
Chevron pipeline
Water depth 33.5 m (110ft)
Mudslide initiated by
Hurricane Georges
Pipeline parted 6.1 m (20ft)
below mudline Chandeleur Islands’ lighthouse
Restart procedure
not followed faithfully
Leak not identified
MMS investigation
OCS report 99-0053
The pictures show the Chandeleur Islands’ lighthouse before and after Hurricane
Georges hit at the end of September 1998. Substantial modification to the seafloor
sediments swept away the barrier islands.
A crude oil pipeline operated by the Chevron Pipe Line Company in the South Pass area,
Block 38 was hit by a mudslide set off by the same event.
It is normal in extraordinary events such as earthquakes, floods and high winds to close
down all operations. A previously planned restart incorporating inspections and tests is
then followed.
However, this procedure was not followed by the operators and they failed to detect that
the line had parted having been covered by 6 m of heavy mud. Some 1306 m³ (8212
bbl) leaked out during restart.
The Minerals Management Service (MMS) investigation concluded that the cause was a
combination of the hurricane and mudslide followed by human error. “The damage to
the pipeline occurred as a result of a natural hazard, specifically, a mudslide that was
precipitated by Hurricane Georges in the latter part of September 1998. The pipeline
was found completely parted 20 feet below the mudline. Deviations from established
other-than-normal startup operating procedures contributed to the failure to identify the
pipeline leak promptly.” Full details are contained in their OCS report 99-0053.
A list of incidents for the USA offshore oil and gas industry can be found at the MMS
website http://www.mms.gov/incidents. Other countries have similar information such
as the UK’s http://www.hse.gov.uk/offshore/index.htm. In Australia, the
www.workcover.vic.gov.au/vwa/home.nsf website is a good source of general
construction operational health and safety (OH&S) incidents and information. By
signing up to their ‘safety soapbox’, they email a weekly report on safety issues
worldwide.
Third party causes include many associated with shrimping nets snagging valves causing
leaks, over-dredging of navigation channels, and jackup legs being dropped onto
pipelines.
GUANABARA BAY PIPELINE LEAK
Increased throughput
Operations over-pressured line
Major environmental damage
New zig-zag for expansion
Float and lowered into trench
Satellite image by
Canadian Centre
Details for Remote Sensing
11 km (6.8 miles) long
457.2 mm (18in) diameter
50 mm (2in) concrete
A pipeline leads from Campos Elisios at the north of Guanabara Bay near Rio de Janeiro
to the Ilha do Governador (Governor’s Island), on which the international airport is
sited.
The pipeline was not supplying the required throughput so the operators increased the
pressure causing a rupture near the water’s edge. Guanabara Bay is an enclosed shallow
water and the spill caused major environmental damage and loss of public support for
the operators.
The pressure had exceeded the capacity of the line towards the end of its life. The
report identified thermal and pressure cycling (ratchetting) resulting in loss of steel
strength capacity. This was combined with loss of wall thickness, towards the end of its
life.
The pipeline was decommissioned and a new one installed by the SuperPesa Group
(www.superpesa.com.br).
This was floated into position using pontoons and lowered into a pre-prepared trench.
However, the problem of expansion was overcome by forming induction bends in each
pipe-length prior to welding. Expansion buckling problems is thus avoided using this
zig-zag form – each pipe-length has a preferred point of bending avoiding a build-up of
moment at a single point along the pipeline.
The photograph shows the line being installed over the laybarge stinger with rectangular
pontoon floats.
CAUSES OF FAILURE
Failures result from mistakes

Lack of knowledge transfer
From designers to installers to operators
Deliberate risk taking
Cost savings
Speed things up
Lack of maintenance
Ignoring warnings or procedures
Combination of a number of minor incidents
Warning signs not heeded
Ignored or lack of full understanding
It is usual that failures are caused by mistakes, and in the vast majority of instances, they
can be prevented.
In a lot of cases, the original intent has not been passed on completely to others in the
team. With large undertakings and teams, it is not always possible for everyone to be
fully aware of all the hazards.
Other failures are caused by people making a conscious decision to save money or time.
Maintenance is omitted or let slide, operators or third-parties (shrimpers, dredgers,
jackup operators) deliberately ignore warnings or fail to carry out procedures in full.
In some instances, the failure is caused by a number of smaller incidents which in

themselves do not result in failure (leading people to become complacent) but when
occurring together result in disaster. Perhaps there are unexpected precursor signs,
which require investigation. However, the potential consequences are not fully realised,
or these warnings are simply ignored.
PREVENTION
Verification of calculations and procedures

Validation of software
In-house and external reviews
Full traceability
Design intent and purchasing
Inspection of parts
Quality control
Training
Maintenance of equipment
Testing
Protective measures
Hard (rock dump or covers) or soft (inform)
What can we do about it?
We need to ensure that all calculations and procedures are checked. This may be
internally and where appropriate external review by an independent consultant.
Computer software is becoming easier to use these days although we often have a
plethora of rarely used features (bloatware). However, this has two consequences:
engineers often become overconfident in its use and it is often applied to the wrong
problem. It is good practice when conducting an independent check to use a different
package (that you are familiar with).
Every decision on the design intent and purchasing should be traceable. A similar
approach should be made during construction where full records should be available of
linepipe, welding equipment, welders and consumables used at each butt. Full quality
control and testing (where appropriate) is required of every item on the job.
It is essential that everyone should be aware of their sphere of work. This applies from
designers through to operators. During the pipeline life, a maintenance regime should
be adhered to, with appropriate testing of gauges and equipment.
Finally, it is important that where we cannot control events, we provide protection. This
may be in the form of rock dump though shipping channels, dropped object or
overtrawlable covers to pipeline and valvework, or it might be providing information to
fishermen or shipping in the vicinity of the pipeline.
COST OF QUALITY
Cost of failure (direct

repair, financial penalties,
delays to schedule and
Monetary cost $
loss of image)
Total costs
Cost of inspection,
testing and evaluation
0% Level of quality 100%
The above curve shows how as quality assurance (QA) improves the cost rises steeply as
the curve approaches 100% quality. QA costs include prevention of failures by
inspection and testing of material and equipment used. But it is also important to keep
to the supply programme time restraints to avoid equipment hire overruns or (in the last
instance) client-imposed financial penalties.
If failure does occur, then fines may be imposed by government bodies. The company
image will suffer a loss, which is difficult to quantify financially apart from a rise
insurance levels but it will have an effect on both future clients and the public. Shell’s
Brent Spar was a notorious example of when a poor public perception caused significant
financial losses to a company.
Although shown as a well-defined line on the above graph, it is difficult to fully assess
exact failure costs. For this reason, it is shown as a dotted line. This is in contrast to
QA and HSE costs, which can be reasonably accurately determined. Nevertheless, by
summing the two, we can get an appreciation of the total quality costs.
By aiming for the minimum point, we can optimise the benefit to the company and
client in terms of profits and customer satisfaction.
PIG TRAP INCIDENT - VIDEO
An example of how a number of apparently insignificant and minor changes to

operational procedures can result in a failure is given by the above training video.
The main problems are listed below:

■ Selection of a vertical loading arrangement at the design stage. This caused impact
damage to the release valve and allowed corrosion of the door.
■ Poor choice of material for the trap, based on a cost saving. It was to be always
exposed to the severely corrosive marine spray conditions on the open upper deck
of the platform.
■ Operations placing seawater into the trap to soften the impact of the sphere on
loading. This increased the corrosion problems.
■ The use of a grease to reduce corrosion and erosion at the door seal. This reduced
the friction available to keep the door closed.
■ Lack of appreciation that the door was not staying shut and the belief that such
doors normally need a bit of back pressure to operate.
■ Replacement of the O-ring with a larger one. This solved the immediate problem
but the change was not fed back to the change committee for review.
It was fortunate that no ignition source caused a tragedy. Correct selection of electrical
and other equipment was the final back-up to avoid the fireball.
FAILURES - SUMMARY
Bathtub curve
Example incidents at three phases of life
Start of operation – design and construction flaws
Low level risks – often from third parties
End of life – equipment wear and tear
Causes and prevention of failure
Build-up of small changes causing failure
Any questions?
We have identified the different types of failure and the likelihood of them occurring
throughout a pipeline life.
Some examples of events have been given.
We have covered why they occur and some means of prevention.
The video shows how small out-of-compliances or un-documented changes to

procedures can result in failure.
PIMS
PIMS
Pipeline integrity management system

During operational phase
Objectives ensuring safe operation
No accidents
No harm to people
No deterioration of environment
Integrity assurance cycle Plan
Learn Do
Measure
A PIMS document codifies good pipeline operating practice. It ensures the three
objectives for safe operation to equipment, people and the environment.
By following the four principle steps of the integrity assurance cycle. The final step of
which is seen by some as the most important. This ensures that the loop is closed out in
a report stating how well a particular operation was undertaken and what should be
improved next time. A later slide expands on this cycle.
That is to say, we should not just follow prepared procedures without looking for better,
safer practices and noting where things could have gone wrong. Nevertheless,
modifications to procedures should only be made following set management change
procedures.
It must be remembered that operation of pipelines – in particular, those for hydrocarbon

transport – there is great potential for breaching the above objectives. They are
dangerous when guidelines are not followed.
KEY ASPECTS OF INTEGRITY
Four distinct activities

Operations and safety systems
Structural integrity
Modifications management
Flow assurance
Need to be addressed in parallel
Complementary to each other
Cannot be addressed in isolation
PIMS serves to manage risks
Procedures, operations/contingency plans & reviews
Records how risks were removed
The four distinct activities listed above must be considered in a comprehensive integrity
management system.
These aspects should be addressed in parallel and are complementary to each other so
must not be treated in isolation.
We will address each on the following slides.
The activities within the PIMS serve the primary purpose of managing risk. The risk
management process and assessments that have been carried out in the development of
the procedures, plans and reviews that form part of the PIMS are recorded and include
clear statements on the assumptions made, level of risk and actions needed to mitigate
the risk. The assessments address both the threats and the consequences.
The risk assessment process includes periodic reviews and updates as the risk profile
changes with time and experience.
Records are kept of the reviews carried out, the actions taken and how the risks have
been mitigated in design, construction and operation.
OPERATIONS AND SAFETY

SYSTEMS
Pipeline operation
Kept within designed operating envelope
Safety systems
Inspected, maintained and tested
Ensure safe operation
Optimise performance
The operations and safety systems are concerned with ensuring the pipeline is operating
within the designed operating envelope and that safety systems – for example,
emergency shutdown valves (ESDVs) – are inspected maintained and tested to ensure
safe operation and optimum performance.
The photographs show a 323.8 mm (12in) class 900 ESDV used on an Indian gas
project supplied by Hawa Valves (India) pvt ltd (www.hawavalves.com/spv.htm); and a
cutaway and testing of a pressure relief valve.
STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
Monitoring, measuring and prediction

Internal and external condition of pipeline
Based on actual condition
Implementation of controls to maintain line
Pro-active, risk-based approach
Threats to pipeline
Low cathodic protection (CP) readings
Damage to coating
Dents
Joint failure
Internal corrosion – assessment throughout life
The structural integrity activity is concerned with the monitoring, measurement or

prediction of internal and external pipeline condition, the assessment of structural
integrity of the pipeline based on its actual condition, and the implementation of
controls to ensure that the structural integrity is maintained.
This area includes the major activities of pipeline inspection and corrosion assessment.
Integrity can best be assured by taking a pro-active, risk-based approach to find and
assess potential threats.
Pipeline inspection is focused on monitoring and control of the external condition of the
pipeline and the associated protections systems such as coatings and cathodic protection
(CP). Potential threats include low CP, damaged coatings, dents and failure of joints.
Corrosion is the most significant internal degradation mechanism for pipelines and
needs to be assessed, monitored and controlled throughout service life.
The following modules will examine how the structural integrity of the pipeline can be
ensured.
MODIFICATION MANAGEMENT
Changes to the network

Additional tie-ins
Planned servicing or replacement of equipment
Changes to throughput throughout life
Outwith envelope
Alteration of temperatures and pressures
Line contents composition
Increase in water cut later in life
Changes to operational procedures
Change control committee
Integrated into updated PIMS
Major modifications and rectification work on the pipeline systems can pose a significant
threat to the ongoing integrity of the pipeline systems if not managed and controlled in
the context of the whole system.
These include replacement parts or changes to throughput when these drift out of the
original specification envelope. The reservoir may not behave as originally envisaged
during the design. For example, a higher water cut at the end of life may result in higher
than expected temperatures. These can increase problems with slugging or pipeline
expansion, resulting in the risk of lateral/upheaval buckling of the pipeline or an increase
in forces acting on the riser guides.
When changes are made to the operational procedures, these should be carefully
scrutinised by a change committee to ensure there is no increase in risk.
Modifications and additions to the pipeline system have to be integrated into the PIMS.
RISER COATING DAMAGE
The picture shows coating loss from a riser at the lower end of the splash zone. The
thick neoprene corrosion coating has been scraped away by a wire. This may have been
as a result of some unidentified construction activity.
FLOW ASSURANCE
Provide optimum operations processing

Flow velocity
Pressures
Temperatures
Product composition – chemical treatment/additives
Flow parameters
Affect corrosion rates and internal forces
Control wall loss, hydrates and wax formation
Water cut, gas-oil ratio and slugging flow
Identify critical conditions – signal flag
Need for good record keeping
Ease of access to interrogate historical data
The purpose of flow assurance is to provide the optimum operating process parameters
(flow velocities, pressures, temperatures, product composition). It should also identify
critical process/ flow upset conditions that may threaten integrity.
The flow conditions have a significant influence on corrosion rates and forces produced
within the pipeline, such as water cut, slugging flow, changes in temperature. These may
change over the service life of the pipeline.
An understanding is needed of past and present history and how conditions may change
in the future.
PRISM - SPAN COMPARISON
2001
Exposure
2002
Short span
2003
Longer
2004
Excessive
2005
Rock dump
An example integrity analysis package is Prism. The above typical screen dump shows
output for an anonymous pipeline currently being managed by Jee Ltd. [Currently, Jee
Ltd is the ‘Pipeline Competent Person’ for 600 km (373 miles) of North Sea pipelines
(39 subsea lines, one umbilical and 4 landlines), defining the requirements and frequency
of inspection for the PIMS.]
The slide shows how a pipeline span increased in length through the years 2001 to 2004.
The final picture shows the pipeline having been rock dumped.
The blue line at top of each year shows lengths of exposed pipeline. Red bars just below
show sections that have started to span. By clicking on the grey bars, a pictorial
representation of the side scan image can be brought up. Cyan indicates sections that
have been stabilised using rock dump.
Other information on the plots are the distances along the pipeline (KP or chainages),
red numbers above the grey bars anomaly report references, the yellow triangle (left
hand side of grey bar in 2004) shows where the anomaly has exceeded the maximum
allowable value, requiring remedial action.
PLAN-DO-MEASURE-LEARN CYCLE
Plan
Develop operating procedures and inspection plans
Hazard identification and assessment (HAZID/HAZOP)
Set reporting criteria and performance standards
Do
Operation and inspection examples coming up
Measure
Inspect and test equipment biennially
Valve closure speed and leak (bypass) rate
Defect analysis and database
Learn
Inspection experience and need for remedial works
Successful operation – refine inspection plan
The plan-do-measure-learn cycle is vital for good integrity management.
Whether we wish to assure flow rates or to undertake regular inspection, servicing,

maintenance, replacement or modification to the systems, we first have to develop the
appropriate procedures and plans. This may include identification and assessment of
hazards and their risks in formal HAZIDS or HAZOPS. All must be recorded as part of
the PIMS for future review.
We must set standards also for what criteria are deemed out of range and how such
conditions should be reported if they arise.
Standards of performance for each item of equipment must be set. These may be how
quickly a valve closes in normal operation and in an emergency; what amount of bypass
flow is deemed to be acceptable, etc.
We will cover many examples of the ‘Do’ phase in later modules.
Each item of plant and every operation (regular or one-off) in the procedures and plans
developed earlier needs to be compared with the performance standards set down.
Perhaps we need to take a valve out every two years for servicing and performance
testing.
Defects to the pipeline system must all be recorded in the database for future reference.
This must provide an easy and rapid means of comparing how these defects have
developed over time.
The learn phase means that the PIMS procedures can and should be kept up to date with
information whether the operation or inspection proved successful or not. It should
also flag-up when remedial action is needed. If whilst undertaking the work, operators
can identify ways of improving inspections or procedures then this phase may indicate
the need for refinements to make the operation safer or more robust.
For example, in the 2006 survey of the spanning pipeline on the previous slide, it will be
possible to see whether the rock dump succeeded in eliminating the scour and exposure
of the pipeline at the ends of the span.
PERSONNEL
Suitably qualified and experienced (SQEP)

Need for training and familiarisation
Organogram (organisational chart)
Relationships between members of team
Integrity and operations support
Pipeline design, inspection, corrosion, process and
topsides specialists
Offshore operations
Superintendent responsible for assets
Project team
Developing operations for maintenance or inspection
Clearly defined responsibilities
Single point of overall responsibility
Those operating the PIMS should be SQEP personnel with competence in their own
particular field.
Training or familiarisation may be needed when situations change or when new

equipment is added. Regular refresher meetings provide confidence that the whole team
is cognoscente with current developments and changes in procedures.
To help the PIMS team operate effectively, it is recommended that an organogram

clearly shows who team members are and how they communicate to each other. This is
particularly so for the larger pipeline networks where personnel are frequently replaced
or move to different areas.
It is necessary to identify the different specialists for support, operations and projects –
as shown in the suggested groupings, above.
It is necessary to appoint one person as a single point of overall responsibility. In the

UK, this is the ‘Pipeline Responsible Person’.
PIMS - SUMMARY
Three objectives for safe operation

No accidents, no injuries, no environmental damage
Four parallel and complementary activities
Operations and safety
Structural integrity
Modification management
Flow assurance
Integrity assurance cycle
Plan-do-measure-learn
Organogram
Clear roles and responsibilities for team
Any questions?
A PIMS is required to ensure nothing goes wrong whilst operating the pipeline network.
We need to balance the four activities which must be run together. This can be done
using the integrity assurance cycle and providing clear responsibilities for each member
of the team.
INTEGRITY MANAGEMENT -
SUMMARY
Failure frequencies throughout life

Bathtub curve
PIMS
Means to ensure safe operation
Extend the life of the facility
Any questions?
Different types of failures occur throughout the life of a pipeline. We have seen how the
frequency of failure and the reasons for them can be seen using the bathtub curve.
By setting up a PIMS, it is possible to limit incidents thus ensuring safe operation of the
pipeline. The system should also aim to extend the bottom of the bathtub curve for as
many years as possible.
Flow assurance
Flow assurance 427
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Ensure pipeline operates, and continues to

operate, in the intended manner
Daily, weekly and monthly operations
Optimise flow throughput rate
Minimise internal corrosion and erosion
Tasks to ensure safe working
Maintaining flow within design envelope
Pigging
Removal of water, hydrates and wax
Different types of pigs and their functions
Additives to pipelines to enhance operations
Flow assurance is the skill of optimising the throughput of oil and gas through the
pipeline, whilst reducing as much as possible the loss of wall thickness through corrosion
and erosion.
This is done by injecting additives and pigging on a very frequent regular basis to remove
unwanted deposits in the line. Controlling the flow in a pipeline within the safe working
design envelope also helps prevent internal damage to the pipe walls.
We will introduce the activities required for the safe operation of subsea pipelines. By
this, we mean, work carried out on a frequent regular basis (rather than annual
inspections).
Some of these regular operations will involve additives to the product in order to
enhance the flow. This may be done as a continuous process or in a batch.
A description is given for the various types of pigs and their functions.
The Inspection module covers the use of intelligent pigs.

OPERATIONAL CONTROLS
CONTROL THROUGHPUT AND

CONDITION
Maintain designed flow

Flow characteristics (slugging)
Fluid properties (min/max temperature and
pressure)
Avoiding transients
Whole life of pipeline (conditions at start and end)
Controlling
Wax deposition or hydrate formation
Viscosity or emulsions
Minimise
Corrosion and erosion
There are a range of conditions that must be controlled.
These are particularly associated with the flow conditions and rates. As discussed later,
problems can arise in the pipeline if the flow conditions are not carefully controlled.
The resulting problems that may arise are due to wax or hydrates. These can block the
line. If temperatures fall, the fluid may be too viscous to pump efficiently or the product
mix may form inseparable emulsions.
Corrosion and erosion are also controlled by the way the pipeline is operated.
Flow assurance 429
HYDRATES
Methane and water compounds

Resembles snow or ice in gas lines
High pressure and low temperatures
Forms plugs downstream of valves – hysteresis
Joule-Thomson cooling
120
Hydrate formation - Hyde gas (SNS)
1.5
100
Pressure bara (ksi)
Hydrates
80
1.0
60
40
0.5
No Hydrates
20
0 0
32 41 50 59 68
0 5 10 15 20
Temperature °C (°F)
Hydrates are a particular problem in multi-phase flow and wet gas flow, where water is
present. They are formed under conditions of low temperature and high pressure.
They are subject to hysteresis, which means that their formation depends upon the
conditions they have been subjected to upstream. Hydrates have a tendency to form
downstream of valves because of the Joule-Thomson cooling effect at a pressure
reduction.
A hydrate plug can block the line. This presents both an operational and a safety
problem. The pressure differential across that plug will increase. It may then shift at
high pressure and travel along the line at high velocity. It can therefore cause damage
when it reaches a bend or some equipment.
Control of hydrate formation is by the control of the operating pressure and temperature
of the pipeline, and by injection of a hydrate inhibitor.
The graph shows the safe operating zone to the right of the dotted line for the Hyde gas
line in the Southern North Sea. The solid line shows the temperature of formation but it
will take a higher temperature (dotted) for the hydrates to melt.
WAX
Long-chain
paraffins
Condenses on
pipeline wall
and restricts
flow
Keep up flow
rate
Wax deposition can be a problem for oil lines. As the oil cools the long-chain paraffins
in the oil can form a waxy deposit on the pipeline walls. This restricts the flow, increases
the pressure drop down the line and can be very costly. Wax formation is restricted by
maintaining a higher fluid temperature, which can be assisted by keeping up the flow-
rate.
CORROSION
Corrosion inhibition
Corrosion inhibitor carried in liquid phase
Stratified flow - only bottom of pipe is protected
Pitting corrosion in upper part of pipe becomes a problem
Water phase drop-out
Low flow velocity - water drops out
Water can be highly acidic Gas
Increased corrosion at
bottom of pipe - tramlines Oil
Shut-downs can lead to

water accumulation at low points Brine
As corrosion inhibitor is carried in the liquid phase, we may not get adequate protection
in stratified flow.
Flow assurance 431
Water drop out in stratified flow can cause localised corrosion. The water can be highly
acidic, leading to rapid corrosion. At the interface between oil and the water, selective
attack can lead to the formation of tramline grooves in the wall.
EROSION
Multiphase flowlines
Fluid contains sand and water
Erosion at bends and valves - sandblasting
Oil trunk lines
Cavitation collapse
Flow
Weld Corrosion
bead Erosion pit Erosion
Erosional velocity V = 122 100

e Ve =
ρ ρ
For oil γ = 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/ft3), Ve = 4.3 m/s (14.1 ft/s)
It is perhaps easy to understand that flowlines containing multiphase fluids direct from
the well may contain sand and water, in addition to the oil and gas. This can result in a
sandblasting effect on the pipe wall, causing erosion of the steel as the flow changes
direction at bends.
However, erosion can also occur in oil trunk lines to shore, where there are no abrasive
elements in the flow. If the velocity of oil itself is too great, then any small bump or
cavity in the wall may cause cavitation bubbles to form. When the bubbles collapse or
implode, the resulting shockwaves can also erode the wall.
This effect is often seen downstream of field weld, where the bead or root protrudes out
of the boundary layer of fluid attached to the wall, causing disruption to the flow.
The photograph shows the effect of a field weld root bead and the lines of erosion it
causes downstream.
API RP 14E gives the above formula for the velocity at which erosion may start to
occur.
Where:
■ Ve = erosional velocity
■ ρ = density of fluid
Different formula are needed for SI and metric because of the units in the numerator
constant.
Where corrosion has left a pit, then this can also disrupt the flow and erode the wall on
the downstream side, increasing the length of the defect.
TURN-DOWN – OPERATIONAL
ENVELOPE
Reservoir becomes depleted

Flow parameters change throughout life
Water cut increases
Temperature in gas lines may increase
Axial expansive forces – at end or uplift/lateral buckling
Temperature in oil lines may decrease
Insulation designed for end of life – may have crushed
Wax problems – more frequent pigging
Flow rates decrease – colder delivery
Gas/oil ratio alters
Operational changes
Chemical additives may be alter
Water and gas injection
Because we are abstracting oil and gas from the reservoir, the flow parameters through
the pipeline will alter throughout life.
With a gas field, the amount of water may increase. This water is often hot, and as these
slugs pass through the pipeline, the expansion along the pipeline may increase – this
could cause uplift or lateral buckling problems where there was no risk of this before.
In oil lines, the temperatures tend to decrease over time causing waxing which may
require more frequent pigging.
In general, flow rates will decrease causing additional cooling along the length of the
pipeline.
For mixed lines, the ratio of gas to oil may alter. This is dependent on the depth of the
oil well within the reservoir.
Operationally, the chemicals added to the line may alter or the method of assisting
recovery by injection of water or gas.
It is necessary to account for all of these changes whilst maintaining the line within the
operational envelope.
Flow assurance 433
OPERATIONAL CONTROLS -
SUMMARY
Maintain flow within envelope

Temperature and pressure
Deleterious effects
Slugs, surge
Wax, hydrate blockages
Increased viscosity, emulsions
Corrosion, erosion
Turn-down
Methods to maintain flow within envelope
Any questions?
We have looked at what we mean by routine operations.
They are the means of ensuring that the flow is maintained within the design envelope.
This generally means controlling the temperature and pressure in the line.
If the product strays out of this, then some of the effects may be the formation of slugs
or pressure surges.
We have looked at some of the effects when temperatures fall - such as the formation of
wax and hydrates, the increase in friction due to high viscosity or formation of
emulsions, which cannot be separated.
The pipeline itself can be affected by corrosion and erosion.

ADDITIVES
ADDITIVE APPLICATION
Continuous Batching
Hydrate inhibitor Corrosion inhibitor
Corrosion inhibitor Periodic coating of pipe wall
(say 3 monthly)
Erosion/corrosion
Used in wet gas lines or from
control unmanned minimum facilities
Wax suppressants Gives good covering over all
Drag reducing of wall
agents Methods
Biocide Introduce slug of additive
between pigs
Spray pig
A range of chemicals can be added to the flow as part of the pipeline operation. There
are two main methods of introducing additives to the pipeline - continuous injection and
batching.
Continuous injection involves, as the name implies, the continuous pumping of an

additive into the product stream. The types of additive commonly used in this way are
listed above.
The alternative means of introducing additives to the pipeline is to periodically send

slugs of additive into the line between pigs. This method is used for corrosion inhibitors
only because they are able to coat the pipe wall rather than modify the behaviour of the
fluid.
Flow assurance 435
BATCH INJECTION OF INHIBITOR

SLUG
Logistics
Inhibitor and carrier fluid
Pigs, launchers, storage tanks and pumps
Personnel
Supply of carrier fluid (diesel)
Disrupt normal operations
Receiving slug
Ensure large enough separator and slug catcher
Leading pig Slug of carrier fluid and corrosion inhibitor Trail pig
For batch injection of corrosion inhibitor, there are a number of requirements.
These include the pigs to contain the slug of inhibitor, the pumps and personnel to carry
out the work. The supply of the carrier fluid to the end of the pipeline must be
considered.
This contrasts sharply with the automatic continuous injection method where only the
inhibitor itself is needed.
Normal product delivery operations must be disrupted during the batch treatment
process.
The slug must be caught at the far end of the pipeline and the carrier fluid decanted out
from the product.
INHIBITOR SPRAY PIG
Inhibitor carried within pig

Sprayed onto walls at pressure
Proprietary system
Therefore not ‘off-the-shelf’
The alternative method of batch inhibiting is the use of the inhibitor spray pig. This is a
proprietary product and would have to be designed and built for a specific application.
ADDITIVES - SUMMARY
Additives used to improve flow and reduce

corrosion
Inject continuously or
in batch for corrosion
Any questions?
We can introduce additives into the pipeline to improve the flow characteristics and
reduce the possibility of corrosion. To improve flow, additives can reduce drag and
suppress wax formation. To reduce corrosion, there are inhibiting chemicals.
The injection of additives can be either a continuous process or anti-corrosion agents

can be delivered in batched slugs.
Flow assurance 437
PIGGING
WHAT ARE PIGS?
Pigs are devices driven by the pipeline fluid

Low differential pressure
Bleeding past rubbers
Surge and stopping in gas lines
Bypass used to slow passage
Metal or plastic body
Bypass
Flow
Pipe wall
Suspension rubber cups
Pigs are devices driven through the pipeline by the pipeline fluid. They come in all
shapes and sizes and perform a number of functions, as explained below.
In essence, they contain the components shown in the diagram above. There are cups to
seal against the pipeline wall, giving the device its driving force, and a body upon which
the cups are mounted, which contains brushes, gauge plates or other devices that give
the pig its function.
Only a small pressure differential is usually needed to propel a simple pig, around 0.5 bar
(0.75 psi), depending on the diameter and condition of the line.
Normally there is some bleeding of the line contents past the rubber disks in either
direction as they deform to follow the contours of the wall.
In gas lines, pigs will tend to repeatedly surge forward and stop if not carefully
controlled.
Some pigs are built with a bypass tube to slow them down and flush debris out within
the upstream product.
PIG LAUNCHER
Vent valve D
Mainline trap
and gauge
Door valve B Pig signaller
Pig
Launch Flow
Trap Mainline
tray kicker bypass
valve C valve A
Flow
Under normal operation, valves A, B and C are left open and the pig launcher door is
kept closed. When a pig is to be launched, the valves B and C are closed and the vent
valve D is used to release gas pressure. The door is opened and the pig pushed into the
trap. Valve D is shut again. The door resealed and valve C cracked open again until the
trap pressure equalises with that of the pipeline. Valve C is closed and valve B opened.
The pig can be launched by opening valve C again and then gradually closing valve A. A
pig signaller indicates passage of the pig. Once the pig is in the main pipeline, valves A,
B and C are fully opened again for normal operation.
For pig receipt, a similar unit is used except that the pig signaller is on the other side of
valve B to indicate that the pig has been caught.
The photographs show a typical landline pig launcher and a subsea unit supplied by
Pipeline Engineering (www.pipelineengineering.co.uk) to installation contractor Subsea
7. This operates at a depth of 130 m (426ft) in Esso’s Jotun field in the North Sea
(Norwegian sector).
It is a 150 mm by 250 mm (6in by 10in) subsea class 1500 vertical pig launcher with
receiver facilities. The unit can launch or receive both conventional and intelligent pigs.
It has full subsea capabilities including a soft landing system and ROV operations
compatibility.
The unit consists of three sections: a manifold interface, the protection head and pig
launcher. The manifold section is bolted to the subsea manifold and includes three
pedestals for the Soft Landing System. When the launcher/receiver is not in use, the
protection head is used to protect the manifold from damage and corrosion. It is fitted
with hydraulic quick connect/disconnect collett connectors and a control panel to allow
removal and connection of the head by ROV.
The pig launcher assembly, which is kept either onshore or on the barge until required, is
fitted with three pig release fingers and three baskets capable of launching and receiving
three conventional pigs or one intelligent pig respectively. The pig launcher and receiver
is designed in accordance with PD 5500, permanent pipework to Det Norske Veritas
(DNV), and the launcher/receiver structure to DNV and NORSOK.
Flow assurance 439
JOBS DONE BY PIGS
Cleaning wax and solids

Sweeping out liquids
Corrosion inhibition
Proving bore is clear
Pig designed for very fine

cleaning of aviation fuel line
Note use of sailcloth disks
between wire bristles
Most pipelines are pigged at least occasionally, if not routinely, for the reasons listed on
the slide above.
■ Cleaning out waxes and solids may be necessary on an oil pipeline where wax is
deposited on the wall. Deposition of wax can dramatically increase the pressure
drop necessary to get the flow through the pipeline. Where it is not possible to
insulate the pipeline sufficiently to avoid wax deposition, regular pigging to remove
the wax is often the solution. This would apply particularly to oil trunk lines.
■ Sweeping out liquids tends to be done by spheres. These are usually polyurethane
balls pressurised with glycol to a diameter a few percent above the pipeline internal
diameter. Taking a gas trunk line as an example, it might accumulate condensates
that would need to be swept out on a regular basis. This would keep the level of
liquids in the line under control and would avoid the occasional arrival of a very
large slug of liquids at the terminal, an event that might cause process problems.
■ Corrosion inhibitor pigs can be used to introduce a slug of inhibitor into a line with
the objective of coating the entire pipeline inside wall with corrosion inhibitor.
■ Proving the bore is clear is carried out during hydrotesting at the pre-commissioning
stage. It may also be used when a dent is suspected.
SPHERES
Solid (smaller diameters) or inflated

Sweeping liquids from lines
Spreads inhibitor onto wall circumference
Automatic launch for frequent basis
Spheres are frequently used in wet gas and multi-phase lines on a regular basis. This
might even be more frequent than once a day.
They are used to sweep liquids from lines to prevent build up of slugs. They can spread
a corrosion inhibitor around the full circumference of the wall to prevent it collecting at
the bottom of the pipe.
Some platforms have an automatic launch system with a cartridge containing half a
dozen spheres. These can be individually launched with little or no manual input.
They are usually slightly oversized (2%) to give good seal with inside bore of pipe.
Flow assurance 441
FOAM PIGS
Polyurethane foam body

Usually polyurethane coated
May incorporate ribs or brush bands
Picture courtesy PII Kershaw
Foam pigs are generally bullet-shaped, moulded from open cell polyurethane foam and
usually with an external PU coating. They come in a variety of shapes, sizes and colours.
They have no independent sealing elements but are compressed axially by the pressure
differential, which gives sufficient radial expansion to form a seal between the pig body
and pipe wall.
FOAM PIGS
Sweeping liquids and solids

Light cleaning duties
Flexible but not too durable
Can get heavy duty versions
If stuck, can sometimes be broken up with
increased pressure – but don’t rely on it !
Foam pigs are a general-purpose but lightweight pig suitable for sweeping liquids and
solids from a pipeline. Specific applications can be ‘built-in’ at the moulding stage where
gritted bands, brushes, jetting holes, magnet inserts (for tracking) or studs (for fixing of
gauge plates or scrapers) can be added.
They have the advantage of being tolerant of tight bends and bore restrictions. They will
also break-up if they become stuck. This makes them useful for an initial pig run prior
to a more robust brush or scraper pig being used.
Their disadvantage is that they wear out quickly, although heavy duty versions exist for
single pass usage on long lines.
BATCH PIGS
Sweeping liquids from lines

Inhibitor batching
Sweeping spheres and pigs
entering from side branches
Gel pigging
Multiphase lines
Sand gathered
into gel
Batch pigs can be solid molded or metal bodied.
Metal bodied pigs utilise polyurethane or rubber seal discs or cups. The material
selection is dependent on the specific application. Metal bodied pigs offer the ability to
add a range of attachments that may be used to perform a range of functions.
They are commonly used for removal of liquids and inserting a batch slug of corrosion
inhibitor.
If smaller diameter spheres or pigs have been used to clean a smaller diameter branch
pipeline, once it enters the main line the larger bore means that there is no differential
pressure to move it. A batch pig can be sent down the main line to sweep it up.
Gel pigging may be carried out to de-sand a multiphase line. The gel picks up solid
debris and removes it from the line. The gel also lubricates the pig and gives improved
drive.
Flow assurance 443
BRUSH PIGS
Removal of solid
debris and wax
Bypass ports
Jet of fluid
Debris suspended
in front
Swept out
Slows pig
Brush pigs are used for cleaning the bore.
By-pass ports are used to produce flow in front of the pig. This flow helps prevent the
build-up of debris or wax in-front of the pig. By-pass ports are typically threaded holes
with plugs.
The operator can therefore adjust how much by-pass occurs prior to entry.
SCRAPER PIGS
Polyurethane or steel
blades or ploughs
Wax removal
Scraper pigs are used for the removal of wax deposits from the pipe wall.
The spring joint at the middle of this example helps it negotiate tight bends.
SPECIALIST PIGS
Pin-wheel pig
Magnetic cleaning pig
Picture courtesy PII Kershaw
In addition to the basic cleaning and sweeping operations, pig bodies can be configured
for specialist functions.
The picture above shows a magnetic cleaning pig in use in Germany, where magnets
have been mounted on the body of the pig and have pulled a veritable bird’s nest of
welding rods from the pipeline. Note also the bi-directional sealing discs on the pig and
a gauging disc, which can just be seen behind the welding rods.
Approximately 3000 rods were extracted on the first passage of the pig. This dropped to
1000 rods at the next pass and down to zero after five runs.
These are only two examples of specialist pigs. You can imagine the myriad of shapes,
sizes and functions that have been adapted over the years.
Flow assurance 445
A CAUTIONARY TALE
Slug formation uphill

Direction of flow
Slugs formed up-hill Dribbling over crest
High head loss No recovery of head
Small pig for first run but is lost in system

Big pig purges slugs but gets stuck ¾ along
Splashes into condensate and water puddles

Formation of hydrate plug
Pressure differential melts hydrates
Pig surges forward - almost hits end of pipe
Trevor Jee was approached to resolve a problem with an infield line that was normally
pigged on a regular monthly basis. A pig had become stuck in the launcher and it was
decided to suspend pigging for a number of months.
In the meantime, the pressure needed to maintain flow rose more than tenfold. The
reason for this was traced to the undulating nature of the pipeline: the high pressure loss
was due to slugs of product which needed to be forced uphill. On the downhill slope,
the liquid dribbled over the crests of the hills and very little pressure head was recovered.
The system pressure was brought down and the stuck pig removed from the launcher.
When the operations were resumed, it was decided to use a smaller than normal pig for
the first run. This got lost in the system as the gas flowed past the pig.
The full size pig which followed had the effect of removing some of the slugs, but
puddles of condensate overlying water had formed in a hollow. As the pig hit these, a
spray of water and condensate splashed out and formed a hydrate plug. This effectively
blocked the passage of the pig about three-quarters of the way down the length of the
pipeline.
The pressure behind the pig was increased to 90 bar (1300 psi) and that in front of the
pig was gradually reduced by bleeding off. When the differential reached 50 bar (725
psi), the hydrates became unstable and melted.
This occurred just as Trevor arrived on site. The pig surged forward and backward like a
spring until the pressures equalised on either side.
When their calculations were checked, even though the volume of the pig catcher had
been forgotten, there was just enough distance to prevent the pig hitting the end of the
line.
PIGGING - SUMMARY
Pigs and spheres are devices driven by fluid

They carry out
Cleaning
Gauging
Batching and
Specialist functions
May be used daily, weekly or monthly
Cost-benefit analysis
Any questions?
Pigs are small components that are driven through the pipeline by the flow of the fluid.
They can perform a wide range of activities to ensure the correct operation of the
pipeline, these activities are summarised above.
For routine operations, these may be used very frequently.
The exact frequency of use will be determined by a cost-benefit analysis.
FLOW ASSURANCE - SUMMARY
Operations
Maintain temperature and pressure within envelope
Chemical injection
Wax, hydrate and corrosion control
Improved flow rate
Continuous or batch
Pigging
Any questions?
We have introduced routine operations to maintain the pipeline flow within the designed
envelope.
Flow assurance 447
Some improvement to the regime can be achieved by adding corrosion inhibtors or

other chemicals to prevent the formation of wax or hydrates.
Most routine operations are undertaken using pigs or spheres.

Pipeline inspection
Pipeline inspection 451
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
Understand the need for and basis of

pipeline inspections
Know the methods used for internal and
external inspection
Know what anomalies to look for in routine
inspections and maintenance
Discuss methods of assessing anomalies
Know the methods available to correct the
anomalies that are found
We will introduce the activities required for the operation of subsea pipelines. The first
requirement is to understand the inspections that are carried out. Why do we do them
and how do we decide what to look for?
Various methods of conducting internal and external inspections of pipelines are

examined. A description is given for the various types of anomalies that may be found
during an inspection.
An overview is given for the methods of assessing the various different anomalies and
finally the methods of correcting those anomalies are discussed.
RISK-BASED INSPECTION PLAN
WHY INSPECT DURING

OPERATION?
Damage
Debris
Anode removal or
early wastage
Exposure
Spans
Leaks
Rock cover
Under ‘Installation’, we mentioned that surveys were carried out to characterise the
seabed, and that further surveys were required during operation. These typically look for
anything that may have gone wrong with the pipeline:
■ Damage – impact from trawler activity or objects dropped from platforms or supply
boats
■ Debris – near to or draped over the pipeline (large boulders are dragged and lifted
by trawlers)
■ Anode wastage – usually anodes are knocked off by fishing but they can be ablated
away following coating damage
■ Exposure of a previously buried line
■ Spans – scour of soil from beneath the pipeline
■ Leaks – usually from flanges
■ Loss of rock cover
HOW OFTEN TO INSPECT
Of old (1970-90) once a year by ROV

Now, responsibility of Operator
Inspection plan
There is a variety of techniques to survey the pipeline, and the operator is also presented
with a choice of when it is necessary to survey. In the prescriptive regime of the 1980s,
an annual survey of the entire length of the pipe was required. In the goal-setting regime
of today, in UK waters, it is the responsibility of the operator to determine a safe
inspection interval as part of his inspection plan. The result of this is that most
inspections in the early part of the pipeline life are carried out annually, and they are then
spaced further apart if the results are benign.
INSPECTION PLAN
Identify risks
Write an
inspection plan
Inspect pipeline
and report
Interpret results
Decide what Decide when next to

to fix inspect and scope
of inspection
The flowchart above shows the processes involved in pipeline integrity management. It
is an iterative process in which the results of inspections are fed back in to the inspection
plan and future inspections modified accordingly.
RISK-BASED INSPECTIONS
Hazards identified
Inspections targeted according to
risk (probability x consequence)
value of inspection
Highest value
of inspection
Consequence
of failure
n
c tio y
e l it
Not worth
n sp i ca
I it
inspecting cr
Probability of failure
for
Risk-based inspections use probabilities, consequences and the usefulness of inspections

to arrive at a suitable inspection regime. The various hazards facing the pipeline are
identified and the risk is evaluated. The value of inspecting is then assessed for that
particular hazard. For example, inspection can tell you if a span is developing to an
unacceptable length, but it cannot tell you if somebody is going to drop an anchor on
your pipeline. All this data is used to give an overall value for the inspection, and the
inspections can be prioritised accordingly.
RISK-BASED INSPECTION PLAN -

SUMMARY
Range of hazards and anomalies

Variety of inspection techniques available
Inspections driven by risk and value
Any questions?
A subsea pipeline faces many hazards during its lifetime. Inspections must be done to
ensure that the pipeline continues to operate safely. Several tools are available to
externally inspect the pipeline. The external inspection strategy will be driven by an
assessment of the risks due to the anomalies and the usefulness of the chosen inspection
technique in countering those risks. The inspection plan will evolve over the life of the
pipeline using feedback from the results of the inspections.
EXTERNAL SURVEY
EXTERNAL INSPECTION METHODS
Initially, side-scan sonar, ROTV or AUVs

Rapid review of pipeline route
Spans and exposure
ROV
Slower investigation
work of defects
already uncovered
CP system
Diver
Shallow water
investigations at
landfalls and risers
The year-to-year maintenance of the pipeline involves external inspection surveys

followed by remedial works to correct any problem areas. The pipeline may be surveyed
by side-scan sonar, remotely operated towed vehicles (ROTVs) held some 20 m (66ft)
above the seabed, or autonomous underwater vehicles AUVs. ROTVs can view at an
angle of 30° from the horizontal, so this height will cover the pipeline and the immediate
adjacent area.
The initial surveys may be carried out by ROV (as shown in the picture), especially if
detailed information is needed. However, side scan sonar is far more common for the
routine survey of pipelines.
AUVs are more suitable for inspection of long lengths of major trunk lines
Modern side scan sonar is quite capable of picking up any physical objects of concern to
the pipeline and of estimating span heights and lengths. Being considerably faster
(perhaps by as much as a factor of 10), and therefore lower cost, it is in widespread use.
However, ROVs do have some specialist advantages:

■ They are able to carry pipe detectors, as shown in the picture, which will detect
buried pipelines and will determine the level of rock dump on top of them.
■ They can take cathodic protection measurements.
■ They can make a thorough investigation of spans, both in terms of touchdown point
and vibration characteristics. These measurements can resolve whether or not it is
truly necessary to take remedial action on a span.
Divers are limited to shallow water investigation work where ROVs are unable to
operate due to cavitation of their thrusters.
SIDESCAN SONAR
Towed fish or ship mounted

Monitor pipeline profile,
spans, burial, seabed
features, lateral buckling
Track of vessel
Exposure due to scour

172 m (564ft)
Pipeline span
Sidescan sonar techniques use a towed fish such as that shown in the picture above.
They are based on sonar, whereby the device emits a sound pulse and listens for the
echo. It interprets the strength, time and direction of the echo to give a picture of the
pipeline and seabed in sufficient detail to gauge pipeline features such as embedment and
spans. Seabed features can be distinguished such as sand waves, debris, trawl scars, etc.
The sonar printout is from an integrity management contract currently being undertaken
at Jee Ltd. The seabed mega-ripples are indicative of a mobile sandy bottom and the
exposed section of pipeline is clearly visible together with the region either side of the
span where the mega-ripple pattern has been disrupted by scour. The shadow at the
centre shows where scour has developed sufficiently to cause an unsupported length of
pipeline to span freely. This may be further investigated by ROV to determine the
support end points.
ROV VISUAL SURVEY
Typical screen shots from an ROV survey show disrupted weight coating at an anode
beneath substantial marine growth. The second view is of a spanning pipeline at a field
joint.
Both screens show the date and position (Eastings and Northings) and chainage along
the pipeline with essential other ROV camera view data.
EXTERNAL INSPECTION - SUMMARY
Initial pass - side-scan sonar, ROTV or AUV

Further investigation by ROV or diver
Exact length of span requires closer inspection
Each technology has pros and cons
Any questions?
The external inspection of the pipeline can be carried out using the following
technologies:
■ Side-scan sonar
■ ROTV
■ AUV
■ ROV
■ Diver
Side-scan sonar using fish or ROTV is the cheapest and fastest method but cannot pick
up fine details – especially those beneath the pipe.
ROV is a more flexible method than side scan sonar, and the ROV can carry a range of
extra instrumentation.
AUVs are a relatively new technology but much development is going on. They are
potentially the most flexible method of all.
INTERNAL INSPECTION
WHAT IS INTELLIGENT PIGGING?
Internal survey for corrosion and cracks

Typically every 5 or 10 years
In addition to external inspection, there are internal inspection techniques available for
pipelines. These range from the simple gauge plate check for dents and debris, through
to sophisticated pig checks for cracks and corrosion.
In this section, we will look at three types of intelligent pigs - the magnetic flux,
ultrasonic and eddy current pigs, describing their function and their uses.
Before an intelligent pig is sent down the line, a full pig cleaning operation would
normally be carried out to ensure the intelligent pig remains undamaged and that the
data obtained from the pig run is the highest quality possible.
INSPECTION TECHNOLOGIES
Magnetic flux
leakage
Ultrasonic
thickness
Eddy current for
flexibles
There are two main technologies: magnetic flux leakage (MFL) and ultrasonic thickness
measurement (UT). Each has started by finding wall thickness loss (general corrosion
defects, both inside and outside), and has then been rotated into the hoop direction to
find axial cracks.
A final technology, that of eddy current, is being developed for the inspection of
flexibles.
The following slides contain examples of each of these pigs.
MAGPIE - VIDEO
The Magpie tool is inserted into the pipeline using pigtrap launchers and is propelled
along the inspection route by the pressurised oil or gas. The tool uses magnetic flux
leakage (MFL) to detect defects in the pipe wall and a digital signal processing data
logger to record up to 1000 pieces of data per second.
Above-ground sensors use Bluetooth to track the position of the tool before logging the
information using GPS. On retrieval from the pipeline, the data is uploaded from the
tool and then sent to the lab for processing and interpretation.
MAGNETIC FLUX PIGS
The picture above shows the PII magnetic flux pig. In the picture you can see the
magnetic brushes and the finger-like arrays of magnetic flux detectors. The rest of the
pig contains power and data storage facilities. It is used to detect internal and external
corrosion defects in oil and gas pipelines. Variants are available to detect both axially-
oriented and hoopwise-oriented cracks.
Typical speeds of intelligent pigs are from 0.3 to 5 m/s (1ft/s to 16 ft/s). If the product
flow is faster than this, it is normal to include a bypass system to permit the pig to travel
slower than the oil. Head losses for pigs are typically less than 1 bar (15 psi).
FLUX LEAKAGE DETECTION
No defect present
Brush Brush
Sensor
N Magnet Magnet S
PIPEWALL
DEFECT Defect present SECTION
Brush Brush
Sensor
N Magnet Magnet S
LEAKAGE FIELD
The above diagram illustrates how the pig detects corrosion defects. In the non-
corroded condition, the two brushes form a magnetic circuit and the flux passes through
the pipeline wall with little passing either side. However, in the lower diagram with the
defect present, there is less metal through which the flux can pass, and some of it leaks
outside the pipe wall and is detected by the sensor.
PRESENTATION OF DATA
ASSESSMENT
Simplified RSTRENG and ANSI/ASME B31.G assessment of the

internal corrosion located in 8.74 mm (0.344in) wall thickness pipe
Reported peak depth as %ge of wall
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Reported axial length mm (in) Courtesy of PII Group
The above diagram shows an example of results obtained from an MFL pig. It shows
over 450 000 internal metal loss features, and there were also over 3500 external metal
loss features identified. This analysis looks for any defects where the dimensions exceed
those tolerable at 1.5 x MAOP, or where the peak depth exceeds 80%.
In this case there were 19 defects identified as possibly needing repair. A detailed
assessment was also carried out in each case, measuring the effective depth and length of
the defect, which reduced the number of defects requiring repair down to just one.
ULTRASONIC PIG
The ultrasonic pig is used to detect corrosion defects in liquid lines. The liquid is crucial
in acting as a couplant for the sound emitted by the ultrasonic probes. For these pigs to
function in a gas line, they must be run within a slug of liquid. Alternatively pigs are
available that use wheels running along the pipe wall to transmit the ultrasonic vibrations
into the pipe wall.
More modern ultrasonic pigs are also able to detect cracks of may different orientations
in the pipe wall, including longitudinal cracks.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Sound waves transmitted into pipe wall

Echos from front and back of pipe wall
picked up by detector
Transmitter
Requires liquid couplant
Pipeline inner wall

Lamination
Pipeline outer wall
The probes on the ultrasonic pig work in exactly the same way as hand held ultrasonic
thickness probes. They emit a sound wave and detect the front and back pulses
reflected from the specimen. By calibrating the speed of sound in the pipe steel (using a
sample of known thickness), it is possible to interpret the sound time delay in terms of
metal thickness. It is also possible to interpret, from the time of the first reflection,
whether the corrosion defect is on the inside or the outside of the pipe wall.
EXAMPLE ULTRASONIC PIG

OUTPUT
More intuitive output

Colour-coded depths Normal (no defect) Plate inclusions
Corrosion at
helical weld
Acid attack pitting
The output from the ultrasonic pig is a pixellated scan of the entire internal surface of
the pipe.
In the picture above, any normal reading has been colour-coded white and corrosion
defects given a colour code depending on their depth. One can see on the left-hand side
a spiral weld with preferential corrosion. Across the middle of the scan, there are some
corrosion pits characteristic of acid attack and one can also see some red inclusions
running parallel to the plate-rolling direction.
The output of the ultrasonic pig is far more intuitive than the magnetic flux pig and a
general picture of the state of the pipeline can be obtained rapidly at the end of the pig
run.
OTHER PIGS
Gyroscopic pig
Leak detection pig
Neutron scatter pig
Camera and tethered inspection
Crawlers
Wax and scale assessment
A variety of other pigs have been developed for pipeline inspections. Gyroscopic pigs
can be used to survey a pipelines shape and can also detect spans by the vibration of the
pipeline as the pig passes through the pipeline span.
Leaks can be detected by mounting sound detectors on a pig and listening for
characteristic sounds of fluid leaking.
Neutron scatter pigs were developed to detect whether the pipeline was buried or
spanning and have largely been superseded by side scan sonar surveys.
It is possible to survey the sections of pipeline close to the pig trap using tethered pigs.
Crawler pigs use on-board power to propel themselves against the fluid flow. Their
range is limited by the availability of on-board power. There is also a range of crawler
pigs that can be introduced at the landfall end of a subsea pipeline and crawl up to 12
km (7½mile) inside the line, towing an umbilical to give an on-site evaluation of the
line’s condition.
Pigs have also been developed to measure the wax and scale coating the inside of a
pipeline.
EDDY CURRENT PIG FOR

FLEXIBLES
Flexible pipes present a different set of inspection requirements. The primary mode of
failure for which it is necessary to inspect is that of cracks in the hoop and armour
windings (rather than corrosion defects). The eddy current pig, pictured above, is being
developed to detect such cracks. It functions by inducing an eddy current in the
windings and detecting the difference in the resulting electromagnetic field caused by a
crack.
EDDY CURRENT MEASUREMENT
Detect defects in metallic layers
The above picture is an output from the device showing a crack in one of the armour
wires.
INTEGRITY OF FLEXIBLE RISERS
Flexibles external Vent gas

monitor on
inspection flange
Similar to rigid pipe plus
additional monitoring
Polymer coupons
Removed from port for testing
Vent gas monitoring
Continuous automatic testing
Fibre optic cables
Laid within the armour layers
Continuous length assessment
Flexibles can be externally inspected but the scope for internal inspection is limited. The
integrity of the flexible riser liner can be monitored using coupons or vent gas
monitoring. Coupons are small samples of liner sitting within the flow of oil or gas that
can be removed during inspections for testing.
The condition of the polymer liners in flexibles can be assessed by monitoring of the gas
that diffuses into the windings layers. This photograph illustrates the vent gas
monitoring system.
The flexible pipe manufacturers are developing fibre optic cable systems that are laid
into the armour windings. These can monitor any potentially damaging stretching of the
armour wires.
INTERNAL INSPECTION - SUMMARY
Comprehensive internal survey of steel

pipelines for corrosion and crack detection
Two main technologies, two orientations
Pigs available for other tasks
Flexible inspection under development
Any questions?
Intelligent pigs enable comprehensive internal inspections of the pipeline to check for
corrosion or cracks in the pipe wall. There are two main technologies used by intelligent
pigs for internal inspections, these are magnetic flux leakage (MFL)and ultrasonic
thickness (UT). A third technology of eddy currents is under development to enable the
inspection of flexibles.
ANOMALY ASSESSMENT
Spans
SPANS
Section of unsupported pipeline

Uneven seabed
Pipeline crosses seabed depression
Rock dump
Sandwaves
Scour
Rocks Pipeline crosses seabed
with changes in slope
Coral outcrop
Pipe crossing
Pipeline crosses seabed rock outcrop
A pipeline span is simply a section of the line that is not in contact with the seabed. This
can be due to a variety of reasons, the most common of which is an uneven seabed on
the selected route. Pipelines submerged in seawater form quite efficient beams, resulting
in a relatively high bending stiffness and a tendency to span over seabed undulations.
Rock dump can cause spans, in that the rock berm is designed to be stable and resist
dissipation due to environmental loads. The seabed around the rockdump may not be as
stable, and scour of the seabed may result in a pipeline suspended between periodic
mounds of rockdump.
Sandwaves are a feature of many soft seabeds, including the southern North Sea. The
sandwaves tend to propagate, resulting in continuously moving pipeline spans unless the
pipeline is lowered to below the trough level.
Seabed scour can be regional or localised. Regional scour is the general lowering of the
seabed, which tends to destroy pipeline trenches and create spans. Localised scour is
caused by the presence of the pipeline. This can be caused by seabed currents, fish
digging themselves in under the pipe, or variations in seabed sediment.
SPANS IN UK SECTOR OF NORTH

SEA
33000 spans on 7800 km (4900 mile) pipe

Only 800 > 0.5 m (1.6 ft), 260 > 0.8 m (2.6 ft)
high
19000 < 10 m (33 ft) long
around 100 > 60 m (197 ft) long
Span Height Log (F) = 1.6632 - 2.9169 Log (H) S p a n L e n g th L o g (F ) = 4 . 2 0 6 2 - 0 . 0 3 8 0 L
10000
0.1 1 Span Height (m) 10
10000 Frequency
100
100
Frequency
1
0 50 100 150 200
1 S p a n L e n g th (m )
Spans are very common. In the North Sea UK Sector alone there are in excess of 33
000 spans in 7800 km (4900miles) of pipelines. That is an average of one every 230 m
(750ft). Of these, most are short and low, maybe only a few inches high at most. Only a
few hundred are of any concern, either due to the integrity of the span or for their
potential to cause hooking of fishing gear. First-pass span analysis is principally about
identifying which spans present a problem and require further evaluation.
Typical spans have been described statistically. The distribution of span height is log-
log; while the distribution of span length is log-linear. There is no significant correlation
between span height and length.
SPAN ASSESSMENT
Determine critical span lengths - during

pipeline design
First-pass
Installation case
Operation case
What spans are likely to occur
Assess fitness-for-purpose of span found

following construction or during operation
Detailed assessment of stress and fatigue
There are a number of approaches to span assessment, which vary depending on when
they are carried out in the life of a pipeline.
During design, a first pass spanning assessment will often be performed. The purpose
of this assessment is to determine limits on allowable span length for the installation
contractor to work to. The assessment of these span limits is normally based on
conservative criteria, which ensure that no short or long term damage of the pipe will
result.
Also during design, an assessment of the seabed profile along the proposed route may be
performed to identify whether pipeline spans are expected to occur, and if so where and
how long. This assessment of the route would be based on survey data and would use
finite element analysis (using a general FEA package such as ABAQUS, or a specialist
pipeline package such as Orcaflex or Sage Profile) to ‘lay’ the pipeline over the
anticipated seabed profile. This analysis would give predictions of the numbers and sizes
of expected spans and therefore allow an assessment of the route preparation or span
remedial work that will be required. This is obviously important to allow assessments of
cost to be made.
Subsequent span analysis is performed during operation of the pipeline to address any
anomalous spans identified. The analysis is therefore to determine the acceptability of a
known span length, and would entail a detailed assessment of stresses and fatigue.
WHY CORRECT SPANS?
Yield and plastic hinges

PROBLEM
bending
&
fatigue
End
Current & supports
Axial tension &
wave action
compression
Gap & trench

shielding
The section of a pipeline that spans is subject to its own self-weight, fluid loading and
potentially third-party loads from fishing gear. This could cause it to yield and to fail in
bending with plastic hinges. If this mechanism could occur, then it is necessary to
stabilise the span and give it additional support.
A second mode of failure for spans is a fatigue failure due to vortex-induced vibrations
(VIV). These are vibrations induced in the span due to the passage of currents (and
waves) perpendicular to the pipe. These cause the pipe to oscillate at its natural
frequency which, over a period of time, can lead to fatigue failure. Again, should fatigue
failure due to VIV be predicted for a particular span, it would need to be supported to
prevent this happening.
Major span lengths can prevent internal pipeline inspections because of the risk of
overstressing failure when the weight of an intelligent pig is passed through.
SPAN CONCERNS
Peak stresses - static and dynamic loads

Global buckling - axial operational loads
Fatigue caused by strong currents
Vortex-induced vibrations (VIV)
Plus wave and tidal oscillatory loads
Particularly in shallow water
Span analysis considers three main aspects:

■ The potential failure due to excessive stresses from a long span
■ The buckling of the span through excessive local bending
■ The span failing due to column buckling caused by thermal expansive axial forces
■ The likelihood of vortex-induced vibrations (VIV) occurring and hence the potential
for fatigue failure
These aspects are considered during both the pre-construction analysis and the
operational analysis.
SPAN ASSESSMENT - SUMMARY
Spans are unsupported sections of pipeline

Result of uneven seabed terrain
A common occurrence (33 000 in UK North Sea)
Subsequent problems
Bending and yield, VIV and fishing gear snagging
Design assessment
Determine maximum allowable span length
DNV out-of-straightness/bottom roughness
Any questions?
Pipeline spans are a common occurrence where the seabed terrain is uneven. The main
problem with assessing ‘real’ spans is determining the actual length and height of the
span. The difficulties in determining accurately the span height and length arise from
■ The variable end conditions for different seabed soil types
■ The potential for any mid-span touchdown
■ The spans may move and change shape over time.
For the design of a pipeline, it is important to assess the maximum allowable span
length. This should be done for both the installation and operational cases. For
maximum allowable span lengths, it will be necessary to establish the peak stresses in the
pipeline for both static and dynamic loading of the span, consider the potential for
pipeline buckling due to the combined axial and bending loads within the span. Also,
possible fatigue due to VIV and interference with trawl gear may need to be assessed.
The DNV approach makes use of finite element methods to assess interplay between
adjacent spans.
Pits and Dents
PIPELINE WALL DEFECT TYPES
Internal corrosion pit

General wastage of wall
Dent
Having found a defect during the internal survey, the next step is to decide whether it is
safe to continue operation or whether it is necessary to make a repair. We will consider
the approaches taken in evaluating the internal corrosion and dents.
Internal corrosion is rarely so simple as an isolated pit. The picture above shows some
general corrosion, some erosion, some preferential attack of the weld and some isolated
pits. The issue is how do we evaluate whether the pipe is safe?
ASSESSMENT OF CORROSION
Long defect fails as rupture

Short defect fails as leak
Based on
Axial length
Remaining wall thickness
Proximity of other defects
Using finite element analysis and burst tests, corrosion defects have been assessed and
formulae developed to predict the safe operating pressure for a given defect or set of
combined defects. The assessment method is based primarily on the axial length of the
defect (or its equivalent axial length if there are a number of defects together) and the
remaining wall thickness.
A long defect will fail as a rupture while a short defect will fail as a leak. It is therefore
crucial to distinguish whether groups of pits are close enough to act as a single defect or
whether they will all act as isolated pits.
Cookbook formulae are given for the above analysis in ASME B31.G and more recently
(and more comprehensively) in DNV RP-F101 ‘Corroded Pipelines’, 1999 (note: not to
be confused with DNV OS-F101).
ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT DENTS
Gouges or cracks could fail by rupture

Plain dents could fatigue or obstruct pigs
Based on
Unpressurised dent depth
Gouges, cracks, sharp folds
The assessment of dented pipelines is usually based on the unpressurised dent depths. It
is crucially dependant on whether there are any localised defects such as gouges, cracks
or sharp folds within the dent. Essentially plain dents (without gouges, cracks or sharp
folds) fail at the same pressure as undented pipe. Consequently the problems that they
cause are centred on fatigue and the obstruction of pigs. The latter is due to the fact that
the dent reduces the diameter of the pipeline locally and could cause the pig to jam. The
fatigue aspect is due to the fact that there are stress concentrations at the dent, which
will flex as the internal pressure varies. This is covered in the next slide.
Should there be any gouges or cracks, then the dent could fail rapidly and
catastrophically due to a time-dependant creep in the material. To avoid this, the
pressure must be held below 85% of what it was when the dent was formed.
FATIGUE IN DENTS
Dent size
160
(% of diameter)
140 Plain pipe

Stress Concentration Factor
1%
120
2%
100 100 3%
4%
Δσ/ΔPP
80 5%
6%
60 7%
8%
40
9%
20 10%
10
0
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 3
3⎛ 100 ⎞ 3
D/t ratio Fatigue ∝ σ = ⎜ ⎟ = 10
⎝ 10 ⎠
The above chart shows stress concentration factor (in this case the stress divided by the
internal pressure) versus D/t ratio. For offshore pipelines we are typically in the D/t
ratios of 15 to 25. The experimental results in the graphs show that the deeper the dent,
the higher the stress concentration factor.
It can be seen that a 7% dent in a pipe with a D/t ratio of 25 induces a stress 10 times
higher than that for a plain undented pipe. Given that fatigue is proportional to stress
cubed, this dent therefore reduces the fatigue life by a factor of 10³ or 1 000.
In summary, known defects may be acceptable provided that they are are not too severe.
PIT AND DENT ASSESSMENT -

SUMMARY
Internal corrosion
Determine risk of rupture or leakage
Assess corrosion length, remaining wall thickness
and proximity of other defects
Dents
Determine risk of rupture, interference with pigging
Reduced fatigue life on gas lines
Assess dent depth and presence of other defects
Any questions?
For the assessment of internal corrosion defects, the objective will be to determine the
risk of pipeline rupture or leakage. The assessment should consider the length of the
defect, the remaining pipe wall thickness and the proximity of other defects to establish
if they are significant.
Exposure
PIPELINE EXPOSURE
Pipelines buried for

Protection
Stability
Insulation
Pipelines are often buried for reasons of protection, thermal insulation or stability. If a
section of pipeline that was previously buried is found to be exposed on the surface then
this needs to be assessed. Depending on the reasons why it was originally buried, it may
be acceptable for a short section of line to be left exposed.
Note that rock dump cannot be used to restore thermal insulation because of the free
flow of water between the rock so mattresses or trench and burial are needed.
EXPOSURE ANOMALY
ASSESSMENT
Pipeline may be acceptable with no cover

Exposure risks
Upheaval buckling
Loss of stability in storms
Lateral buckling or coating damage
Potential for third-party interference
Impact damage – coating or anode removal
Cooler arrival temperatures for thermal insulation
Risks of emulsion, wax or hydrate formation
Assess potential for deterioration
Develop into span with bending and VIV risks
Exposed sections of pipeline may still be acceptable, particularly for short lengths.
However, assessment is required.
Where cover was provided to prevent pipe movement, the line may be at risk of
upheaval or lateral buckling. In shallower waters, winter storms may move the pipeline
and initiate buckling or damage coating.
Trawler gear may impact the pipeline and remove coating or anodes.
Where the cover was needed to maintain the temperature of the pipeline, the arrival
properties of the product may become out of specification.
Assessment is undertaken to establish if the exposure is critical and so requires remedial

action, or if the defect is not critical and the pipeline may continue to operate as normal.
For the assessment of spans, the potential problems are bending, buckling and vortex-
induced vibrations.
LOSS OF ROCK-DUMP PROTECTION
Summer survey revealed gas line exposure

Shallow water of shore approach
Possible causes
Insufficient original design – OK until 100 yr storm
New analysis methods to combine current and wave
Adjacent pipeline rock dump modified flow pattern
Settlement of foundation
Broken armour stone
Surveys & storm records
Natural Armour layer
Identify cause seabed
Under layer
Restored before winter
Whilst normally, scour is a problem for mobile sandy or silty seabeds exposed to strong
currents, Jee Ltd was involved with an exposure of a rock-dumped pipeline.
The summer survey of 2006 of a natural gas export pipeline for a major operator
revealed that the armour layer had been lost in the shallows of the shore approach – in
water depths of 7 m to 9 m (23ft to 30ft). The survey showed some 100 m (330ft) of
exposed pipeline and a short 9 m (30ft) spanning section. This deterioration had been
worsening over the last three surveys, despite the pipeline protection having been stable
for the previous 17 years. An adjacent pipeline had been rock dumped at about this time
and may have modified the current and wave regime.
However, there are a number of other possibilities. The original size of armour stone
may have been too small. It is common to design for 1:100 year return wave and
currents. Such a severe storm may not have occurred until just before the adjacent
pipeline needed additional protection (both lines were affected at the same time). Recent
developments in rock sizing recommend adding algebraically the shear due to waves and
the shear on the rock slope due to current : earlier analysis methods added their
velocities algebraically and then applied them to the slope. The natural seabed used as a
foundation may have settled or scoured away. The armour rock may have been
damaged and broken in storms over the years, leaving a stone size insufficient to provide
stability – many shore protection works fail gradually in this way.
A study of the recent storm data and last five year’s of annual video and side-scan
surveys is likely to indicate why the armour stone has been lost.
However, due to the length of exposed pipeline and the proximity of winter storms, it is
necessary to order more rock dump immediately to restore the protection for the final
10 to 15 years of the pipeline’s life, and avoid further spans forming.
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT -
SUMMARY
Exposure caused by
Scour of sand or silty seabed
Damage to rock dump
Cover needed for
Protection – impact from trawler or dropped object
Stability – uplift or lateral buckling
Insulation – flow assurance (wax / hydrate formation)
Assessment may show no action to be taken
Monitor in following surveys
Any questions?
Exposed lengths of pipeline can be due to scour of sand or soft sediments or by damage
to rock armour layers.
The assessment needs to consider why the pipeline was covered in the first place.
It may show that no action need be taken immediately, but that the situation requires
monitoring.
ANOMALY ASSESSMENT -
SUMMARY
Pipeline span
Assess risk and consequences of buckling and VIV
Internal corrosion and dent
Determine risk of rupture or leakage, interference
with pigging and reduced fatigue life
Exposure
Cover needed for thermal or impact protection
Risk of further deterioration, buckling or damage
Could be precursor to span
Any questions?
Spans are not necessarily a cause for concern. There are many short spans on pipelines.
However, in the case of spans higher than 0.7 m (2ft), these become a risk to trawler
men. Yielding damage can also occur by buckling or bending under self weight. Fatigue
damage may be caused by VIV in strong currents.
For the assessment of internal corrosion defects, the objective will be to determine the
risk of pipeline rupture or leakage. The assessment should consider the length of the
defect, the remaining pipe wall thickness and the proximity of other defects to establish
if they are significant.
For the assessment of dents in the pipe wall, the objective will be to determine the risk
of pipeline rupture, reduced fatigue life or if the dent depth is sufficient enough to
prevent the passage of pigs. The assessment should consider the unpressurised dent
depth and the presence of other defects, such as gouges, cracks or sharp folds.
Sections of pipelines that become exposed may be acceptable, but the situation must be
assessed and monitored because scour can develop into spans.
REMEDIAL WORKS
REMEDIAL WORKS
Retrofit anodes
Span correction
Pipeline stabilisation
Anti-scour fronds
Grout bags
Mattresses
Rock dump
Clamp
Sealant application
Having conducted a survey, it may be necessary to carry out some maintenance tasks
(remedial works). These are detailed in the following slides.
Retrofit anodes tend to be a sled full of zinc placed next to the depleted anode and
electrically connected to the pipe. Before fitting, it would be normal and wise to
establish the cause of the anode depletion.
Span correction is applied where the span is too long and may be prone to overstress or
fatigue due to vortex-induced vibration. The correction takes a number of forms. It
could be the placement of sand or grout bags at mid-span to provide support.
Alternatively mattresses could be placed below and above the span, or the span could be
rockdumped.
If the pipeline has been dented or there is a corrosion defect then a clamp may be placed
around the pipe - either to seal any leaks or to support the dent and prevent fatigue.
Clamps are dealt with below, but other options are covered in the Modifications and
Repairs module.
STABILISATION
Grout bags
Anti-scour fronds
Mattresses
Rock dump
Where the pipeline has deburied and is unstable and moving around on the seabed, pipe
stabilisation is necessary. Were it not corrected, this could lead to a fatigue failure of the
pipe. A number of techniques are available. These include
■ anti-scour fronds, as shown in the picture. When placed over the pipeline, these will
trap sediment from the water and build a sand berm which stabilises the pipeline.
■ concrete or bitumen mattresses laid over the pipe.
■ grout bags placed over the pipe.
■ rock dumped onto the pipe
STABILISATION MATTRESSES
Dense mattresses are placed over the pipeline to stabilise it. These mattresses may be of
bitumen and rope construction, or of concrete blocks on a rope matrix (shown above).
Both, when placed over the pipeline, will conform to the shape of the pipeline and
seabed.
PRINCIPLE OF BOLTED CLAMP
First we will consider clamp repairs, using a landline clamp to show the principles. The
picture shows the clamp being installed around a pipe. Its flanges will be bolted together
on both sides. There are elastomeric seals around each end and down both sides so that
if any fluid does leak out into the annulus, it is contained by the clamp.
SUBSEA HIGH PRESSURE REPAIR

CLAMP
Sturdy
Rated up to
≈200 bar
(≈3000 psi)
Hinges open
for installation
Pipe must be
able to take
weight
When the pipeline clamp is scaled up to accommodate large diameter and high-pressure
lines, it can become a very heavy and robust device. The clamp shown above weighs 40
tonnes and has a steel thickness of 406 mm (16in). There are hydraulic clamps on the
top to hinge it open and closed. Each bolt is three inches in diameter, is over a metre
long and needs buoyancy attached to help the diver lift it into place.
From the viewpoint of the pipeline engineer, one crucial calculation to carry out is to
check that the damaged pipeline still has sufficient strength to withstand the self-weight
of the clamp being attached.
CLAMP AS A PRESSURE VESSEL
Clamp becomes part of pipeline

Permanent or temporary repair
Damage to pipeline (hole)
Seal
There are two ways to use pipeline repair clamps: as pressure vessels or as structural
supports.
The pressure vessel mode is shown in the diagram above. The clamp forms a sealing
chamber around a leaking pipe. In this mode the clamp is truly pressure containing and
forms part of the pipeline system.
CLAMP AS STRUCTURAL SUPPORT
Clamp not pressure-containing

Permanent repair
Epoxy or grout Damage to pipeline (dent)
The second mode is for structural support.
The clamp is attached to the outside of a dented (but non-leaking) pipe. The annulus
between the clamp and pipe is filled with grout and this is allowed to set. When the
pipeline is repressurised, the hoop stresses from the pipe are transmitted out to the
clamp. The clamp thereby gives structural support and stops the dent flexing, hence
returning the fatigue life of the damaged section back to that of the undamaged pipe.
The clamp is therefore a permanent structural repair but is not pressure containing.
LEAK REPAIR
www.Seal-Tite.com
Pressure-activated sealant for small leaks
Can be delivered using a batch pig train
One company, Seal-Tite, provides a new leak repair concept without the need for
external intervention. It is claimed that Seal-Tite is able to cure leaks with only a brief
off-line period.
The leak repair sealant is deployed inside the pipeline: for subsea pipeline applications it
can be delivered to the leak site in a train of pigs.
The pressure differential across the leak polymerises the liquid sealant and plugs the leak.
This system has been used successfully offshore and in a wide range of other
applications.
POLYMERISING SEALANT PROCESS
Safety valve Safety valve
ΔPressure across ΔP increase

leak site starts as sealant
Flow
polymerization builds at leak

site
Seal Element Seal Element
1. Fluid escaping through leak site 2. Sealant bridging across leak site
Safety valve
Sealant
flexible
Seal Element polymer seal
at leak site
3. Leak sealed
The pictures above illustrate the process of sealing a leak adjacent to a safety valve.
Initially the fluid escapes through the hole. The pressure differential across the leak
starts the polymerisation process. The sealant starts to solidify at the edges of the leak
and the hole is gradually plugged.
REMEDIAL WORKS - SUMMARY
Unacceptable anomalies must be rectified

Anodes can be retro-fitted to a pipeline
There are a range of techniques for
rectifying spans
A clamp can repair dents or corrosion
Severe damage will necessitate replacement
of the damaged section
Leak-sealing technology is available
Any questions?
If anomalies are found to be unacceptable then rectification of the anomaly must be

performed. This could take the form of
■ Fitting an anode sled to a pipeline
■ Removing or diminishing a span by using fronds, mattresses, rock dump or support
■ Fitting a clamp to a damaged section of pipeline
■ Using a sealing solution to plug a small leak
In cases of severe damage the affected section of pipeline will need to be replaced. This
is covered in the Repair module.
PIPELINE INSPECTIONS - SUMMARY
Need for and basis of pipeline inspections

Methods used for inspection
Anomalies to look for in routine inspections
and maintenance
Methods of assessing anomalies
Methods available to correct the anomalies
that are found
Any questions?
We have introduced the main concepts for the integrity management of subsea pipelines.
Inspections are necessary to ensure the continued safe operation of the pipeline.
Anomalies are identified and corrected before they are severe enough to cause problems.
The nature and frequency of inspections is determined by a risk-based inspection plan.
External inspections can be done using ROV, side scan sonar or AUV. Internal
inspections are done using intelligent pigs.
Following an inspection, any anomalies are first identified and then assessed. Those that
are judged to be unacceptable are corrected.
Modification and repair
Modification and repair 495
EXPECTATION
EXPECTATION
System needs to be upgraded over time

Identify the methods of pipeline isolation,
hot tap and tie-in
Major repairs and pipeline replacement
Know what to consider when planning the
decommissioning of a pipeline
The requirements of a pipeline system changes over time.
We may wish to add a new branch to the network. This involves a tie-in with a tee or
wye (shaped like a T or Y) to existing pipe. Where this is not a hot tap, it is necessary to
first isolate the section to be cut open.
An overview is given for the methods that can be used for pipeline isolation and tie-ins.
The ‘Integrity Management’ module covered minor remedial works intended to stabilise
the damaged section. Where a deep dent or major damage has occurred, it may be
necessary to replace a section of the line or even the whole pipeline or riser. We will
look at methods to carry these out.
Finally, the considerations for planning the decommissioning of pipelines are discussed.
ISOLATION
ISOLATION
Isolate before working on a pipeline

Repair, replacement or tie-in
Make the pipeline safe to work on
Procedure
De-pressurise
Remove hydrocarbons and toxic products
Fill with inert medium
Suggested basic procedure
Decommission pipeline and flood
Why may this be undesirable?
When we are not hot-tapping a connection, in order to effect a repair or to install

facilities for a third party tie-in to the line, we need to isolate a section of the pipeline.
This is necessary to make the pipeline safe. This effectively means removing the internal
pressure and hydrocarbons or toxic contents from the pipeline.
One way of doing this might be to shut down, depressurise and water-flush the entire
pipeline.
In most cases, this is undesirable from an operational point of view. For example, in a
gas trunk line, the depressurisation would involve flaring a lot of gas (lost inventory), and
flooding would lead to a requirement to dewater and vacuum dry, which could put the
pipeline out of service for many months.
LOCAL ISOLATION
Isolating just the worksite from the pipeline

contents
Work site
Hydrocarbon
Inert fluid/gas
Isolation plug
The alternative to depressurising and flooding the entire line is to perform a local
isolation. This introduces an internal barrier between the product and the worksite.
Therefore, only a short section of the pipeline is flooded and the time taken to flood,
dewater and dry is greatly reduced.
Depending on the isolation system used, pipeline pressure may also be resisted, avoiding
the need to depressurise the system.
ISOLATION METHODS
High friction pigs

Tethered or remote set isolation plugs
Pipe freezing
Hot tap and stopple
There are a range of isolation techniques. The main ones are listed above and are
described in the following slides.
HIGH FRICTION PIGS
Close to platform Outer pipe wall
Head 3 bar (44 psi) Direction of flow

Trains of pigs
Flange
Differential diameter
Main body
Pressure acting of pig
over the seal
Differential
pressure
Friction force
Friction Wall force
Wall force
High friction pigs are bi-directional pigs with oversized polymeric discs giving a high seal
with the pipewall. They are available from a range of pig manufacturers.
The principle they use is that increasing the differential pressure acting over the pig seal
will result in an increase in the force applied on the wall. This increased wall force then
causes an increase in the frictional force resisting the pigs movement. Increases in
frictional force result in an increase in the differential pressure. The point at which in
the pig becomes trapped in the pipeline is determined by controlling the differential
pressure applied over the pig.
They can generally hold differential pressures of about 3 bar (44 psi) and are therefore
used for isolation where the pipeline is depressurised. The use of trains enables a greater
total differential to be held. They are pigged into place. Because the high seal discs will
wear during this placement operation, they are generally limited to use within about 2 km
(1.2 mile) of the pig trap.
The design of high friction pigs is critical to their functioning. Consideration should be
made to ensuring the flanges are capable of holding the seals against the high drag forces
and ensuring they do not pull out. Care should be taken to ensure the seals will not
buckle. Compression set may become a problem, where the seal material relaxes and
does not provide the necessary sealing resistance.
ISOLATION PLUGS
Tethered close to platform 120 bar (2.2 ksi)

Remote away from platform 80 bar (1.2 ksi)
Deployed through pig launcher
Upstream pipeline pressure locks plug
against pipe wall
Courtesy: ITAS - Isolation plug Isolation plug locking mechanism
Isolation plugs are pigged to the required location, have brake shoes which set against
the pipe wall and hold them in position even against full-line pressure, and elastomeric
seals which are inflated to effect a complete seal against the pipe wall.
Tethered isolation plugs are suitable for use near to a platform and have been used
extensively for functions such as change-out of platform emergency shutdown valves.
The plug is pigged into position and receives power and control through an umbilical
which is run down the inside of the line. There is a limit to how far the plug can be
pigged from the platform because the plug has to tow the umbilical behind it. Tethered
plugs are capable of withstanding 150 bar (2180 psi) differential pressure.
Remote set isolation pigs are similar in principle to the tether plugs, but do not utilise an
umbilical. Power and control is provided onboard and is remotely operated. This
means that there is no limit to where in the line the isolation pig can be used. Remote
set plugs are capable of withstanding of the order of 80 bar (1160 psi) differential
pressure.
ISOLATION PLUG
This is another manufacturer’s isolation plug showing the details of the slightly different
locking mechanism.
REMOTE ISOLATION PIG
The figure above illustrates the method of remotely activating a SmartPlug isolator.
The vessel sends extreme low frequency (ELF) signals to a seabed array. As the plugs
arrive, the ELF communication link (ECL) activates the remote activation system (RAS)
which locks the plugs in place.
For a section of pipeline to be de-activated, it is necessary to send a pair of plugs

through the line in the same operation with sufficient separation.
PIPE FREEZING
Introduce plug by freezing liquid/gel within

the pipeline
Water-based gel
Maintain at -20°C to -40°C (-4°F to -40°F)
To surface vessel
Coolant High seal pigs

Coolant
Freeze
jacket L
Vent
Gel
Insulation
Product Gas
Cut-out area
Pipe freezing produces a plug by freezing a slug of water or gel within the pipeline. The
gel or water is introduced within a train of high seal pigs.
Liquid nitrogen is used to chill the coolant on the vessel. This coolant is then pumped
through a freeze jacket installed around the pipe. The pipe is maintained at a
temperature of -20°C to -40°C (-4°F to 40°F).
PIPE FREEZING
Form a solid frozen plug in pipeline

Can withstand pressures >270 bar (3916 psi)
Avoids need to drain down and refill systems
Pipe freezing a 324 mm (12in) carbon Internal view of freeze plug

steel oil line Courtesy: Cyril Bishop Courtesy: BJ Process and Pipeline Services
Pipe freezing involves the controlled formation of a solid frozen plug inside the pipeline
using specialist equipment and techniques. Once formed, the plugs provide isolation of
the line while pipework modifications are carried out.
The pictures show the process on a landline. However, the technique has frequently
been successfully used subsea.
HOT TAP AND STOPPLE
Can be used at any

location
Holds approx 70 bar
(1000 psi)
Only single block
Sequence
Install split tee
Hot-tap - drill
Bypass (optional)
Insert stopple
The final isolation method to be considered is hot-tap and stopple.

■ A split tee is installed around the pipeline. This can either be welded or bolted to
the pipeline.
■ A valve and cutting head are attached to the tee and the hot-tap is made.
■ The valve is closed, the cutter unit is removed and a stopple unit is attached.
■ The stopple is inserted into the pipeline to isolate a section of line.
■ If desired a bypass line can be used, but this is rarely done subsea.
■ The isolated section of line can be purged and worked on.
■ When the repairs are complete the stopple units can be removed from the valves
and a seal disk can be inserted to allow the valves to be removed, leaving only a
blank flange bolted to the tee.
HOT TAP AND STOPPLE - VIDEO
This animation shows the hot tap and stopple operation.
ISOLATION - SUMMARY
Make the pipeline safe to work on

Range of methods dependent on
location and pressure
High friction pigs
Isolation plugs
Pipe freezing
Hot tap and stopple
Any questions?
The simplest method of isolation is to insert a high friction pig to block the line. The
use of this is limited by both pressure differential and distance from pig inserter.
Isolation plugs lock against the side of the pipe wall, forming a barrier to prevent
product flow in the isolated section. These plugs can be either remotely operated or
tethered, depending on the location of the isolated section.
Pipe freezing is another method of isolating a section of the pipeline, involving the
formation of solid frozen plugs capable of withstanding high pressures.
Line stopping involves hot tapping the pipeline, to insert a block head, which prevents
flow of product through a section.
TIE-INS
TIE-INS
Expansion of pipeline network

Providing an entrance for a third party
Repair / replacement of pipe section
Diversion of pipeline leg
Methods
Existing flange, tee or wye
Hot tie-in
Hot tap - use of valved flange
Cold tie-in
Isolate section and purge
with inert gas
Repairing damage is not the only reason for needing to work on the pipeline.
Other common reasons are expansion of the network as new fields are brought on
stream or the requirement to tie in a third party pipeline. Because of decommissioning
of some unmanned platforms, a new bypass diversion was inserted into the Frigg line
(2004 and 2005 seasons).
Where facilities such as a tee or wye have not already been provided, it is necessary to
add them whilst the pipeline is in service.
An alternative solution is to use a single hot tap (without the stopple). This can be
installed with hyperbaric welding or clamp as before, and provides a valved flange to the
new branch.
For a cold tie in, following isolation using one of the methods already described, a
section of the line is purged with inert gas.
STATS GROUP HOT TAP TEE

REPAIR CLAMP
1168.4 mm by
609.6 mm
(46in x 24in) Tee
Contingency
bolted clamp
144 bar
(2.1 ksi)
MAOP trunk
pipeline
The photograph shows a hot tap Tee repair clamp supplied by Stats Group.
It is a contingency repair system for a 46in 144 bar trunk pipeline.
TIE-IN PROCEDURE
Isolation Inspection for:
Gas test • Diameter & ovality

• Pipe material
Remove coating
• Wall thickness
Clean weld area • Corrosion
Cut / bevel pipe • Laminations and

inclusions
Jointing / welding • Weld seams in vicinity
Radiography / ultrasonic tests • Deposits in pipe
The procedure for a tie-in follows the flow diagram to the left.
Once the coating is removed, full inspection is required prior to ensure the area is
acceptable prior to cutting into the pipe itself.
ADD A NEW TEE
Hot tap to avoid shut-down
Installation of horizontal Tee
A new tee can be added to the pipeline without the need to shut down the existing
pipeline, using the hot tap procedure described previously.
The horizontal T is installed with the cutter unit and clamp bolts attached. In the Gulf
of Mexico, it is more common to use a vertical Tee, so the slinging arrangement is
different.
GROUTED TEE TIE-IN CONNECTION
Eliminates welding on pipeline

Maintain production capacity during tie-in
No pipe ovality
problems
Metallurgical
independence
Reduces safety
hazards
For smaller lower pressure lines, grouted tees may be used. This avoids welding.
The grouting sleeve can be dimensioned to allow for any pipe ovality and provides an
electrical insulation between the new and existing lines.
TDW SUBSEA HOT-TAP VIDEO
This video illustrates the hot tapping process used to perform a repair to a 12” flowline
in the Yellow sea off the coast of northern China. This flowline supplied 40million
cubic meters of gas daily to Tianjing. Due to the vital importance of the pipeline to
Tianjing city, the repair work has to be carried out without interruption to normal supply
of gas to Tianjing and especially to the main power plant in the area.
CNOOC had developed the fields in the west of Gulf of Bo Hai, Yellow Sea in northern
China. In the late spring of 2000 the pipeline was damaged, possibly due to impact from
a sunken ship. The damaged pipeline has a dent of 11” x 5” x 0.5” and a rupture of 2.5”
long. Initially, CNOOC installed a make-shift sleeve pipe for the damaged pipe section.
However, due to the severity of the damage, it was unlikely that the pipeline could be
pigged in the future and therefore a permanent repair was required.
Armed with the hot-tapping technology from TWD and Oil States Hydro-Tech, repair
work to the pipeline was carried out in October 2001. CNOOC were in charge of the
project, while COOEC carried out the repair work. The hot tapping operation allowed a
bypass to be installed, enabling the continuous supply of gas to Tianjing while the
damaged pipe was replaced by a pre-fabricated section.
PREFITTED BLANK FLANGE
Avoid shut-down of existing pipeline

Requires knowledge of future requirements
Repair sites cannot be foreseen
Added cost to pipelay Tappable
blank
flange
double block and bleed
valve provision
Tappable flange
A recent innovation is the tappable blank flange, which provides a location at which a
valve can be installed and hot-tapped into should it be required at a later time.
This avoids the need for fitting a pipe clamp or hyperbaric welding. Compared with
these alternatives, the tappable blank flange is relatively inexpensive.
However, the possible tie-in locations need to be foreseen. Future damage locations
cannot be determined. How many of these flanges should be added to pipelines and
where is a matter of judgement. The added cost must be allowed for - especially if it is
for a third-party.
Good practice dictates the use of double block valves with a bleed system between. This
means that safe operation can be guaranteed.
VALVING
Provide suitable facilities and valving for:

Precommissioning new line
Operational pigging
Future entrants without shutting down existing
facilities
Principles
Double block and bleed arrangement
Provides safe isolation
Drains at low points in piping
Vents at high points
Consideration should be given to the requirements of pre-commissioning, operational

pigging and future tie-in facilities.
To achieve isolation, a double block and bleed valve arrangement is required. This
means that two valves are used with a bleed-tapping between. This provides redundancy
and a means of monitoring for leakage.
In piping, provision of drains and vents will enable dewatering and drying of pipework.
PIGGING FACILITIES
Pig trap
Branch line flow
New
Existing
Main line flow

Once the mainline tee has been fitted with double block and bleed valves, the branch
flow can be attached. It too has a double block and bleed termination.
The valve arrangement provides full isolation both from the main line and the branch
line ensuring a safe working environment for divers or future operators of the lines.
This illustrates how pigging facilities can then be provided. Temporary or permanent
pigging facilities can be attached.
If the pig trap were then removed, this arrangement could be used for provision of
future additional tie-ins. Again, an extra double block and bleed valve set arrangement
would provide the means of isolating the two-branch lines independently.
ADD A NEW WYE
Wye piece
Same diameter as the existing
Allows pigging of the new line into the existing
Longer pigs
Different size lines
Dual diameter pig Main
pipeline Pigged in
this direction
Branch line
Where the new branch is of the same diameter as the existing line, the use of wyes rather
than tees means that both the lines are piggable.
Longer pigs are normally used to ensure that they pass the junction. In gas lines, the
pressure on the branch should be adjusted to ensure easy passage. If the pressure is too
high, the pig will stop before the wye. If it is too low, as the pig passes, the flow will
divert back up the branch.
Where the branch line is smaller than the main line, a dual diameter pig is used. If the
branch is not to be pigged, then bars are sometimes provided at the opening of the wye
to ensure easy passage of the pig.
Although normally pigs are sent in only one direction, an arrangement like railway points
is available that ensures pigs can be sent in the reverse direction to either branch.
NEW WYE
Shut down
existing pipeline
Isolate and
cut-out section
Install new wye
Abaqus FE stress model
entrant
New
New wye on skid
Existing pipeline
The new valves, pipework and wye piece would normally be mounted onto a skid with a
protection structure over.
Valves are normally added to enable shut down of either branch. Again, double block
and bleed system would be provided.
The pipeline would be shut down and the section isolated as before. The new wye
would be connected up using bends.
The FE model of a reinforced wye piece recently carried out by Jee shows the high
stresses (yellow) during hydrotesting in the ‘crotch’ area. The wye can be manufactured
from sections of a 30° bend and a straight pup piece. The three stiffener plates help to
prevent the widest section from bellying out.
TIE-INS - SUMMARY
Need for tie-ins

Tie-in procedure
Thorough inspection of existing line condition
Grouted, bolted clamps and prefitted flange
Valving
Double block and bleed
Pigging facilities
Comparison of tee and wye
Any questions?
With the continuing expansion of pipeline networks, it will often be necessary to

connect (or tie-in) new pipelines with existing pipelines to provide services to new
locations.
Tie-ins can also be used to bypass sections of pipe that require replacement.
We have looked at the steps in undertaking a tie-in with careful inspection of the existing
line to ensure that it is in a suitable condition.
A number of methods have been described including bolted or grouted clamps and a
pre-fitted blank flange - useful when the need had been foreseen.
The main principles of valving and fitting of pig traps has been described.
Tees and wyes have been compared with regard to pigging.

REPAIRS
REPLACEMENT SPOOL
May be needed if pipeline is severely

dented, buckled or ruptured
Basic sequence on following slide
Two options:
Hyperbaric weld
Mechanical connector
In cases where the pipeline damage is too extensive to be repaired by a clamp, it will be
necessary to cut a section out and insert a new replacement spool.
The techniques for doing this are initially to isolate the pipe and then to insert the new
section with either a hyperbaric weld or a repair connector. These issues are addressed
in the following slides.
SPOOL REPLACEMENT
Locate damage Remove and clean

coatings
Isolate
Cut-out
Excavate
Install new spool
WELD OR CONNECT?
Once the location of a leak or damage has been detected, the pipeline on either side is
isolated using one of the methods described earlier.
The seabed beneath the site needs excavating to gain access for the equipment needed.
The damaged pipework is cut out and a new section of spool inserted.
We have two options to make the ends up: welding or jointing.
HYPERBARIC WELD
Dry weld within chamber

Diver performs weld
Multiple qualifications
Diving, welding, NDT
Procedures to account
for pressure effects:
Arc voltage
Arc stability
Chemistry
Heliox mix is needed
even in air diving depths
During the initial development of the North Sea oil and gas fields in the late 60s and
early 70s, it became apparent that the wet welding techniques used in salvage and civil
engineering applications would not be adequate for these deeper water conditions. This
lead to the development of hyperbaric welding techniques which have been utilised for
the tie-in and repair of subsea pipelines.
A hyperbaric weld is carried out in a dry chamber, known as a habitat, which is placed
over the pipeline and the seawater is expelled with a helium/oxygen breathing gas.
Diver-welders enter the habitat and perform the welding operation in a dry environment,
working at the ambient seabed pressure. Prior to the installation of the habitat, the pipe
ends are aligned using pipe handling frames located on the pipeline.
Hyperbaric welding was initially developed using manual procedures, such as Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) and Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW). GTAW
(due to its high quality but slow deposition rate) has been used mainly for the root and
hot pass, and SMAW, which is a quicker but a less controlled process, used for the weld
cap.
The quality of manual welding is directly related to the performance of the welder, which
can vary from welder to welder, and is also be dependant on the water depth, as human
performance can be impaired due to the effects of hydrostatic pressure.
In recent years, mechanised welding systems have been developed which have improved
the overall quality and repeatability of hyperbaric welding, and also allow welding to be
carried out at greater depths. Special welding procedures need to be prepared to account
for the different pressure at depth.
However, the operator needs to maintain full qualifications in diving, end preparation,
welding of a number of possible diameters, wall thicknesses and pipes material as well as
many types of NDT operations.
HYPERBARIC SPREAD
Welding habitat Pipe alignment frame
Frigg diversion 2004/5

Large pipe, 813 mm (32in); thin wall, 19 mm (¾in)
Total of 6 pups for line diversion
Platforms to be removed
These figures show a welding habitat and associated pipe alignment frame.
Subsea 7 have undertaken a number of hyperbaric welds for Total on the Frigg lines’
TP1 / MCP-01 bypasses as part of an EPIC contract.
This required hyperbaric welding on 813 mm and 610 mm (32in and 24in) pipelines to
re-route them around two platforms in 90 m to 110 m (300 to 360 m) of water.
Hyperbaric welding was selected because they are large diameter with a relatively thin
wall, 19 mm (¾in).
In the first season 4 pups (8 welds) were welded with a further 4 welds during the
second season.
Once the Frigg diversions were completed, the steel platforms will be removed in their
entirety (similar to the procedure at Maureen) but only the topsides will be removed
from the gravity concrete base structures.
This contract follows Subsea 7’s successful completion of hyperbaric welding work in
Australia.
PROS AND CONS OF WELD
Diving time generally greater than

connectors
Water depth limitation
Manual SMAW - 200 m (660ft) deep
GTAW deeper - in excess of diving depths
Pipeline returned to original condition
‘Golden weld’ testing
A hyperbaric weld will generally take considerably longer than is required to make up a
mechanical connection. There are water depth limitations for hyperbaric welds,
although welds are generally feasible within diver depths.
The advantage of a hyperbaric weld is that the pipeline is returned to its original
condition with no subsea equipment remaining.
It is also possible to avoid hydrotesting of the repair by use of the ‘Golden Weld’.
GOLDEN WELD
Full NDT of repair welds

Radiographic, ultrasonic and magnetic particle
inspection
Test results used as evidence for weld
acceptability
Repaired section does not require
hydrotest or further testing
Spools or pup pieces have been yard-tested
A ‘Golden Weld’ will undergo a thorough testing with a number of different non-
destructive testing (NDT) methods. The results are used to verify the acceptability of
the weld.
This then eliminates the need to conduct a full hydrotest of the entire pipeline
containing the repaired section.
Note that new sections or pups being used to replace defective sections will have already
undergone a full hydrotest in the yard or on the vessel prior to their incorporation into
the existing system
MECHANICAL CONNECTORS
Install connector on cut ends of pipeline

Seal on outside of pipe
A number of systems available
The alternative to a hyperbaric weld is the use of a mechanical connector. There are a
variety of connectors available, but all make a seal with the outside of the pipe, which
first needs to be cleaned of all coatings.
The main types are described in the following slides.
The diver in the picture is inserting the Flexiforge tool into the connector. See next
slide.
FLEXIFORGE CONNECTOR
Pipe cut and flange sleeved onto end

Tool expands
pipe plastically
Connector
remains elastic
Grips around
outside of pipe
The Flexiforge system is available from Big Inch.
The system involves an end fitting incorporating a standard flange, which slips onto the
cut pipe end and is swaged. This is a cold-forging process performed using an internal
expansion tool. The pipe is plastically expanded into the connector. The connector
incorporates a system of rings and grooves that ensure a metal-to-metal seal.
Because the thicker-walled Flexiforge fitting is elastically expanded whilst the pipe is
plastically expanded, the fitting becomes pretensioned in the hoop direction once the
forging tool is removed. This ensures a high axial load capacity.
MORGRIP CONNECTOR
Gripping segments Pipe end External seal

(two per pipe shown) abutment test port
Undamaged section of Ball Twin Replacement pipe

pipeline cage seals spool
The Morgrip connector is available from Hydratight.
The connector is slid on to the cut pipe, positioned and then activated by tensioning
longitudinal bolts. The Morgrip contains graphite activated metal sealing rings (shown in
black in the picture).
It has an attachment mechanism, based on ball bearings, which indent the external
surface of pipe. These act to wedge the connector onto the pipe, so that the harder the
pressure tries to push it off, the more the ball bearings dig in.
Two sets of seals are incorporated to allow a leak test to be performed between them.
MORGRIP
Generally
diver-installed
ROV version
available
Tensioning
bolts
Activates
gripping
system and
metal seals
Both diver and ROV installable versions are available. The Morgrip connector has been
used for both repairs and new-build tie-in applications.
PROS AND CONS OF CONNECTORS
Connectors quicker than hyperbaric weld

Availability of diverless systems means no
depth limitations
Some systems able to accommodate poor
axial tolerances
Need to perform leak test
Back pressure between the seals
Time to procure
Emergency repairs
Smaller sizes of pipe
The main advantages of mechanical connector systems are the fast make-up time and,
because diverless systems are available, no depth limitation.
Mechanical connectors do need to be leak tested which, for some connectors, requires a
full system hydrotest.
This full system test can be avoided if the connector includes a seal test port, as does
Morgrip. This tests as a back pressure between the seals.
Some types of connectors are not made for larger diameter pipelines, and specials may
be difficult to procure in time for emergency repair operations.
Depending upon the risk assessment, it is normal to have either standby connectors or a
fully trained hyperbaric welding team.
ROVS USED FOR DIVERLESS

REPAIRS
A-frames or
moonpool
In shallow water,
‘Cursor’
use a direct umbilical Strong umbilicals launch
supplying control, system
power and support
Workclass Tether
or eyeball ROV management
system (TMS)
Sea current
or ‘Top Hat’
Workclass ROV carries

Heavy equipment tool pack or equipment
& tools lowered Lightweight slung beneath
from surface tether
Steerable garage
unit with thrusters
Secondary
eyeball ROV
The figure shows three procedures for operating ROVs, two of which are specifically
designed for deepwater applications. When operating in deepwater environments, one
of the main concerns is the time taken to lower the ROV to the seabed (this can be
several hours). As the ROV requires a power supply cable there is a problem in that the
umbilicals become both heavy (due to their length and strength requirements) and are
subjected to large loads due to sea currents. Operators have developed two main
systems where a powered unit with separate thrusters carries the workclass ROV down
to the work site. This unit can be sized to withstand the loads from the main umbilical.
When in position, it then releases the ROV on a lightweight umbilical or tether. This is
normally up to a few hundred metres long, but can be made up to 1 km (3280 ft).
The figure shows two different methods of deepwater ROV installation. One involves
lowering the ROV in a steerable garage. Any heavy equipment or selections of tooling
can then be lowered to the seabed on a separate frame. This method may also include a
secondary eyeball class ROV slung beneath, which can be used to oversee the operations
of the workclass ROV or other tasks.
The second method involves lowering the ROV on a device known as a TMS (tether
management system) or Top Hat which releases the ROV at the worksite. The ROV in
this case grasps a separate tool unit beneath. This may be a trencher, burial device,
flowline connection module, suction anchor installation, mining or military.
Launch using a ‘Cursor’ enables the almost neutrally buoyant ROV to be pushed safely
through the surface zone (where the thrusters have difficulty operating) into the deeper
water beneath the vessel. The cursor can run down a set of rails or wires, and it holds
the TMS or garage.
Typically, workclass ROVs locate themselves by the left arm grasper, and manipulate
using the right arm. When following a pipeline, the ROV may fly above the route, run
on tracks or grip the line using wheels.
DIVERLESS REPAIRS
Diverless repair techniques:

During construction:
Cut and remove damaged section, install A&R head to
pull pipeline back up and continue laying
Recover buckled or dropped pipeline to surface to effect repair
In operation:
Repair pipe section in place with mechanical connectors or
grouted sleeve
Flexible risers:
Normally replaced
Leaking annulus can be repaired by flushing with inhibited
water
Risk reduction plan
ROV-operated systems have been developed for pipeline repair in deepwater. That is,
below diver depth.
During installation, the buckled section may be cut off and removed, and a temporary
pulling head fixed onto the end of the undamaged section to enable the line to be
dewatered, thus restoring its buoyancy. The recovery wire is then pulled up to the
laybarge and laying resumes.
Alternatively, the buckled line may be used as a recovery system to pull the undamaged
section back in order to effect a repair on the barge.
We have just seen how a pipe can be repaired with mechanical connectors once in
operation.
Flexible risers are normally replaced. However, some repairs of impact damage to the
outer layer may be effected using clamps. The annulus is then filled with inhibited water.
In practice, most deepwater systems are built to perform a specific repair as part of a risk
reduction plan. Fortunately, they are rarely used.
BUCKLE REPAIR CUTTER
Sonsub-Saipem
Bluestream wet buckle repair system
Diamond
cutter unit
This cutter can be used to repair a wet buckle at depths of up to 2200 m (7220ft). It was
developed for use on the Bluestream Project in the Black Sea.
The intention is to cut the pipe below the buckle and insert a recovery head. The
evacuated pipe can then be brought back to the surface and laying continued.
BLUESTREAM HEAD
Bluestream depth 2150 m (7050ft) of water

ROV-operated equipment
Use of cutter to produce ‘square end’
Pressure to force pipe onto anvil
Pipeline plastically deformed to form seal
Single use unit
Pipeline Anvil Deformed pipe wall
Pressurised
volume
The second tool designed to be used by the ROV sealed the end of the pipe, enabling
water to be removed and allowing the more buoyant pipe to be lifted.
A thin-walled can was inserted inside the pipe and expanded. This plastically deformed
the end of the pipe onto an anvil. The latter deformed elastically.
When the pressure was released, the anvil recovered (elastically) and held the
permanently deformed pipe wall using friction.
Valves (not shown) permitted the pipe to be purged. This reduced the weight enabling
the pipeline to be recovered onto the laybarge, where the unit could be cut off.
Fortunately, it was a contingency item only. Although proven technology, it was not
used in anger.
RISER REPAIR ON FOINAVEN -

VIDEO
Diverless riser repair is shown in the above video.
The main points are:

■ The deep water, 500 m (1640 ft) flexible risers had external sheath damage during
installation, and this caused flooding of the armour layers.
■ The task was to displace the seawater with inhibitor in order to prevent deterioration
of the armour wires.
■ This was carried out by remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), which fitted clamps
over the damaged sections and drilled vent holes to facilitate flooding of the annulus
with inhibitor.
BALLAST WATER SEALINE -

BAHAMAS
Loading facility
Crude sent from shore storage tanks to ‘sea island’
Ballast water line discharge from ship to shore
914.4 mm (36in) by 1200 m (3937ft)
Inspection using RTD tethered crawler
Ultrasonic pipeline
inspection technology
Detector stand-off at
nominal bore 75 mm (3in)
Transmission medium
Water or oil
Zig-zag coverage of wall
Spider PIT
The ballast water line is used to transfer contaminated water from the tankers moored at
the terminal when they are receiving crude oil from the onshore storage tanks. The site
applied internal lining at the field joints failed due to quality control (QC) problems
during construction, resulting in severe internal corrosion.
A single pipeline was used to transport oil offloaded from tankers at a sea island
structure to the tank-farm onshore. Because it was a single line, it was not possible to
regularly pig the line after each discharge.
Röntgen Technische Dienst bv (RTD Quality Services) of Rotterdam provided an

ultrasonic tethered crawler inspection Spider PIT to detect loss of wall thickness in the
line. The detectors had a stand-off from the wall of 75 mm and were passed in a zig-zag
pattern over the whole inner surface of the line. It is necessary to use a liquid medium
such as water or oil between such detectors and the inside surface of the steel.
CORROSION OF SEALINE -
BAHAMAS
Severe pitting corrosion

Particularly bottom of line
12.7 mm (½in) down to 3 mm (⅛in) wall thickness
Corroded areas over 0.5 m (18in) long
The RTD crawler proved that severe corrosion had occurred, particularly to the bottom
of the line. The nature of the corrosion took the form of deep pits: in places the wall
had been reduced from 12.7 mm down to just 3 mm; in some areas, the corrosion
affected over 500 mm length mainly at the 6 o’clock position (bottom of pipeline). In
three pits, there was just 2 mm of wall left.
It was suspected that the intermittent discharge of oil (every few days or so) allowed the
small amount of water to drop out and collect at the and then travel back down to the
lower offshore end of the pipeline.
The photographs show sections of the line that were subsequently removed during the
repair operations. The first shows the corroded wall with a core sample removed for
testing (at lower right) and the pits covered with corrosion product (rust). The second
shows a cleaned surface prior to repair, demonstrating the depth of the pits encountered.
GRP RELINING OF SEALINE -

BAHAMAS
Glass-reinforced plastic liner

Simple butt connection with GRP overlap
Strings pushed into steel pipe avoiding buckling
Pressure test liner
Grouting of annulus
300 m (1000ft) sections
Start at lower end
Monitoring at ports
Grout release ensures
full filling of annulus
Land and Marine Engineering relined the sealine using a glass reinforced plastic (GRP)
liner. This was purchased in 15 m (49.2ft) lengths and assembled into 200 m (656ft)
strings using simple GRP overwrapping of the square-butt ends.
The strings were pushed down into the damaged steel line using winches on the beach
attached to a beam at the rear of the string. Sets of rollers on top, bottom and sides of
the pipe were required to avoid strut buckling of each string. These had to be released
as the beam moved forward.
The photograph shows the pressure testing of the liner. Once this was completed, the
annulus was filled with grout to provide fixity to the liner within the pipe during
operation. This commenced at the offshore end with displaced water being released
from ports drilled into the damaged steel line every 300 m (1000ft). The ports were
monitored for arrival of the grout so that operations could move to the next section
towards the shore.
REPAIR - SUMMARY
Operations for repairing ruptured pipelines

Hyperbaric weld
Diver qualifications and welding equipment
Golden weld testing
Connectors
Morgrip and Flexiforge
Benefits of using welds or connectors
Diverless repair
Installation and operation - risk reduction systems
Relining weakened line
Any questions?
In the Integrity Management module, we looked at repair clamps that can be used as a
reinforcement for minor defects such as dents.
However, when a section of the pipeline has become significantly damaged, then it may
be necessary to replace that section of the line with a replacement spool.
Two types of connection can be made to tie-in the spool. One is to perform a
hyperbaric weld, this will be relatively expensive. A ‘golden weld’ means that the system
does not require a pressure test.
The other tie-in method is to fit mechanical connectors to the ends of the spool and the
existing pipeline. A range of mechanical connectors are available. The advantage is they
do not all require a diver to make the tie-in and allow remote operation in deepwater.
In deep water, we must use diverless techniques to connect the pipelines to the risers or
well heads. We also need diverless methods for repair to lines should damage occur.
The tools used for undertaking such work usually are attached to ROVs. We have
examined how these tools are operated.
Methods of pipeline and flexible riser repair have been shown, both during installation
and operation.
Repair systems must be fully tested and available for emergency operations. Fortunately,
they are rarely needed.
Where a leak has not yet occurred on a short length of sealine, it is possible to provide
strength using a GRP lining.
DECOMMISSIONING
DECOMMISSIONING
OSPAR convention 1992

Portugal agreement 1999:
Platforms under 10 000 tonnes removed
34 over that on case-by-case basis
Maureen platform - removed
Frigg – workscope though to 2012
Topsides to go with tubular steel
supports
Concrete gravity bases remain
Pipelines on case-by-case
Emotive issue: Brent Spar
What to do in order to decommission pipelines and platforms has been debated for
decades. The focus of the debate has been platforms, and pipelines have received little
attention.
The centre for the discussions has been the OSPAR (Oslo/Paris) Convention. This met
in Portugal in 1999 and agreed that in the North Sea, platforms under 10 000 tonnes
should be removed. Platforms over that weight, along with pipelines, should be
considered on a case-by-case basis.
The Maureen platform has already been removed from the Northern North Sea.
The plans to remove the topsides to the Frigg platforms have been drawn up. The
tubular steel support structure will also be removed but those with a concrete gravity
base are to stay. The alternative to totally removing tubular supports is to cut them off
at a level safe for shipping. This might be preferred when they are fixed to the seabed
with difficult-to-detach piles. The Frigg removal work is to be completed by the end of
2012.
We should not be complacent about decommissioning. The public storm over the deep-
sea disposal of Brent Spar is a case in point. No matter what the carefully evaluated
scientific and environmental solution might be, a lot of damage can be done to a
company’s reputation and sales if the public relations are not handled correctly.
DECOMMISSIONING TO DATE
Common in Gulf of Mexico

Not as common in North Sea
Most rigid pipelines put into ‘protective storage’
Reuse - perhaps for CO2 injection
Deferred decommissioning
No precedent for other lines
Accountants cost savings
Many flexibles pulled up for reuse
Especially in Brazil
Brazil – used as reef (with topsides removed)
Nursery for fish
Although a common practice in GoM, there have been relatively few pipelines
abandoned to date in the North Sea.
Most of them are cleaned and then sealed, so a decision on their long-term future can be
made at a later date. They might be reused for development of smaller reserves or for
injection of CO2 back into reservoirs. This helps with extraction and may gain carbon
credits in the future.
By deferring the decommissioning, it has the advantage of not setting a precedent. The
costs of the work can be postponed into some future year’s accounts.
However, the trend elsewhere appears to be towards leaving buried pipelines in place
and removing unburied lines.
Flexibles have a good record for re-use, particularly in Brazil where they are routinely
retrieved, refurbished and re-laid. This is not so in Australian waters where flexibles
tend to be recovered to the shore for disposal.
Incidentally, the Brazilians have also recently placed a disused structure in a fish
spawning ground to act as an artificial reef. This has been done with the backing of
government fisheries scientists and has been shown to be successful in terms of
providing a safe haven in which fish can breed.
This lead might be followed elsewhere in the world. It raises the question of whether
pipelines on the seabed are beneficial to fish (and even to fishermen) in acting as
breeding sites.
DECOMMISSIONING - SUMMARY
Limited subsea pipeline decommissioning

Mothballed pipelines
Disused but protected
Flexibles reused
Topsides removed
Support structures either removed or cut off
Any questions?
Decommissioning involves the removal of subsea equipment and components at the end
of the service life.
In the North Sea, there has been limited decommissioning of pipelines. Many are
mothballed or abandoned in a state of protected storage after the subsea manifolds,
wellheads or similar structures have been removed .
Where possible, flexibles will be reused.
Platform topsides often require removal due to their visible nature, but how they are
ultimately disposed of will be determined on a case-by-case basis.
The supporting structure may be removed entirely or cut-off at a level safe for shipping.
SUBSEA PIPELINE OPERATION -

SUMMARY
You should now:

Identify the methods of pipeline isolation, tie-ins
and repair
Know what to consider when planning the
decommissioning of a pipeline
Any questions?
An overview was given for the methods of isolation, tie-ins and repairs that may be
needed during the life of a pipeline.
Finally, the considerations for planning the decommissioning of pipelines have been
described.
Profiles
Profiles 537
TREVOR JEE
MANAGING DIRECTOR
MA CEng FIMechE
Date of Birth: 1958

Nationality: British
Education: Oxford University (MA)
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Engineering Science
Professional Qualifications: Chartered Engineer
Fellow of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers
Current Position at Jee Limited

Trevor Jee is a mechanical engineer with over twenty five years’ experience in the design,
construction and operation of oil industry pipelines. He formed Jee Limited in 1988 and
has built it up into a specialist pipelines engineering and training company. As managing
director he is responsible for the technical review and project management of study
work, for the presentation and development of courses, and the sales and growth of the
company
Specific Expertise and Experience at Jee Limited

As well as a broad experience of pipeline matters and wide ranging personal contacts
throughout the oil industry, Trevor has particular expertise in:
■ Conceptual and detailed design of subsea pipelines
■ Project management of studies and joint industry projects
■ Use of connectors in pipe-in-pipe systems
■ Trench versus non-trench decisions using risk analysis
■ Setting up and running the company ISO9001 quality system
■ Computer analysis of fluid/mechanical/structural/soils/thermal problems
■ Training courses in pipeline engineering
■ Technical and marketing consultancy
■ Sales, marketing, recruitment and growth of Jee
Pipeline Engineering Studies

■ SARFAP – project management of full scale, high pressure tests of acoustic
loading on a subsea structure for BP
■ Project Management of large diameter pipeline full scale overtrawling trials for
ExxonMobil, Shell, Subsea7, ConocoPhillips, and Statoil
■ CUEL – project Management of Pre-feed study on Dutch sector pipelines
■ BP – SARFAP project management of consortium doing model tests and
designing full scale tests
■ Subsea7 – flume tank model tests and design advice for overtrawlable structure
■ Sakhalin Energy – design of risers on Sakhalin 2 project
■ Unocal – development of connector assembly tool designed for diverless
operation
■ Finite element analysis of dropped pipe
■ Project Management and model tests for large diameter pipeline overtrawling
trials
■ Writing ISO21369 on testing of mechanical connectors for use in pipelines
■ Writing PD8010 onshore and offshore pipeline code
■ Design of a diverless connector assembly tool
■ Fishing gear interaction with flexibles
■ BP/BGI – conceptual design of a subsea LNG pipeline system including cross
section, construction and risk analysis, with detailing of components
■ BP – Lateral buckling analysis with varying soils conditions
■ Shell – construction options for laying and trenching of long umbilical
■ Fishing trials in Yell Sound: effect of rock dump on fishing practices for Magnus
EOR project
■ Unocal – analysis of long pipeline spans and advice on remedial measures
■ UKOOA – audit of oil/government/fishing data flows
■ Coflexip – review of trenching study
■ BP – comparison of code and legislation for UK, Norway, Holland and Germany
■ CRP Group – CFD, physical testing and software on strakes
■ Stolt Offshore – surface-lay study
■ BP – 3D presentation in HIVE on vortex shedding
■ Market survey on pigging
■ Completion and issue of IP guidelines for testing of mechanical connectors for
use in pipelines
■ Enterprise Oil – Corrib fishing types and intensity study
■ Coflexip – pipelay curve finite element analysis model
■ BP – CFD validation study on vortex shedding from rigid cylinders
■ BPCL – thermal design software
■ Multiflex – umbilical design
■ Set up and run joint industry project on the testing of mechanical connectors for
use in pipelines. Write IP code
■ CRP Group – geotechnical design of clump weights
■ UKOOA – spans and fishing interaction study
■ Production and publication of OTH561 Trenching Guidelines JIP. Computer
analysis and physical testing of trawl board motion and pipe response.
Development of risk-based trench versus non-trench decisions. Management of
client and subcontractor interfaces
■ Analysis of fishing loads on sloping well protection structure
■ SeaMark – design of concrete protection structures
■ Support for West Sole pipeline defect analysis and for Amethyst pipeline
dent/fatigue analysis including finite element approach and grout crushing study.
■ Non-trenching analyses for BP Schiehallion and Total ALE projects
■ Completion of low cost pipeline connection systems JIP, producing final report
and testing specification, with studies on catenary riser loads, and dent testing.
Profiles 539
■ Modelling of the loads imparted to wellhead structures by trawl gear pullover.

■ Assessing the cost and technical benefits of the use of connectors in pipe-in-pipe
systems.
■ Feasibility study on subsea LNG loading pipelines
■ Risk analysis of lifting subsea components on Foinaven project, and for assessing
the benefit of a high integrity pressure protection system on Troika pipe-in-pipe
system.
■ Thermal and upheaval buckling analyses of the Gannet bundle, together with
development of concrete/foam insulation system.
■ Transient thermal analysis of Gullfaks satellite bundle system using finite element
approach
■ Development of new piggable wye design on Foinaven
■ Setting up and running the Trenching Guideline JIP, attracting 16 companies,
with technical work on trawl board pullover loads and pipe dynamic response
■ Freespan analysis and definition of anomaly limits for Conoco southern North
Sea pipeline system
■ Chairman for Foinaven project HAZOP meetings
■ Pipelay vessel motion analysis and estimate of availability for West of Shetland
weather conditions
■ Studies on installation and repair issues for screwed subsea pipelines
■ Novel pipelay methods for Black Sea including use of connectors in pipelines
■ Setting up Low cost pipeline connection systems JIP and providing technical
support on pipeline load envelopes, connector selection and testing
■ Study on non-trenching of flowline and the status of trenching design world-wide
■ 3D analysis of creep of a foam coating subject to hydrostatic and thermal loads.
Advice on uni-axial testing of samples to provide input parameters
■ Prediction of heat losses due to radiation, convection and conduction in a multi-
pipe caisson and subsea bundle
■ Feasibility and costs of deepwater bundles
■ Dynamic analysis and technical feasibility of steel catenary risers
■ Use of screwed connectors to provide a low cost step-out flowline from Magnus
■ Layout design and definition of installation procedure for a retro-fit wye junction
in a major gas trunk line
■ Detailed design of fire protection system for a tank farm in the Seychelles
■ Design calculations for hydrodynamic loads on concrete protection structures
during installation and operation
■ BP – research studies on deepwater bundles, screwed flowlines and ways of
extending S-lay capability into deeper waters
Training courses
Trevor has been responsible for the production of the Jee Limited training courses and
presents the following:
■ Overview of Pipeline Engineering
■ Offshore Pipeline Construction course
■ Pipeline Operations and Integrity Management
■ Subsea Pipeline Design
■ Offshore Installation Calculations
He has also been responsible for:

■ Writing and delivering a pipelines, tankage and materials course for Military
Works Force
■ Managing and marketing the Composites and Titanium course with QinetiQ
■ Developing the advanced pipeline engineering training course for Petrobras
Summary of Previous Experience

■ Andrew Palmer and Associates Limited, 1988-1992
□ Lead Engineer, British Gas North Morecambe project. Detailed design of
trunk line
□ Project manager, Shell Nelson project. Conceptual and detailed design of
export pipelines
□ Lead Engineer, British Gas Morecambe Bay subsea safety valve conceptual
study
□ Lead Engineer, BP Miller insulated landline detailed design
□ Lead Engineer, BP Miller wye conceptual and detailed designs
□ Project Manager, MOD inshore magnetic ranges. Design, procurement
and installation of subsea structures
□ Technical studies and reports including upheaval buckling, evaluation of
BS8010, span assessment, and trenching chalky soils
■ British Petroleum, 1979-1988

□ BP Petroleum development, Aberdeen. Mechanical engineer providing
technical and commercial support to the pipeline operations group
□ BP International, London. Mechanical engineer on the design of risers and
pipelines
□ BP Trading, London and BP Chemicals, Hull. Graduate Engineer on
monitored professional development scheme
Profiles 541
MIKE HAWKINS
TECHNICAL DIRECTOR
BTech (Hons) CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 19 May 1962

Education: Loughborough University
Academic Qualifications: Degree in Mechanical Engineering

Professional Qualifications: Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers

Since 1994 Mike has been working with Jee Limited, initially as Senior Engineer and
more recently as Technical Director.

In his time with Jee, Mike has been responsible for many studies and activities.
Particular fields of expertise include:
■ Computer analysis of fluid, mechanical, structural, soils and thermal problems
■ Trawl gear interaction with pipelines and the prediction of fishing gear loads
■ Upheaval and lateral buckling
■ Modelling of impact and denting
■ Heat transfer and modelling of transient behaviours
■ Creep of foam insulation systems
■ Analysis of pipeline freespans, vortex induced vibrations and fatigue assessment
■ Risk and reliability analysis
■ ABAQUS finite element analysis
■ Presentation of pipeline training courses
■ Conceptual and detailed design of pipeline and rigid riser systems

■ Dolphin – Third party verification of Dolphin Project sealines and export pipeline
detailed design.
■ Perenco – Development of Pipeline Integrity Management System, inspection
plans and general integrity management support for Perenco’s southern North Sea
pipeline system.
■ JIP – Project management of joint industry project investigating the over-trawling
of large diameter pipelines.
■ BP – Project management of design and test programme investigating acoustic
resonance in small bore connections in subsea PLEM. Involved co-ordination
and management of a consortium of technical experts.
■ Technip – Preparation of corporate pipeline design guidelines for world-wide use.
■ Chevron Texaco – Qualitative risk assessment and detailed fatigue analysis of
pipeline spans in the Gulf of Thailand.
■ Scott Wilson – Pipeline expert advising on and evaluating options for lowering of
existing subsea pipeline to facilitate deeper dredging of Colombo Harbour
shipping channel.
■ Shell – Third party verification of Goldeneye gas export trunkline detailed design
and installation analysis.
■ Various – preparation and presentation of training courses on subsea pipeline and
riser design, construction and operation.
■ Clough – route profile analysis for pipeline laid onto severely undulating seabed in
Gulf of Thailand. Operational stress analysis and span fatigue assessment for
resulting spans. Analysis of proposed excavation options for span rectification
and stress analysis.
■ BP – conceptual design of subsea LNG pipeline system.
■ Mobil – assessment of over-trawlability of large diameter bundles.
■ BP – stress analysis and fitness-for-purpose assessment for re-trenching of near-
shore sections of West Sole pipelines.
■ Advantica – development and evaluation of limit state design methods for
pipeline stability, impact damage and upheaval buckling.
■ Balmoral – evaluation and analysis of water diffusion into Girassol riser buoyancy
modules.
■ CRP – design of various clump weight foundations.
■ BP – assessment of pipeline restabilisation options for the West Sole pipelines.
■ BP – study of seabed scour and pipeline exposure trends for the Miller near shore
pipeline section, including recommendations of remedial action requirements.
■ Coflexip – study of pipeline/soil interaction for hot pipelines.
■ BPCL – development of bespoke software for mechanical and thermal analysis of
pipeline insulation coatings.
■ BP – assessment of span on Ninian pipeline in surf region.
■ BP – assessment of concrete loss and major span on Inde pipeline
■ Kongsberg – market review of subsea connectors.
■ Statoil - transient thermal analysis of Gullfaks Satellites heated bundle system
using ABAQUS FE code.
■ Trenching Guidelines JIP - various studies and activities, including: development
of a fishing gear pullover model simulating the interaction of trawl gear with
pipelines; dynamic analysis of pipeline response due to trawl gear loadings using
ABAQUS FE code; integration of these models into a risk analysis spreadsheet;
sensitivity analysis of trenching related design parameters, including lateral
buckling; evaluation of North Sea fishing gear characteristics.
■ Enterprise Oil - feasibility study and cost estimates for flowline installation, by
both conventional and novel methods (including screwed connectors, bottom
tow, etc), for offshore field development in the Black Sea.
Profiles 543
■ BP Exploration - Volcanera, Columbia - feasibility study, supplier/manufacturer

evaluation and preparation of cost estimate for the use of 13Cr linepipe and
mechanical connectors for the Volcanera flowline system (onshore).
■ Hunting Oilfield Services - technical support to tender preparation for pipeline
system in Qatar, including site visit and assessment of conditions and
requirements of route and facility tie-in.
■ Hunting Oilfield Services - Low Cost Pipeline Connectors JIP - studies on
pipeline loading envelopes, offshore assembly and installation, pipeline repair
methods.
■ Laing Oil & Gas - thermal design of riser caisson systems for Shell Pelican and
Lasmo Birch developments.
■ Balmoral Webco - development of long term creep and thermal performance
model for multi-layer pipeline coatings and design support on coating systems for
various subsea pipelines.
■ Flight Refuelling - market survey for application of through-pipeline data transfer
system.
■ BP Exploration - conceptual design and costing for low cost step-outs from
Magnus using screwed flowlines installed from a drill rig.
■ BP Exploration - feasibility and costing of steel and flexible catenary risers for the
Magnus field.
■ SeaMark Systems - detailed design of Statfjord Satellites dogleg concrete
protection structures.
■ CWA - detailed design of fire protection system for tank farm for SEPEC in the
Seychelles
■ SeaMark Systems - design calculations for subsea concrete structures: soils
assessment, trawl board impact, steel reinforcement design, installation loads,
dropped object impact, and soils settlement
Training courses
Mike presents the following training courses on pipeline engineering:
■ Offshore Pipeline Construction

■ Brown and Root Marine, 1992-1994
□ British Petroleum, Andrew Development Project. Lead engineer on export
pipelines through FEED and detail design phases
□ British Gas, Armada Project Conceptual Design. Senior pipeline engineer
on export pipelines, high temperature in-field production flowlines,
platform and subsea tie-ins and risers
□ Hamilton Oil, Douglas Pre-Development and Essential Engineering. Lead
engineer on conceptual design of pipeline/flowline system and detailed
design of risers and J-tubes for concrete gravity structure
□ Statoil, Statfjord Satellite Project. Pipeline engineer on installation of risers
in J-tubes
■ Andrew Palmer and Associates Limited, 1990-1992

□ Norsk Hydro, Brage Pipelines. Engineering verification of designs for
upheaval buckling, cathodic protection system and J-tube pull-in of risers
□ Exxon, Passive Fire Protection of Risers. Conceptual review and evaluation

of proprietary and novel passive fire protection systems for use on gas and
oil risers between cellar deck and splash zone levels
□ British Gas, North Morecambe Development. Pipeline Engineer on main
gas trunkline and methanol pipeline
□ Shell, Nelson Project. Pipeline Engineer on conceptual and detailed
engineering phases
□ Shell, Brent long term development study into the Brent intrafield pipeline
requirements for various platform refurbishment options
■ British Petroleum, 1980-1990

□ Pipeline engineer on pipeline and riser design, operational support, research
and development, with North Sea project support
□ Mechanical Engineer on motor fuels research
□ Engineering Trainee involved in design work on Ula-Cod and
Mossmorran-Grangemouth pipelines
□ Engineering trainee on plant inspection and construction
Profiles 545
MARTIN EAST
OPERATIONS MANAGER
BSc (Hons) MSc CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 23 Aug 1965

Education: Crewe Boys Grammar School
University of Sheffield
Loughborough University of Technology
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Mathematics
MSc in Computer Integrated Engineering
Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers
NAFEMS Registered Analyst (Advanced)

Martin has been working with Jee Limited since 1996, initially as Senior Engineer and
more recently as Operations Manager.

Martin is responsible for supervising and carrying out most of the finite element analysis
(FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) work at Jee limited.
Finite Element Analysis

Martin has eight years experience of the ABAQUS finite element analysis software and
has used it in the design of umbilicals and pipeline coating systems. Structural analyses
have included
■ limit-state design of HP/HT pipelines
■ many lateral buckling assessments of surface-laid pipelines
■ upheaval buckling analysis of trenched and buried pipelines
■ thermal analysis of surface laid and trenched umbilicals
■ riser and spoolpiece design
■ bottom roughness analysis
■ the analysis of concrete spool-piece protection covers
■ span assessments for flowlines on undulating seabeds
■ seismic analyses of risers in a GBS platform leg
■ design of a pipeline crossing
■ trawl gear pulling over a pipeline

■ the energy absorption capability of an elastomeric coating
■ analysis of pipelay and pipe pulls
Computational Fluid Dynamics

Martin has used both Fluent and CFX packages for fluid flow analysis. Analyses have
included
■ the hydrodynamic effects of helical strakes on a riser
■ the effect of strake pitch and profile on performance for a helical strake
■ the flow of backfill spoil onto a trenched pipeline
■ the influence of chord length on the performance of a streamlined riser fairing
■ heat flow and natural convection inside an insulated cabinet containing pipework
■ hydrodynamics of riser fairings
Other Analysis Work

Martin has done hundreds of calculations, primarily using Mathcad. Calculations include
■ stability assessments of pipelines
■ pipeline spanning assessments
■ rock berm assessments
■ lateral buckling calculations
■ heat transfer and cooldown of coated pipelines and pipe-in-pipe systems
■ thermal expansion assessment
■ vortex-induced vibration and fatigue of spanning pipelines
■ fracture assessment
■ wellhead protection structure design

In his time with Jee Limited, Martin has also been responsible for many studies and
activities for a variety of clients
■ Dolphin – Third party verification of Dolphin Project sealines and export pipeline
detailed design.
■ Dolphin – Third party verification of Dolphin Project umbilical design.
■ BP – Project management of design and test programme investigating acoustic
resonance in small bore connections in subsea PLEM. Involved co-ordination
and management of a consortium of technical experts.
■ BP – stress analysis and stability assessment of near-shore sections of West Sole
pipelines.
■ Coflexip – study of pipeline/soil interaction for hot pipelines.
■ BPCL – development of bespoke software for thermal analysis of pipe-in-pipe
system.
■ BP – assessment of span on Ninian pipeline in surf region.
■ BP – assessment of concrete loss and major span on Inde pipeline.
■ SARFAP – project management of full scale, high pressure tests of acoustic
loading on a subsea structure for BP.
■ BP – assessment of pig and slug train impacts on riser bends.
■ BP – study into the effects of coating disbondment on Thunderhorse risers.
■ BP – above-ground pipeline cost-reduction study.
■ Technip – review of spoolpiece dropped object protection design.
■ Sakhalin Energy – concept designs for risers on Sakhalin 2 project.
■ SEAPI – fitness-for-purpose assessment of damaged linepipe
■ Shell – flume tank tests and associated work for assessment of the required power
cable protection for the Brent Alpha redevelopment.
■ Elf Exploration – Assessment of spans on the Claymore pipeline to establish the
characteristics which contributed to the hooking and capsizing of the Westhaven.
■ Total – QRA of fishing interaction on the spans of the Frigg pipelines.
Profiles 547
■ Wellstream – assessment of fishing interaction with flexible pipelines.

■ BP – study to assess and improve data on the location of subsea structures and
pipelines received by foreign fishermen fishing in the UK sector of the North Sea
Training courses
Martin is responsible for the development of the Subsea Pipeline Design course and
presents the following training courses on pipeline engineering:

■ EMRC Europe Limited, 1988-1996
□ Finite element analysis of static, dynamic, thermal, fluid flow and fatigue
problems on structures ranging from printed circuit boards to ships
□ Responsible for training, benchmarking, technical support and software
development
Profiles 549
ALAN KNOWLES
SENIOR ENGINEER
Eur Ing BSc(Hons) CEng MICE
Date of Birth: 17 October 1951

Education: Park High Grammar School for Boys
Birkenhead Technical College
Liverpool Polytechnic College
Academic Qualifications: Honours Degree in Civil Engineering
Member of the Institution of Civil
Engineers
FEANI European Engineer

Alan is a civil engineer with over twenty-five years’ experience in the design of oil, gas
and water pipelines. He has also worked in the nuclear industry, substantiating
structures for the safety issues associated with seismic events. Alan joined Jee Limited as
a Senior Engineer in 2002.

Alan has particular expertise in the following:
■ Installation methods for subsea lines for hydrocarbon developments
■ Design and specification of onshore and offshore pipelines
■ Soil assessment for pipeline trenching, burial and pile design
■ Subsea pipe bundles
■ Flowlines, landfalls, directional drilling, river crossings, marine structures and sea
defences
■ Both conventional and single-point moorings for tankers
■ Finite element analysis of subsea equipment and finite difference analysis in soils
■ Calculations for coated pipelines with regard to both stability and thermal
insulation
■ Design and construction of outfalls including investigation of primary and
secondary effluent dispersion patterns

■ Report on the pipeline requirements at pre-FEED study stage for a small, three
field, gas development in the southern North Sea
■ Dolphin – third party assessment of subsea pipeline crossings
■ Pipeline-fishing interaction including the assessment of overtrawling structures,
pipelines and bundles through flume tank testing and full-scale overtrawling trials
at sea
■ Vortex-induced vibration analysis for fatigue, pipe span, on-bottom stability and
risers
■ Unocal – development of a subsea clamp for VIV and current monitoring
■ Technip – fishing interaction study assessing the effects of spoil heaps at the edge
of pipeline trenches
■ Sakhalin Energy – concept designs for risers on Sakhalin 2 project
■ Technip – development of pipeline flange design sheet
■ CUEL – assessment of installation, hydrotest and operating loads on subsea
flanges
Training courses
Alan has authored a number of Jee Limited courses and presented them on four
continents, both to the public and for companies in-house. These courses include:
■ Offshore Installation Calculations
■ Army depots and landlines

■ Osprey Consulting, 1996 – 2002, Contract Engineer - Design Management
□ Working for Smit Land & Marine Engineering on submarine pipeline
studies and proposals in the North Sea and elsewhere
□ Development of a new system for flowline installation including the
supervision of analysis and marine tank trials at Maritime Institute of
Netherlands (MARIN)
□ Preparation of feasibility study reports for HDD landfall at the Tangguh
Development Irian Jaya; the Method Statement for decommissioning and
removal of disused outfalls at BNFL Sellafield; and a feasibility option
study for the discharge of an alternative fuel, Orimulsion at an existing
SBM facility at Saint John, Canaport
□ Presentations to clients for various studies and proposals
□ Design work and method statements for submarine outfalls tender
preparation
■ Devonport Management Ltd, 1996 – 2001

□ Devonport Management Limited through Sanderson Watts Associates,
upgrading and seismically qualifying 1900’s docks to permit the refitting of
nuclear submarines
□ Author of Design Substantiation Reports for Cross-Site Services Contract,
14 Dock Flooding/Dewatering system and the 14 Dock DSR Summary
Report, which was used to gain safety approval in order to commence
modifications
□ Author of the Independent Technical Assessment report for 9 Dock
penstocks
Profiles 551
□ Subsequently, Assistant Design Authority for the adjacent dock being

redeveloped to accommodate the larger Trident submarines. Procedures
involved nuclear-industry Hazard and Operability (HAZOP) evaluation
and Value Engineering Option assessments. Worked in conjunction with
five alliance members co-ordinating design. Total value £375M
□ Design included use of finite difference package FLAC and pseudo-static
methods such as Mononobe-Okabe/Westergaard analysis
□ Decommissioning analysis of Windscale Pile chimney for BNFL. Seismic
FE modelling and report recommending demolition
□ Also assisted in similar study of BTC building on site. This work involved
independent checking of seismic analysis of mezzanine floor
■ Smit Land & Marine Engineering, 1988 – 1996, Principal Engineer/Analyst

□ Analysis and design of the bulkheads for Britannia Bundles, using the finite
element suite ANSYS, to the AISC code of practice
□ Risk assessment of the sensitivity to measured tolerances and the weight
control of the bundles
□ Hydraulic analysis of tankfarm landline and offshore SBM and pipelines at
Whiddy oil terminal, Bantry Bay, Eire. Shore protection works design
□ Assessment of technical requirements for dynamic pipe bundle enquiries.
This involved sizing their carrier pipe, design of thermal insulation and
fully-integrated tow and trailheads, manifolds, bulkheads and cathodic
protection. Projects included Hudson, Heidrun, Thelma, Joanne, Captain
and Columba Field Developments
□ Deepwater tender study for Foinaven bundles
□ Ethylene land-line design and survey including route selection and design
of river and canal crossings using directional-drilling techniques
□ Mooring analyses and procedures for pipe-laying vessels at the Forties,
Miller and Mobil Beryl landfalls
□ Final design presentation (including hydraulic study) of the large diameter,
deepwater outfalls at Piraeus Athens: these three pipelines were of post-
tensioned concrete designed to accommodate earthquake forces by use of
spigot and socket joints. Additionally, the shore approach rock armouring
and pipeline armour protection had to be able to withstand severe storm
conditions
□ Development of thermal insulant gel for Gannet subsea bundle. Trials
including pumping tests of the non-Newtonian pseudo-plastic fluid at
BHRA; computer simulation of insulant/heat properties at SIA and in-
house; co-ordination of heat experiments at Salford University and Fulmer
Yarsley Laboratories; and full-scale bundle simulation at Shell’s Billiton
Laboratories in Arnhem, Netherlands
□ Supervision of marine soil investigations for outfalls at Fleetwood and
Lyme Regis. Feasibility studies for offshore sea defences and outfall
studies at Worthing. Soils investigations for directionally-drilled crossings
of landlines
■ Smit Land & Marine Engineering, 1974 – 1988, Design Engineer/Site Engineer
□ Site investigation, structural design and report; then the subsequent
supervision for reconstruction of an historic listed stone jetty at Plas
Newydd. Rip-rap stone apron design around the jetty in strong tidal
currents of the Menai Straits and associated cathodic protection of
structures
□ Analysis of single buoy mooring (SBM) cable support to allow the
exceptional tidal differences in Bay of Fundy
□ Design of installation procedure for anchor chains of SBMs in Canada and

Mexico
□ Responsible for development of suites of programmes for pipeline stresses,
concrete weight coating, outfall diffusion design, submarine plough design
for lowering pipelines, and wave and current analyses
□ Supervision and selection of company requirements for technical
computers. This included the assessment and selection of bought-in
software such as the finite element package ANSYS, vessel mooring
analysis GMOOR, general design package Mathcad, spaceframe design
QSE and the automatic language translation package Globalink. Installed
the first NT Domain within the Costain Group
□ Design of conventional buoy mooring (CBM) and hose handling pontoon
for crude/fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) discharge facility at
Lobito, Angola
□ Principal author of the accompanying Commissioning, Operations,
Maintenance and Safety Manuals for the project
□ Feasibility study for major offshore gas field development in Morecambe
Bay. Undertook stability analyses of subsea pipeline and assisted in report
preparation
□ Designed subsea pipeline and CBM facility of onshore oil terminal for
power station in Cyprus
□ Worked on Santos submarine outfall Brazil. Designed and supervised
construction of 1200 tonne pulling head and deep marine cofferdam.
Monitored wrapping, concreting and weight control of the 2.2 m diameter
pipeline
□ Responsible for surveys, feasibility studies, preparation of contract
documents, temporary and permanent works designs
□ Worked at ICI Frodsham, on construction of a bridge over the River
Weaver. Completed initial hydrographic and land surveys for the location
of bridge foundations. Responsible for setting out and temporary works
design, for control and ordering of earthworks and marine piling. Engineer
in charge of outfall construction into the Weaver Navigation
□ Responsible for the design and detailing of building foundations and floor
slabs on land reclaimed from a former sulphuric acid plant
■ John Taylor & Sons, 1971 – 1972, Assistant/Resident Engineer

□ Assisting with the design of a totally subterranean pumping station for
lifting surface runoff to a height of 5 m using twin 1.6 m diameter
Archemedian screw pumps
□ Assistant Resident Engineer working on Hoylake and West Kirby re-
sewerage scheme. This included construction of a primary treatment works
and two pumping stations along with tunnelling sewers in poor sandy
ground
■ Holland & Hannen and Cubitts, 1968 – 1970, Site Engineer

□ Responsible for setting out a large retraining centre in Hanley, on a
reclaimed slag heap with difficult contaminated ground conditions
Profiles 553
PHIL MEDLICOTT
SENIOR PIPELINE ENGINEER

BSc PhD CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 13 February 1952

Nationality: Irish
Education: Nottingham University
Academic Qualifications: BSc in Mechanical Engineering

PhD in Acoustics - Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers

Phil is a senior pipeline engineer and joined Jee Limited in July 2000.

In his time with Jee Limited, Phil has been responsible for many studies and activities.
Particular fields of expertise include:
■ FEED studies including use of Pipesim
■ Pipeline piggability studies
■ Pipeline stability analysis using PRCI software
■ Fishing field trials to assess trawl gear interaction with pipelines
■ Tank testing to assess trawl gear interaction behaviour with pipelines
■ Verification, design and cost studies of alternative subsea pipeline and umbilical
schemes
■ Preparation of ISO 21329:2004 Standard for testing of mechanical connectors for
use in pipelines
■ Presentation of training courses covering pipeline design, pipeline integrity
management and use of composite materials in offshore applications
■ Determine suitability of mechanical connectors for S and J-lay

■ Dolphin – Third party verification of Dolphin Project umbilical detailed design.
■ Perenco – Development of Pipeline Integrity Management System for Perenco’s

southern North Sea pipeline system.
■ Perenco - Review of intelligent pigging methods
■ Perenco – Pipeline span screening using DNV-RP-F105
■ JIP – Tank testing for joint industry project investigating the over-trawling of
large diameter pipelines.
■ Technip – Preparation of Mathcad design sheets for world-wide use.
■ Chevron Texaco – Stability analysis of pipelines in the Gulf of Thailand.
■ BP – conceptual design of subsea LNG pipeline system.
■ Enterprise Oil - feasibility study and cost estimates for pipeline and riser
installation.
■ BP – Pipeline piggability studies including pigging from single launcher/receiver
■ BP – Review of inspection and testing requirements for loading hoses
■ CUEL – Conceptual FEED study for new development in the North Sea
■ Apache – Steady state two phase modelling of pipelines for FEED study using
Pipesim
■ BP – Fishing pipeline overtrawlability field trials in Shetland Islands
■ CUEL - Study to investigate rationale for changing or eliminating hydrotest
procedure
■ Unocal –Development of monitoring equipment, test programme and analysis
routines for assessment of vortex induced vibration of pipeline spans
■ BP – Review of mechanical connector systems
■ BP - Review of technical study into acoustic resonance found in flexible risers
■ Technip – Pipeline on seabed stability analysis using PRCI Level 2 and Level 3
software
■ Wellstream – Flexible seabed stability analysis using PRCI Level 2 and Level 3
software
■ CUEL – Pipeline on seabed stability analysis using PRCI Level 2 and Level 3
software
■ CRP - Assessment of vortex induced vibration reduction devices by laboratory
testing
Training courses
Phil presents the following training courses on pipeline engineering:
■ Pipeline stability and use of PRCI pipeline stability software
■ Overview of properties and implementation of polymer composite materials in
offshore applications
Parallel activities
In 1994 Phil Medlicott established his own engineering consultancy business which
specialises in the use of polymer/composite materials technology to meet oil industry
and transport requirements. He still continues to operate this business and has provided
the following services:
■ Project manager of a £280,000 Joint Industry Project to develop the qualification
methodology for FRP lined downhole tubing and flowlines. This work was
completed at the end of 2003 and included the successful testing of FRP lined
steel tubing systems in 160°C and 5000 psi production service environments over
4000 hrs
■ Preparation of ISO 14692:2002 GRP piping Standard for use within the oil and
natural gas industries
Profiles 555
■ Implementation of composite applications on BP Davy and BP Bessemer (9% of

topside weight)
■ Studies covering range of applications and performance issues of composite
coiled tubing and umbilicals
■ Presented with special award at CMMO3 conference in recognition of my
activities promoting use of composites in offshore applications.
■ Preparation of GRP grating specification for Shell
■ Development of technical requirements for composite caissons

■ BP Sunbury Research Centre 1989–1994 Senior Mechanical Engineer
□ BP representative on three major Joint Industry Programmes concerned
with the use of composite materials in the oil industry
□ Responsible for preparing proposals for internally and externally funded
R&D and disseminating information to business units
□ Acquired practical knowledge of the design and chemical resistance of
polymeric materials in oil industry and petrochemical applications
■ BP Sunbury Research Centre 1977–1989 Technologist

□ Carried out feasibility study that resulted in setting up of major multi
million joint venture programme between BP, Leyland Vehicles and the
DTI
□ Responsible for the design, manufacture and testing of highly stressed
engineering components made from fibre reinforced plastic composites.
This involved hands-on work and led to a good appreciation of the
interaction of manufacturing process with design and performance
□ Inventor and designer of BP composite high speed flywheel (EP 0 145 182)
developed for vehicle regenerative braking system
□ Responsible for analytical stress and dynamic analysis, finite element stress
analysis, and carrying out material testing
□ Produced design guide of thermoplastic lined composite pressure vessels
□ Designed and arranged field testing of novel oil pollution recovery
equipment. This was subsequently developed further and marketed by BP
Publications and conference presentations

■ Performance of FRP Lined steel tubing in production environment,' P Medlicott,
Fourth International Conference On Composite Materials For Offshore
Operations. Houston, TX, October 4 – 6, 2005
■ 'Static Electricity and the Use of GRP Materials Offshore', P Medlicott, Fourth
International Conference On Composite Materials For Offshore Operations.
Houston, TX, October 4 – 6, 2005
■ 'Composite Material Selection & Implementation in Oil & gas Applications',
Materials Selection for Upstream Oil and Gas" IQPC conference, Aberdeen, 27th
January 2004
■ 'Static Electricity and the Use of GRP materials Offshore', CMOO-3 Houston
31st October to 2nd November 2000
■ 'Composite Materials: Addressing Static Electricity Issues in Offshore
Applications' ETCE/OMAE 2000 Conference in New Orleans, February 14 -
17th, 2000
■ 'Progress towards a Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined Tubing and
Flowlines in Production Service", Oilfield Engineering with Polymers Conference
26th October 1998
■ 'Use of Non-Metallic materials Downhole' Aberdeen 24th April 1998. IBC

conference 'Advances in Downhole Technologies'
■ 'Qualification Methodology for FRP Lined tubing for Production Service: A Joint
Industry PROGRAM' 2nd International Conference on Composite materials for
Offshore Operations (CMOO2), Houston, October 28-30 1997.
■ 'Using Composite Materials to Minimise Weight and Maintenance and Maximise
Safety' Euroforum Offshore Platforms '96, London, 18-19th March 1996
■ 'How can Composite Materials be Successfully Applied to your Current and
Future Offshore Projects? IIR Conference Aberdeen, 15-16th November 1995
■ 'Overviewing the Diverse Applications and Advantages of Composites in the
Offshore Industry' IIR Conference Aberdeen, 7 - 8th December 1994
■ 'GRP and HDPE: Alternative Solutions to Corrosion', UK Corrosion, London
19-21st October 1993
Profiles 557
STUART JOYNSON
SENIOR ENGINEER
BSc (Hons) PEng
Education: Salford University
Academic Qualifications: Degree in Civil Engineering
Professional Qualifications: Professional Engineer
Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers

Stuart joined Jee Ltd in 2006 as an Offshore Construction Specialist and is currently
involved in preparing and updating various training courses and expanding the
company’s range of activities.
Stuart’s particular areas of expertise include:

■ Offshore pipeline installation
■ Landfall construction
■ Flowline bundle fabrication and installation
■ Subsea trenching
■ Estuary crossings
■ Marine outfalls
■ Pipeline refurbishment
■ Decommissioning

■ Corus Construction and Industrial, February 2002 to June 2006
□ Business development manager promoting services and materials within
the Offshore and Renewable Energy sectors. This involved representing
the Company at conferences and exhibitions, meeting prospective clients,
giving presentations, preparing and submitting proposals and reporting on
the status of the wind energy and marine renewable industries.
■ Independent consultant, January 2001 to February 2002

□ Undertaking engineering studies associated with pipeline bundles,
umbilicals, landfalls and sealine installation including costing and
construction feasibility assessment. Projects were undertaken for major
offshore construction companies, consulting engineers and oil and gas
companies.
□ In association with Jee Limited preparing and presenting offshore

construction training courses in the UK and overseas.
■ Land and Marine Engineering Limited and associated companies (over 30 years)
□ Production line manager, June 1999 to December 2000. Responsible for
obtaining offshore construction work associated with flowline bundles,
pipeline trenching, tanker terminals, decommissioning and relining. This
involved marketing, preparation of prequalifications and tenders and
negotiations with prospective clients.
□ Operations manager, May 1992 to May 1999. Responsible for the
following:
□ Marketing of the flowline bundle technique including the submission
of budgetary proposals.
□ Co-ordination of tender preparation and the submission of bids for
major offshore pipeline bundle projects.
□ Liaison with alliance partners.
□ Management of the company’s pipeline assembly area at Tain
including liaison with landowners and environmental organisations.
This included the preparation of the annual environmental
monitoring reports with input from environmental consultants and
various specialists
□ Project manager for the Gannet pipeline bundle installation contract, May
1990 to May 1992. This £46 million E.P.I.C. contract included the
fabrication and installation in Shell Expro’s Gannet Field of four pipeline
bundles with lengths up to 3.6km. These bundles were assembled at Tain
where up to 120 staff were employed. The project office staff were located
in Middlesex where the engineering, procurement, and contract
administration duties were undertaken. As Project Manager, was
responsible for all aspects of the contract including liaison with the Client
and J.V. partners, cost control, engineering design, safety, Q.A. and
environmental management and approval of all phases of the work.
□ January 1990 to May 1990, Responsible for establishing the Company’s
pipeline assembly area at Tain in Scotland. This £1.5 million development
was undertaken in 16 weeks and included the erection of fabrication
buildings, formation of access roads over tidal areas, precasting and
positioning concrete pipe supports, setting up permanent offices and
installation of all services. Was based in Tain during this period and
negotiated all sub-contracts and liaised directly with the local council on all
planning matters. Established a working relationship with the various
environmental groups concerned about the site development and addressed
meetings with local business and similar associations.
□ Operations manager, 1988 to 1990. Responsible for the following:
□ The company’s activities in North and South America.
□ Projects involving the relining of underwater pipelines.
□ Operation of the company’s offshore survey department.
□ The management of the company’s pipeline assembly site in
Scotland including finalisation of the leases with the landowners,
negotiations with the planning authority and preparation of baseline
environmental studies.
Some particular activities and projects undertaken included:
□ The supervision on behalf of the client of the installation of two
pipelines to an offshore terminal in the Dominican Republic. Both
of these lines were installed by the off-bottom towing technique.
Profiles 559
□ The preparation of procedures and safety plans for the Gannet

flowline bundle installation tender.
□ Business development manager, 1983 to 1988. Responsible for:
□ Seeking out potential work for the company in the western
hemisphere and progressing it through the proposal/bidding stage.
□ Investigating new activities and business opportunities for the
company.
□ Marketing the company’s activities with the Scottish Regional
Councils.
Particular activities and projects undertaken included:
□ The engineering design, preparation of procedures and the insertion
of a fibreglass liner pipe inside a corroded subsea pipeline to an
offshore oil terminal in Eastern Canada.
□ The selection of a construction site for controlled-depth tow
pipeline installation in the North Sea. This included the preparation
of the planning applications, environmental impact assessment,
discussions with the Authorities and representing the company at the
public enquiry. This enquiry lasted for 10 days and eighteen expert
witnesses were called to give evidence.
□ The submission of tenders for offshore work in Canada, USA and
Latin America.
□ The installation of a single point mooring and subsea cable offshore
Canada.
□ General manager of Wescan Maritime Consultants Ltd, Calgary, Canada,
1981 to 1983. Responsible for establishing and operating this joint venture
company, which undertook engineering design work relating to underwater
pipelines and associated marine terminals. The work included marketing,
preparing proposals, undertaking engineering studies as well as managing
the office and supervising staff. Some of the major projects responsible for
included:
□ The detailed design and preparation of drawings and specifications
for eight multi-pipeline river crossings at Norman Wells in the
Canadian Arctic for Esso Resources Canada Ltd. These pipelines of
various diameters up to 356 mm and with lengths up to 1360 m
terminate on artificial islands constructed in the river. They are
protected against ice during the “break-up” period and carry crude,
gas, injection water and control cables.
□ The preparation of installation procedures and cost estimates for
pipelines to production facilities in the Canadian Beaufort Sea.
□ An offshore survey, followed by detailed engineering, to investigate
the stability of an existing pipeline to a single buoy mooring off the
eastern coast of Canada.
□ An evaluation of bottom tow installation methods for a 32 km long
gas pipeline to Vancouver Island in water depths of up to 300 m.
□ The preparation of tender documents for a feasibility study for a
tanker terminal in the Beaufort Sea.
□ Chief project engineer, 1978 to 1981. Responsible for the work and the
operations of the Design Department, the Project Engineering Department
and the Drawing Office. Some of the major projects responsible for
included:
□ The installation of four pipelines, each with a total length of 13.1
km, within the Bombay Harbour area. These lines, which carry oil
and gas from the Bombay High Field, are up to 914 mm in diameter
and were pulled into position in pre-dredged trenches.
□ The 610 mm diameter gas Pipeline crossing of the Magellan Straits

in Southern Argentina. This 45 km long pipeline was pulled ashore
into pre-dredged trenches on both the North and South side of the
crossing from E.T.P.M.’s laybarge 1601. The Southern shore
approach onto the Island of Tierra del Fuego was 2.5 km long and
required a 1000 tonne pulling system.
□ A feasibility study, together with hydrographic and geophysical
surveys for Hydrocarbons (GB) Ltd on the Morecambe Bay Gas
field in the Irish Sea. This work resulted in the final pipeline route
and the location of the landfall at Barrow being selected and
included the preparation of installation procedures and cost
estimates.
□ The installation of five product pipelines and two telemetry cables
between the Gulf and Texaco Refineries at Milford Haven in Wales.
These lines, which are each 7 km long, vary in diameter from 222
mm to 323 mm. The crossing of the Haven involved extensive
dredging before the lines could be simultaneously pulled into
position.
□ The design and installation of a G.R.P. sleeve to go inside a corroded
offshore ballast water line. This 914 mm diameter line terminated at
Burmah Oil’s tanker terminal in the Bahamas, 1200 m offshore in 35
m of water.
□ The pull ashore of three pipelines (2 x 1220 mm and 1 x 400 mm
diameter) from a laybarge anchored 1.2 km offshore at Dos Bocas in
Mexico. Each pipeline was pulled into its final position by a 1200
tonne capacity land based winch arrangement. The client was
Pemex.
□ The project engineering work required for the Tay estuary crossing
for British Gas. The marine crossing section of this 7.7 km long
pipeline was pulled into position in a pre-dredged trench with a 1200
tonne capacity winch set up.
□ The installation of three steel flowlines to the Texaco Tartan
Platform in the North Sea. These lines were pulled from the reel
barge Apache up the “J” tube risers on the platform, to their
termination points, using a 200 tonne linear winch.
□ The landfalls on each side of the Firth of Forth for the 1066 mm
diameter feeder line crossing for British Gas. The pipeline was
pulled from Brown & Root’s laybarge “Semac” moored offshore,
into its final position using a 1200 tonne pulling system.
□ Project manager for the Land & Marine single buoy mooring joint venture,
1977 to 1978
□ Responsible for the marketing, preparation and finalisation of
fabrication tenders, preparation of installation procedures,
scheduling and cost estimating for offshore oil terminals in the U.K.
Sector of the North Sea. During this period the following major
proposals were submitted.
□ A S.A.L.M. export terminal together with a single anchor leg storage
(S.A.L.S.) terminal for Mesa Petroleum’s Beatrice Field in the Moray
Firth.
□ A C.A.L.M. and a S.A.L.M. for BP’s Buchan Field in the North Sea.
These were designed to accommodate 70,000 DWT tankers and to
be located in 110 metres of water.
□ Supply boat moorings for various North Sea operators.
Profiles 561
□ Design/Project Engineer (head office based), 1972 to 1976. Work

undertaken included:
□ The preparation of the detailed design and specifications for a twin
pipeline crossing of the River Forth for Scottish Gas. These
pipelines are 460 mm diameter and 700 m long.
□ The design of a 1900 m long x 914 mm diameter effluent outfall at
Viana do Castello, Portugal. This pipeline was later pulled out into a
trench blasted into the seabed.
□ Project engineering work for the Forth Tanker Terminal for British
Petroleum Ltd. Two 1219 mm diameter pipelines complete with
risers were pulled from the construction site to the offshore terminal
located in 35 m of water.
□ Project engineering for BP Ninian pipeline landfall at Grutwick in
the Shetland Islands. This 914 mm diameter oil pipeline was pulled
ashore from the laybarge Viking Piper along the prepared seabed.
□ Project engineering for the shore approach and landfall for the Shell
Flags pipeline at St. Fergus, Scotland. This 914 mm diameter gas
line was pulled ashore from the laybarge anchored 1.5 km offshore,
and was then buried into the seabed using the TMIII trenching
machine.
□ The design, planning, procurement and preparation of procedures
for a marine outfall at Santos in Brazil. This 1750 mm diameter steel
pipeline 4 km long, was constructed on an area reclaimed from the
sea and was then bottom-pulled into its final position.
□ Assistant project manager, 1969 to 1972. Projects worked on in this

capacity included:
□ River Neath crossings for British Petroleum Ltd. Thirteen pipelines
varying in diameter from 102 mm to 762 mm were constructed off
site and then floated to the location and lowered into a dredged
trench.
□ The installation of a hot fuel oil pipeline across Milford Haven for
Gulf Oil. This 342 mm diameter line, 1.5 km long, was insulated
with polyurethane and concrete weight coated prior to being pulled
into a pre-dredged trench. The contract included a pumping station,
flow metering, leakage detection and telemetry systems.
□ The installation of a submerged tunnel, 1.6 km long, across Hollands
Diep for the Rijkswaterstaat. This 4 m diameter tunnel was
constructed in 60 m long concrete sections in a dry dock. The
sections were then towed to the tunnel site, lowered into position
and jointed up underwater. The dredged trench for the tunnel
sections was then backfilled
□ Contracts engineer, 1966 to 1968. Some of the projects worked on during
this period on site included:
□ An extension to an existing sea outfall at Grimsby for Courtaulds.
□ The installation of a 1090 mm diameter sea outfall, 760 m long at
Eastbourne, UK. The steel pipeline was assembled onshore,
encased in concrete, and pulled out through extensive cofferdams
into a pre-dredged trench using barge mounted winches. An
onshore pumping station 15 m deep was constructed within a
diaphragm wall as part of the contract.
□ The assembly and installation of two major marine outfalls at The
Hague in Holland. The effluent outfall is 2240 mm in diameter and
2.5 km long. The individual steel pipes, each weighing 50 tonnes,
after being encased in concrete, were welded together on a

launchway. The offshore trench was dredged, but the inshore
section was formed from a sheet pile jetty extending 500 m out into
the North Sea. The complete outfall was pulled into its final
position using winches mounted on a workbarge. The second
outfall was a sludge line, 356 mm diameter and 10 km long. This
was constructed on land and bottom pulled into the pre-dredged
trench.
□ The installation of seven pipelines to connect Gulf Oil’s offshore
terminal for 350,000 DWT tankers in Bantry Bay, Eire, to the land-
based tank farm. The lines, varying in diameter from 222 mm to
1067 mm were constructed onshore and then pulled into position.
At the terminal end, in 35 m of water, vertical risers were installed
and connected to the pipelines with underwater flanges using a
derrick barge.
■ Brown & Root (UK) Ltd, 1968 to 1969

□ Field Engineer working offshore on derrick and lay barges in the southern
sector of the North Sea. Projects worked on included the installation of
platforms, the laying of pipelines and the setting of risers.
■ Ward Ashcroft & Parkman – Consulting engineers, 1965 to 1966

□ Involved in the design of sewage works and other reinforced concrete
structures
Profiles 563
BRUCE STOWELL
SENIOR ENGINEER
Eur Ing BEng(Hons) NDip CEng
MIMechE MIGEM
Date of Birth: 30 November 1965

Education: Hilton College KwaZulu Natal South Africa
Technikon Witwatersrand South Africa
University of Salford
Academic Qualifications: Honours degree in Mechanical Engineering
National Diploma in Mechanical
Engineering
Engineers
Member of the Institution of Gas Engineers
& Managers
Registered Eur Ing with European
Federation of National Engineers
Association

Bruce is a senior engineer at Jee Ltd. He joined the company at the beginning of 2006.

Bruce has been responsible for carrying out the following activities.
■ Umbilical stability verification - Arabian Gulf
■ Pipeline integrity management, emergency spares assessment - North Sea
■ Engineering critical assessment on defective pipework - Indonesia
■ Specification writing - North Sea
■ Pipeline stability analysis – Thailand
■ Riser defect assessment – North Sea

Bruce has 14 years experience within the Petrochemical Industry and has been a
chartered engineer for eleven years.
■ Ove Arup, 1998-2003

□ Pre-FEED works for the development of offshore LNG and LPG storage
in Angola for Kellogg Brown and Root
□ Sakhalin phase two pre qualification and lead mechanical engineer for
FEED tender specification and subsequent tender submission for two
concrete gravity structures. Designed the installation and marine navigation
systems. Carried out risk assessment on the internal placement of risers and
conductors within the shafts
□ Topsides project manager for the joint venture FEED for the development
and costing of three offshore platforms to be located in the southern North
Sea
□ Lead mechanical engineer for the West Natuna ACE moveable gas
production unit. Designed the pumping and control system for the float-
off, wet tow, installation and removal of the platform. Wrote the
installation procedures and was responsible for the installation of the base
penetration into the seabed and the lifting of the deck. Developed the
analysis that was run to predict the performance of the installation systems
during actual installation
□ Mechanical engineer for the Malampaya CGS condensate storage system.
Designed the manifold system for the condensate storage and export
including the mechanical installation system to flood and install the CGS to
the seabed. Wrote the installation programme and analysed the time taken
for installation
■ British Gas / Transco, 1991-1998

□ Project Manager and Planning Supervisor for replacement of Halon fire
retardant systems to water mist systems within the compressor cabs at all of
the compressor stations throughout the UK.
□ Engineering and cost implications of pressure upgrades to 85 barg within
the NTS
□ Feasibility studies for the Aberdeen, Michlemersh and Towton compressor
stations
□ Mechanical Tender evaluation for the contract award of the Wooler
compressor station
□ Site Mechanical engineer for an international joint venture for the
development of the Karachaganak field in Kazakhstan, the second largest
gas field in the world. Carried out safety assessment and development of
packages to improve production
□ Compressor stations and the addition of both series and parallel
compressor streams
□ Pipe stress analysis to ASME B31.1 / 3 / 8 and to TD12
□ Hornsea phase 6 and 7 additional storage facilities
□ Addition of the Selexol CO2 removal streams at the LNG storage facilities
in the UK
□ North Morecambe onshore terminal pipe systems
□ Zeebrugge Interconnector pipeline specification
□ Existing pipeline pressure upgrades to 75 barg
□ Writing of pressure systems schemes of inspection for Easington onshore
terminal and for Citigen combined heat and power station
Profiles 565
■ Flight Systems Mintech, South Africa 1985-1988

□ Specialised in the manufacturing and installation of diesel engine protection
systems for the open cast coal and diamond mining industry in Southern
Africa
Profiles 567
JONATHAN FRANKLIN
SENIOR PIPELINE ENGINEER

BEng (Hons) CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 12 June 1972

Education: Brunel University
Academic Qualifications: Degree in Mechanical Engineering

Professional Qualifications: Member of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers
Registered Offshore Survival Certificate

Jonathan has been working with Jee Limited since June 2006. He is responsible for a
range of pipeline engineering project work and the development and presenting of
courses.

Jonathan is involved in a wide range of pipeline engineering projects, specialities include:
■ Remnant life assessment
■ Onshore pipeline design assessments
■ Subsea LNG pipelines
■ Failure investigation
■ Pipeline integrity management
■ Subsea insulation systems
■ Defect assessment

■ Perenco – Evaluation of pigging options for Southern North Sea pipeline
■ BP – Development of standards for deepwater pipelines
Training courses
Jonathan is currently developing a number of new courses for deepwater flowlines and
risers.

■ Advantica (formerly British Gas Research & Technology), 1994-2006
□ Manager of Engineering Analysis team from June 2003. Responsible the
financial, project and resource management of a team of engineers
undertaking a wide range of static and dynamic analysis for the oil and gas
industry. The turnover of the team was typically £2,000,000 per annum.
□ Lead technical engineer for implementation of Middle East business plan.
Helped to establish Advantica’s integrity business in the Middle East.
□ Abu Dhabi Marine Operating Company (Adma Opco) – Zakum and Umm
Shaif Fields. Remnant Life Assessment of Offshore Flowlines and
Pipelines. Lead engineer for the assessment of over 140 flowlines using
probabilistic methods.
□ Abu Dhabi Company for Onshore Gas Operations (Gasco) – Asab and
Habshan Plants. Failure investigations and process evaluation of large
onshore gas processing plants.
□ National Grid - Uprating of Feeder 13 of the UK NTS. Site surveying and
stress analysis for uprating of high pressure gas transmission pipelines.
Finite element analysis of pipeline components.
□ Eversheds – Specialist Legal Advice on explosion incidents.
□ BG Egypt - Pigging problem advisor. Advisor on a number of offshore and
onshore pigging problems.
□ BG Group - Subsea LNG pipeline. Evaluated proposed schemes for
subsea LNG transport and minimal marine facilities.
□ BG Tunisia - Miskar platform. Stress analysis of wellhead pipework.
□ Various - Failure Investigations. Root cause investigations and simulated
testing.
□ National Grid - Fire & Explosion Investigation. Specialist pipeline
investigation engineer. Attended over 25 fire and explosion incidents and
represented client in court.
□ Linepipe Group Sponsored Project - X80 Full-scale Pipeline Testing.
Conducted a number of full scale bust tests to validate API 5L X80
material.
Profiles 569
NICK YUNXIAO WANG
PIPELINE ENGINEER
Phd
Date of Birth: 9 July 1965

Education: University College London
Academic Qualifications: PhD in Structural Engineering

Nick Yunxiao joined Jee Ltd at the end of June, 2006.

Nick Yunxiao has been involved, since joining Jee Ltd, in the BP West of Shetland
Pipeline pullover study – a review and re-assessment of the impact from the changed
fishing activity in the area. Particular fields of expertise used in the project include:
■ collate data for various production/gas lift/water injection flowlines from the
previous work and from the client
■ identify six typical flowlines for analysis based on the preliminary calculations
■ carry out lateral buckling FE analysis for the chosen flowlines
■ carry out pullover FE analysis for the chosen flowlines
■ carry out hooking FE analysis for the chosen flowlines
■ strain acceptance assessment using OTH 561
■ write the final report
Training courses
Nick is currently writing material for a number of new courses for deepwater flowlines
and risers.

■ KW Ltd, 2002-2006, Principle Engineer
□ Post-buckling assessment of 4” Vent and glycol pipelines, Simian and
Sapphire Fields. The objectives of the nonlinear finite element analysis were
to determine the post-buckling response of idealised imperfection for 4”
pipelines, which may arise as a result of the pipe being out of imperfection
detection range or insufficient soil cover at known imperfection locations;
to estimate the likely range of peak strains in the buckle; and to assess the
acceptability of buckled pipe for continued pipeline operation
□ Reeling verification and upheaval buckling analysis for Rhum pipe-in-pipe

(PIP) system (BP Rhum field development project), taking into account
strain history effects associated with reeling installation. The nonlinear
finite element analysis was to determine the soil cover requirements for
upheaval buckling for the reeled pipe-in-pipe system for various
imperfection heights
□ Flowline thermal cyclic studies - lateral buckling and pipeline walking
analysis using ABAQUS finite element analysis package, Greater Plutonio
Development, BP Angola Block 18; wrote a special FORTRAN
programme for ABAQUS to simulate the non-linear behaviour of soil
incorporating the mobilisation, break-out and progressive loss of uplift
resistance of soil
□ Lateral buckling analysis and pipeline protection design for Munro
pipelines (Munro field, North Sea), including detailed FE analyses on the
10’’ pipeline and to conclude whether unacceptable lateral deformations
and stress and strain localisations would occur in the pipelines
□ Pipeline protection analysis (dropped object and fishing gear impact) for
Saturn pipelines. The objective of the nonlinear finite element analysis is to
confirm the suitability of the mechanical protection proposed for the
pipeline sections at the tie-in locations according to the type of fishing gear
used and the intensity of fishing in the proposed locations, to determine the
maximum impact energy that the pipeline and the tie-in spools can
withstand, with and without mattress protection, from fishing gear
interaction and dropped objects
□ Pipeline protection analysis (dropped object and fishing gear impact) for
Horn Wren pipelines;
□ Analysis and assessment of lateral buckling of oil export, water injection
and oil transport pipelines, Azeri project, Phase 2 Pipelines, for Mentor
Subsea Technology Services Inc. The objective of the study is to assess the
safety of the pipeline under specified maximum operational pressure and
temperature and to determine mitigation measures with the maximum
assurance that lateral buckling would not endanger the operating safety of
pipelines
□ Strain based and limit state assessment for high temperature PIP flowline,
Shell Howe Field Development Project, using finite element analysis to
demonstrate integrity of the PIP system under cyclic operating conditions,
taking into account strain history effects associated with reeling installation
□ Lateral buckling analysis and tie-in spool seismic analysis for Baobab
deepwater production pipeline system
□ Analysis of lateral buckling and fishing interaction effects (pullover,
hooking and lateral buckling analysis) on Simian and Sapphire pipelines, for
Genesis
□ Detailed finite element analysis of installation and operating stresses in Gulf
of Aqaba crossing pipeline (36” deepwater pipeline), including simulation
of pipelay, girth weld ECA to BS7910 and seismic analysis
□ Strain based design of Braemar PIP system, including FE simulation of
reeling and in-service response, Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) of
girth welds
□ JIP Phase III fracture and fatigue assessment involving the analysis of test
results from various test specimen
□ Stress analysis for Smith Projects involving thermal and dynamic stress
assessments of an aeroplane engine
Profiles 571
■ Mott MacDonald, 1996-2002, Senior Engineer

□ Complex finite element modeling using with FEMAP
□ Finite element dynamic analysis using ABAQUS, STAAD, LUSAS
□ In-house software development to predict and display the dynamic
response of railway bridges. Awarded the Milne Prize
□ Project Engineer for the detailed dynamic analysis of existing bridges on
the West Coast Main Line (UK) to determine suitability for the passage of
high-speed trains, based on a ballast destabilisation criterion
□ Rating of damaged bridges – a field assessment method, including the
coding of a software DBAS (Damaged Bridge Assessment System)
incorporating the assessment methods developed in the project
□ Preparation of program for simulating deep-water pipeline installation for
Saipem, including S-lay and J-lay
□ Dynamic pushover analysis of jacket structures. The objective of the
project is to determine the service and ultimate capacity of the structure
subjected to 100-year return environmental forces using ABAQUS finite
element package
□ Explosion-specific analysis of Blackwall Tunnels, the project was to assess
the capacity of the Southbound and Northbound tunnels to withstand
explosion incidents from explosives placed inside the tunnels or dropped
onto the top of the tunnels
□ Dynamic analysis of South Korea Yongjong bridge
■ Shanghai Port Machinery Plant, 1989-1996, Assistant Engineer, Engineer, and

Senior Engineer
□ Supervision of all structural analysis, plus technical software systems
□ Structural and dynamic analysis for main projects such as special-purpose-
portal cranes, 900t-ship unloaders
□ In-house software development, such as in-house fatigue assessment
software especially coded for SPMP (Shanghai Port Machinery Plant)
products
□ Research project – On the Application of Modern Design Methods to Port
Machinery – sponsored by Shanghai Municipal Government
■ Dalian Jiaotong University, 1986-1989, Student

□ Post Graduate Student, MSc, Fracture Mechanics
■ Guangzhou Maritime School, Lecturer

□ Lectured on Theoretical Mechanics, Mechanics of Materials, Engineering
Mechanics
□ Graded exam papers.
□ Supervised laboratory work
Profiles 573
PAUL JOB
PIPELINE ENGINEER
MEng CEng MIMechE
Date of Birth: 13 March 1979

Education: Exeter College
University of Surrey
Academic Qualifications: Masters degree in Mechanical Engineering

Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

Paul Job joined Jee Limited in 2002. His main responsibilities in the department are
based around finite element analysis, design and CAD work for the offshore oil and gas
industry, and also presenting and writing training courses for both the public and in-
company. Other duties include studies for clients, which commonly involve developing
spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and writing technical reports

Offshore support
Paul has provided offshore support in the North Sea, for general imaging surveys of a
clients’ pipeline network and development of a new gas field. This included follow-on
work to interpret the results, assess the integrity of the pipelines and advise the client of
remedial activities required.
Flume tank trials
Paul has been regularly involved in flume tank trials for clients. These involve arranging
fabrication of scale models such as overtrawlable wellhead protection structures and
pipelines, and testing their interaction with fishing trawl gear. Data recorded during the
tests via Dasylab is then post-processed to determine pullover loads.
FEED studies
Paul has been involved in a number of FEED studies, which included the steady-state
modelling of multiphase pipelines using Pipesim, and finite element analysis for upheaval
buckling and overtrawling of pipelines.
Paul has worked on a number of FEA jobs since joining Jee, using both ABAQUS and
ANSYS. These include analyses as follows:
■ Riser analysis - investigating operational and earthquake loads of the risers
supported inside a concrete gravity base structure, to be used on the Sakhalin
project. This included a two-week placement based at Aker Kvaerner’s offices in
Oslo, Norway.
■ Parametric flexible pipeline analysis, to determine the effect of trenching on the
interaction of trawl gear in the North Sea.
■ Analysis of pipe pull, installing a pipeline in a pre-dredged trench using the
bottom-tow method
■ Parametric upheaval analysis on a flexible pipeline, to determine an installation
methodology to ensure the pipeline does not upheave during hydrotest or
operation.
■ Analysis of a hot-tap tie-in to a spoolpiece, to determine the stresses during
operation and the allowable hydrotest pressure
■ Analysis to prove a fabricated wye piece fit-for-purpose
■ Parametric thermal analysis of an insulated flexible pipeline
Other analysis software
Paul has recently been involved in a number of stability analyses using the PRCI/AGA
pipeline stability software package, including both flexible and rigid pipelines. He has
also completed verification analyses using the marine dynamics program Orcaflex for
static and dynamic analysis of flexible pipeline and cable systems in an offshore / marine
environment, and also the computational fluid dynamics package CFX.
Pipeline training courses
Paul has been presenting training courses since September 2003, both in-company and
to the public, including Subsea pipeline design, Offshore pipeline construction and
Subsea pipeline installation calculations (3 days). These courses have been in various
locations around Europe and USA.
Paul wrote a one-day overview course on umbilical design, installation and operation
towards the end of 2004. Since then he has co-presented the in-house course to Saipem,
and it has now been added to the regular courses offered by Jee.
Clamp Connector Tool Design
Paul has worked on this project for the last three years, developing a tool to install
mechanical connectors on subsea pipelines using an ROV. This has included developing
the design from concept to a detailed design with fabrication drawings. The tool has
now been fabricated and is awaiting final testing.
QA System
Paul has upgraded Jee’s Quality Assurance System, to ensure it is in compliance with the
requirements of ISO 9001:2000.

Paul worked for Exxon Mobil for one year during his MEng degree course. He worked
for their Supply and Distribution Department, which dealt with the operation of a multi-
product onshore pipeline network, distributing oil and gas to storage terminals in the
UK. Whilst there, he completed two major projects, the first of which was a study into
improving the efficiency of the pumping operation on the network. The second project
Profiles 575
involved the installation and implementation of a condition monitoring system on the

pumps, to monitor the condition of shaft bearings.
Profiles 577
DAVID APPLEFORD
GRADUATE ENGINEER
MEng (Hons) AMIMechE
Date of Birth: 15 May 1979

Education: University of Bristol

Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers
Basic Offshore Safety Induction and
Emergency Training (BOSIET)

David joined Jee Limited in September 2003. His main responsibilities include finite
element analysis, performing studies and research projects for clients, developing
spreadsheets in MathCAD and Microsoft Excel and writing technical reports. David is
continuing to develop his skills in pipeline engineering with the aim of achieving
Chartered Engineer status. He has recently attained his Basic Offshore Safety Induction
and Emergency Training certificate and is keen to gain some offshore experience on
survey or pipelay vessels.
He has also attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is involved in
performing internal audits for Jee limited. He was also involved with developing the
new Jee Limited website www.jee.co.uk.

Finite element analysis
Since being trained by ABAQUS in August 2004, David has worked on several FEA
jobs. These have included:
■ Analysis of the vibration of subsea flow termination assemblies
■ Verification of the fitness-for-purpose of fabricated wye pieces applicable to
generic class 600 pipeline systems
■ Verification of the fitness-for-purpose of mechanical pipeline connectors
■ Spool piece design – Analysis of tie-in spool pieces to determine loads due to
pipeline end expansion
■ Manifold design – In-place and installation analyses of a manifold and associated
ladder frame support
■ Assessment of the effects of coating eccentricity on the overall heat transfer

coefficients of pipelines and the cool-down performance through a comparative
study between concentric and eccentric pipe coatings
Engineering Studies
David has undertaken a series of fishing interaction studies for clients. These have
involved:
■ Scale model testing of subsea protective structures
■ Investigating ways to improve fishermen’s awareness of subsea obstacles and the
consequences of their interaction
■ Gathering fishing data from a number of sources across Europe, Africa and the
Middle East
■ Calculating fishing gear pullover loads, impact energies and dent assessment
■ FEA of pipeline pullover response and trawl door hooking
During his time at Jee Limited, David has also worked on the development of a
Microsoft Excel and Visual Basic spreadsheet to analyse deepwater pipe-lay capabilities
of pipelay vessels and has also been involved in writing various MathCAD calculation
sheets.
Pipeline stability
David has been involved in a number of stability analyses using the PRCI/AGA stability
software package, including both flexible and rigid pipelines. In addition he has done
calculations on vortex-induced-vibrations and has performed a study on the
effectiveness of self-burial-spoilers in the Southern North Sea.
Training courses
Since joining Jee Limited David has attended the following pipeline engineering training
courses:

He has also been trained in using the finite element analysis package ABAQUS and in
using the marine dynamics program Orcaflex for static and dynamic analysis of flexible
pipeline and cable systems in an offshore / marine environment.
Recently David was involved in writing a half-day training course on the use of BP’s
pipeline related Engineering Technical Practices.
Other experience at Jee Limited

David has attended an LRQA Internal QMS Auditor Course and is now involved in
performing internal audits for Jee Limited. He was also involved with developing the
new Jee Limited website www.tja.co.uk.
Profiles 579
GRAHAM WILSON
GRADUATE ENGINEER
MEng AMIMechE
Date of Birth: 11th June 1981

Education: Runshaw College
Lancaster University
Professional Qualifications: Associate Member of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers

Graham joined Jee limited in October 2004 as a Graduate Engineer. Since then he has
started a structured training program to develop his skills in pipeline engineering, aiming
to achieve chartership with the IMechE through the MPDS scheme. His main
responsibilities at Jee Limited include performing studies and research projects for
clients, developing MathCAD and Microsoft Excel design sheets and writing technical
reports.

Pipeline engineering studies
In his time with Jee Limited, Graham has worked on a number of different studies and
activities, including:
■ The design and development of a test rig to analyse the fatigue effects of acoustic
resonance on a FTA
■ MathCAD modelling of a pig and slug train impact on a variety of riser bends
■ The development of a series of MathCAD design sheets, covering:
□ Stabilisation of rigid and flexible pipelines
□ Use of rockdump stitches to prevent lateral buckling in rigid pipelines and
pipe-in-pipe systems
□ Wall thickness design to various design codes
□ Design of pipeline crossings
■ Investigation of a number of subsea flange leaks and recommendations for repair
■ Analysis of pipeline freespans for vortex induced vibrations and fatigue
■ Structural sacrificial anode design
■ Pipeline stability assessment using the PRCI/AGA pipeline stability software
Fishing interaction
■ Graham has undertaken a series of fishing interaction studies for clients, which
have involved:
■ Gathering fishing data from a number of sources across Europe, Africa and the
Middle East
■ The calculation of fishing gear pullover loads, impact energies and dent
assessment
■ FEA of pipeline pullover response and trawl door hooking
He has also been involved in a number of scale model flume tank trials, assessing the
overtrawlability of a range of subsea protection structures.

After successfully completing the ABAQUS training course, Graham has worked on a
number of FEA jobs. These have included the assessment of installational and
operational loads on a range of pipeline components, as well as performing trawl gear
pullover and hooking analyses for a series of pipelines in both the North Sea and the
Mediterranean.
Other analysis software

After completion of an in house Orcaflex training course, Graham has been involved in
the development of dynamic riser analysis exercises for the Jee Riser design training
course. He has also completed pipeline stability analyses using the PRCI/AGA pipeline
stability software and performed flow analysis using Pipesim.
Training courses
Since joining Jee Limited, Graham has attended the following Jee pipeline engineering
training courses:
■ Installation Calculations
Graham has also been involved in the development of the Subsea Pipeline Design
course exercises. He has also written modules and material for a Technip in-company
course.
Other experience at Jee Limited

As part of the Jee quality procedures, Graham is responsible for the non-conformance
review, which aims to identify any trends in the problems encountered by the company
that could be prevented.
Graham has also received training in the use of PRISM integrity management software.
Acronyms &
abbreviations
Acronyms & abbreviations 583
+ve positive
-ve negative
°C degree Celsius
°F degree Fahrenheit
30D bend radius of 30 times the pipe diameter
3D three-dimensional
3rd Third
AC Alternating Current
AGA American Gas Association
AGI Above-Ground Installation
Al Aluminium
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Possible
ALS Accidental Limit State
ANSI American National Standards Institute
API American Petroleum Institute
approx. approximate
ASB Above SeaBed
ASD Allowable Stress Design
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle
AVTUR Aviation Turbine (fuel)
Bar g Bar gauge (1 bar = 100 kN/m²)
BAT Best Available Technology
bbl US oil barrel (1 bbl = 0.159 m³)
BHP Brake Horse Power (1 BHP = 745.7 W)
BLEVE Boiling Liquid, Expanding Vapour, Explosion
BMP Best Management Practice
BOP Blow-Out Preventer
BP British Petroleum Ltd
bpd barrels per day
BPEO Best Practical Environmental Option
BS British Standard
C2H4 Ethene (Ethylene)
C2H6 Ethane
C3H6 Propene (Propylene)
C3H8 Propane
C4H10 Butane or Isobutane
C5H12 Pentane or Isopentane
C6H5CH3 Toluene
C6H6 Benzene
C6H14 n-Hexane
C10H8 Napthalene
CA Corrosion Allowance
CALM Catenary Anchor Leg Mooring
CAPS Cranfield Automated Pipe-welding System
CBM Conventional Buoy Mooring
CDT Controlled Depth Tow
CDTM Controlled Depth Tow Method
CDUs Crude oil Distillation Units
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CH4 Methane
CHP Combined Heating and Power
CITHP Closed-In Tubing Head Pressure

Cl2 Chlorine
CNS Central Nervous System
CO Carbon Monoxide
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COMAH Control Of Major Accident Hazards
CP Cathodic Protection or Code of Practice
cP Centipoise (1 cP = 1 x 10-3 Pa·s)
CPF Central Processing Facitlity
CPT Cone Penetrometer Test
CRA Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
cSt CentiStokes (1 cSt = 1 x 10-6 m2/s)
CSO Coflexip Stena Offshore
CSOL Coflexip Stena Offshore Limited
CTE Coal -Tar Enamel
CTOD Crack Tip Opening Displacement
D/t Diameter to wall thickness (ratio)
DC Direct Current
DD Directional Drilling
dia, diam. diameter
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (German standards)
DMaC Diverless Maintained Cluster (connection system)
DnV Det Norske Veritas
DP Dynamic Positioning (vessel)
DPI Dye Penetrant Inspection
DRA Drag Reduction Agent
DSAW Double Submerged Arc Welding
DSV Diver Support Vessel
DTI Department of Trade and Industry
DWT Dead Weight Tonnage
ECA Engineering Criticality Assessment
EIA Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS Environmental Impact Statement
EMIT Examination, Monitoring, Inspection and Testing
EN Euronorm
EOR Enhanced Oil Recovery
EP Evacuation Plan
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer
ERD Extended Reach Drilling
ERP Emergency Recovery Plan
ERW Electrical Resistance Welding
ESD Emergency Shut-Down
ESDV Emergency Shut-Down Valve
ESIA Environmental and Social Impact Assessment
ETAP Eastern Trough Area Project
ESV Emergency Shut-down Valve
FBE Fusion Bonded Epoxy
FEA Finite Element Analysis
FEED Front End Engineering Design
FEHM Fire and Explosion Hazard Management
FHM Fire Hazard Management
Fi Fi Fire Fighting
FLAGS Far north Associated Gas System
FLS Fatigue Limit State

FP Foam Pourers or FluoroProtein
FPS Forties Pipeline System
FPSI Forties Pipeline System and Infrastructure
FPSO Floating Production Storage and Offloading (facility)
FRSU Floating Regasification and Storage (unit for LNG)
FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic
FSM Field Signature Measurement (or Method)
FSO Floating Storage and Offloading (facility)
ft foot (1 ft = 0.3048 m)
gal US US gallon (1 gal US = 3.785 litre)
GAEL Graben Area Export Line
GBS Gravity Based Structure
GCHPL Grangemouth Combined Heat and Power Limited
GEBCO GEneral Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans
GIS Geographic Information System
GMAW Gas Metal Arc Welding
GoM Gulf Of Mexico
GOR Gas Oil Ratio
GPR Ground Penetrating Radar
GPSS Government Pipeline and Storage System (UK)
GRP Glass-Reinforced Plastic
GSPU Glass Syntactic PolyUrethane
GTAW Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
H2 Hydrogen
H2O Water
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
HAL Hiden Analytical Limited
HAT Highest Astronomic Tide
HAZ Heat Affected Zone
HAZAN HAZard ANalysis
HCl Hydrogen Chloride
HCV Hydrant Control Valve
HDD Horizontal Directional Drilling
HDPE High Density PolyEthylene (PE-HD)
He Helium
HEPC Hose End Pressure Coupling
HFI High Frequency Induction
HFW High Frequency Welding
HIC Hydrogen-Induced Cracking
HICC Hydrogen-Induced Corrosion Cracking
HIPPS High Integrity Pressure Protection System
HP High Pressure
HP/HT High Pressure/High Temperature
HSE Health and Safety Executive
ID Internal Diameter
IFC International Finance Corporation
in inch (1 in = 25.4 mm)
IP Institute of Petroleum or Inspection Plan
ISGOTT International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals
ISO International Standards Organisation
JIP Joint Industry Project
JONSWAP JOint North Sea WAve Project
KP Kilometre Point (chainage in km)
LAFB Local Authority Fire Brigade

LAT Lowest Astronomical Tide
LCP Lack of Cross Penetration
LFS Lack of Fusion Surface
LFSS Lack of Fusion Subsurface
LHD Linear Heat Detection
LLDPE Linear Low Density PolyEthylene
LNG Liquid Natural Gas
LP Low Pressure
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
lpm Litres Per Minute
LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design
LRP Lead Replacement Petrol
M Monitors
MAOP Maximum Allowable Operating Pressure
MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In System
max maximum
MDPE Medium Density PolyEthylene
MEG Mono Ethylene Glycol
MFL Magnetic Flux Leakage
MIG Metal Inert Gas (welding)
mil thousandth of an inch (1 mil = 25.4 μm)
mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
min minimum or minute
MMA Manual Metal Arc (welding)
MMboe Million barrels of oil equivalent
MMscfpd Million standard cubic feet per day (gas flow)
MOL Main Oil Line
MP Medium Pressure
MPI Magnetic Particle Inspection
MPRE Military Pipeline Repair Equipment
MSL Mean Sea Level
N° number
N2 Nitrogen
NACE National Association of Chemical Engineers
Nd Neodymium
NDT Non-Destructive Testing
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NGL Natural Gas Liquid
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NH3 Ammonia
NNF Normally No Flow
NPSH Net Positive Suction Head
NUI Normally Unattended Installation
OD Outer Diameter
OHTC Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
op. operating
OPA Oil and Pipelines Agency (UK)
OTDR Optical Time-Domain Reflectometry
PCR Pipeline Cost Reduction
PD Positive Displacement (flow meters)
PDF Probability Density Function
PDQ Production, Drilling and Quarters (platform areas)
PE PolyEthylene
PFP Passive Fire Prevention

PGD Permanent Ground Deformation
PIMS Pipeline Integrity Management System
PL Pipeline
PLEM PipeLine End Manifold
PP Polypropylene
PPA Pressure Point Analysis
PPE Personal Protection Equipment
PPF PolyPropylene Foam
ppm parts per million
psi pounds per square inch (1 psi = 0.069 bar)
PSV Pressure Safety Valve
PU PolyUrethane
PUF PolyUrethane Foam
QC/DC Quick Connect/Disconnect (coupling)
RAO Response Amplitude Operators
RD Relative Density
ROT Remotely Operated Tool
ROV Remotely Operated Vehicle
ROW Right Of Way
RP Reference Publication or Recovery Plan
RTU Remote Terminal Unit
SAC Special Area of Conservation
SAGE Scottish Area Gas Evacuation
SALM Single Anchor Leg Mooring
SAW Submerged Arc Welding
SAWL Submerged Arc Welding (Longitudinal seam)
SAWH Submerged Arc Welding (Helical seam)
SBM Single Buoy Mooring (See SPM)
SCADA Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCC Stress Corrosion Cracking
SCR Steel Catenary Riser
sec second
SFR Strategic Fuel Reserve
SG Specific Gravity
SIWP Shut-In Wellhead Pressure
SLS Serviceability Limit State
SMAW Submerged Metal Arc Welding
SMYS Specified Minimum Yield Stress
SPM Single Point Mooring (See SBM)
SPU Syntactic PolyUrethane
SRB Sulphuate Reducing Bacteria
SS Stainless Steel
SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
SSIV SubSea Isolation Valve
SSSI Site of Special Scientific Interest
TAPS Trans-Alaska Pipeline System
TARA TArtan Riser Access
TFHE Tactical Fuel Handling Equipment
Tg Glass transition temperature
Ti Titanium
TIG Tungsten Inert Gas (welding)
TLP Tethered or Tensioned Leg Platform
TMAW Tungsten Metal Arc Welding
TMS Tethered Managament System (for ROVs)
TOFD Time of Flight Diffration

TOM Total Oil Marine
TRB Through (or Three) Roller Bending
TRF Thermal Radiation Flux
U/C Undercut
UD Uni-directional
UI Ultrasonic Inspection
UK United Kingdom
UKCS United kingdom Continental Shelf
UKOOA United Kingdom Offshore Operators Association
ULS Ultimate Limit State
ULSD Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel
UOE U-ing, O-ing and Expanding (method of pipe manufacture)
USA United States of America
UT Ultrasonic Testing or Thickness (measurement)
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
V Vanadium or Volt
VIV Vortex-Induced Vibration
VP Vapour Pressure
X52, X65, X80 API pipe steel grades
YAG Yttrium Aluminium Garnet
ΔP Change in pressure
σeq Equivalent Stress
σh Hoop Stress
σl Longitudinal Stress
Acknowledgements &
references
Acknowledgements and references 591
The following companies have kindly provided images, videos or help with this course.
Their help is gratefully acknowledged.
ABANDONRITE ALLSEAS GROUP SA

Enviro Services Nabors Industries Inc (Solitaire and Lorelay Laybarges,
3000, 500 - 4th Avenue S.W. Digging Donald & Trenchsetter)
Calgary 81, Route de la Coula
Alberta T2P 2V6 CH 1618, Chatel-st. Denis
Tel +1 (403) 508-7900 SWITZERLAND
Fax: +1 (403) 508-7909 Tel: +41 (21) 9489191
Email info@abandonrite.com Fax: +41 (21) 9489141
www.abandonrite.com E-mail: info@allsea.com
www.allseas.com
ACERGY MS LTD
(Formerly Stolt Offshore) ALYESKA PIPELINE SERVICE
(MATIS Modular Advanced Tie-In COMPANY
System and Talon Trencher) (Trans-Alaska Pipeline System, or
Dolphin House TAPS)
Windmill Road 1835 South Bragaw St
Sunbury-on-Thames MS-542
Middlesex UK Anchorage
TW16 7HT Alaska 99512
Tel: +44 1932 773700 www.alyeska-pipe.com
Fax: +44 1932 773701
www.acergy-group.com ARCELOR RPS - Sheet Piling
66, rue de Luxembourg
ABAQUS FINITE ELEMENT L-4009 Esch/Alzette (Luxembourg)
SOFTWARE Tel: (+352) 5313-3105
1080 Main Street Fax: (+352) 5313-3290
Pawtucket E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com
RI 02860-4847 www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com
Tel: +1 (401) 727 4200
Fax: +1 (401) 727 4208 APPLIED INSPECTION LTD
E-mail: info@abaqus.com (NDT)
Applied House
ADAS ENVIRONMENTAL Old Colliery Lane
MANAGEMENT SERVICES Holmewood
Woodthorne Chesterfield
Wergs Road Derbyshire S42 5RB
Wolverhampton WV6 8TQ Tel: +44 (1246) 851864
Tel: +44 (1902) 754 190 Fax: +44 (1246) 852243
Fax: +44 (1902) 743 602 E-mail: info@appliedinspection.co.uk
www.adas.co.uk www.appliedinspection.co.uk
ADVANTICA TECHNOLOGIES AQUADEVICE

LTD Yokota Manufacturing Co Ltd.
(Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij – 1-3-6 Minami Yoshijima
with BP and Transco) Naka-ku
Ashby Road Hiroshima
Loughborough Japan
Leicester LE11 3GR Tel: +81 82-241-8672
Tel: +44 (1509) 282 000 Fax: +81 82-504-1115
Fax: +44 (1509) 283 131 www.aquadevice.com
E-mail: service@advanticatech.com
www.advanticatech.com
ARC MACHINES, INC BOSKALIS OFFSHORE BV

(Automatic pipe welding equipment) Rosmolenweg 20, PO Box 43
10500 Orbital Way 3350 AA Papendrecht
Pacoima The Netherlands
CA 91331 Tel: +31 78 696 9011
USA Fax: +31 78 696 9571
www.arcmachines.com E-mail: royal@boskalis.nl
www.boskalis.nl
ARCELOR RPS UK LTD
(Sheet steel piling) or
Queensway Business Centre
Dunlop Way WESTMINSTER DREDGING
Scunthorpe COMPANY
North Lincolnshire, UK Westminster House
DN16 3RN Crompton Way
Tel: +44 (870) 770 8057 Segensworth West
Fax: +44 (870) 770 8059 Fareham
E-mail: sheet-piling@arcelor.com Hants PO15 5SS
www.sheet-piling.arcelor.com Tel: +44 1489 885 933
Fax: +44 1489 578 588
ASHTON GATE ENGINEERING Email: wdco@boskalis.co.uk
LTD www.boskalis.co.uk
(Hot pipe bending, fabrication welding
and tube rolling) BJ PROCESS AND PIPELINE
Baynton Road SERVICES
Ashton Beeston Royds Industrial Estate
Bristol BS3 2EB Geldered Road
Tel +44 (117) 966 1337 Leeds LS12 6EY
Fax +44 (117) 953 8496 Tel: +44 (113) 251 1300
Email info@ashtongateeng.co.uk Fax: +44 (113) 251 1391
www.ashtongateeng.co.uk www.bjservices.com
ASPLUNDH TREE EXPERT CO BP PLC

708 Blair Mill Road (Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij –
Willow Grove with Advantica and Transco)
PA 19090 1 St James's Square
Tel +1-800-248-TREE (8733) London SW1Y 4PD
www.asplundh.com Tel: +44 (207) 496 4000
Fax: +44 (207) 496 4630
BIG INCH MARINE SYSTEMS www.bp.com
INC
A Subsidiary of Stolt Offshore Inc BREDERO PRICE COATERS
(Flexiforge connector) LTD
Northwoods Industrial Park West (BPCL)
12235 FM 529 Bredero House
Houston Imperial Dock
Texas 77041-2806 Leith,
Tel: +1 (713) 896 1501 Edinburgh EH6 7DT
Fax: +1 (713) 466 1283 Tel: +44 (131) 553-9640
E-mail: connectors@big-inch.com Fax: +44 (131) 553-9699
www.big-inch.com www.bredero-shaw.com
BRITISH GAS
(Walney Channel crossing Case Study)
See Transco
R J BROWN
See Technip-Coflexip
CCP (CORROSION CONTROL CORROCEAN

PRODUCTS COMPANY) AND Teglgaarden
PACTIV CORPORATION Hornebergvn 7
(Rockguard foam pipe coating) Trondheim
1480 West Artesia Blvd Norway
Gardena Tel: +47 73 82 5000
CA 90248-3215 Fax: +47 73 82 5050
Tel: +1 (310) 532-9314
Fax: +1 (310) 532-1472 CORROSION COST
E-mail: ccp@ccpcc.com CC Technologies
www.farwst.com/ccp 6141 Avery Road
Dublin
CLOCK SPRING COMPANY, LP Ohio 43016-8761
(Pipeline repair) Tel: +1 (614) 761 1214
14107 Interdrive West Fax: +1 (614)-761-1633
Houston, TX.77032 E-mail: info@cctlabs.com
Tel: +1 (281)-590-8491 www.corrosioncost.com
Fax: +1 (281) 590 9528
E-mail: sales@clockspring.com CORTEC® CORPORATION
www.clockspring.com (Corrosion inhibitor)
4119 White Bear Parkway
COBHAM FLUID SYSTEMS St. Paul, MN 55110
Holland Way Tel: +1 (651) 429 1100
Blandford Forum Fax: +1 (651) 429 1122
Dorset www.cortecvci.com
UK DT11 7BJ
Tel: +44 (0) 1258 486600 CORUS
Fax: +44 (0) 1258 486601 (Steel & Hydrotherm)
sales@cobhamfluidsystems.com 30 Millbank
www.cobhamfluidsystems .com London SW1P 4WY
Tel: +44 (20) 7717 4444
COFLEXIP SA Fax: +44 (20) 7717 4455
See Technip-Coflexip www.corusgroup.com
CONOCO FLOW IMPROVER CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY

SOLUTIONS Cranfield
(LiquidPower™ DRA, Texaco Basin Bedfordshire MK43 OAL
Case Study and Heidrun drilling riser) Tel: +44 (1234) 750 111
Conoco Center Fax: +44 (1234) 750 875
600 North Dairy Ashford www.cranfield.ac.uk
Houston, TX 77079
Tel: +1 (281) 293-1000 CREST
Fax: +1 (281) 293-1440 See Sapura Crest
www.conoco.com
CRC-EVANS PIPELINE
CORRIDOR PIPELINE LTD INTERNATIONAL INC
(Case study Bruderheim Alberta) (Automatic welding, pipe installation
Springwood Business Centre equipment and PIH)
Suite 14, 363 Sioux Road 11601 N. Houston-Rosslyn Rd
Sherwood Park Houston TX 77086
Alberta T8A 4W7 Tel: +1 (281) 999 8920
Tel: +1 (780) 416 2446 Fax: +1 (281) 999 8724
Fax: +1 (780) 416 2447
E-mail: info@corridorpipeline.com or
www.corridorpipeline.com
CORROSION CONTROL
PRODUCTS COMPANY
See CCP
AUTOMATIC WELDING DSND SUBSEA (DET

The Pipeline Centre SONDENJFELDS NORSKE
Farrington Rd DAMPSKIBSSELSKAB)
Rossendale Road Industrial Estate (Vessels)
Burnley BB11 5SW Serviceboks 506
Tel: +44 (1282) 415 323 Bark Silasvei 5
Fax: +44 (1282) 457 890 4898 Grimstad,
E-mail: autoweld@pih.co.uk Norway
Tel.: +47 37 29 55 00
CRP GROUP LIMITED Fax: +47 37 29 55 45
(Now part of the Trelleborg Group) www.dsnd.no
Stanley Way
Stanley EMC EUROPEAN MARINE
Skelmersdale CONTRACTORS LTD
Lancashire (Now part of Eni Saipem group)
WN8 8EA Saipem House
England Station Road
Tel: +44 (0)1695 712000 Motspur Park
Fax: +44 (0)1695 712111 Surrey KT3 6JJ
www.crpgroup.com Tel: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5171
Fax: +44 (0) 20 - 8296 5104
CSO, CSOL E-mail: business.development@e-m-
See Technip-Coflexip c.co.uk
www.e-m-c.co.uk
CTC MARINE PROJECTS LTD
(Trenching equipment) EPRIS INTERNATIONAL LTD
Coniscliffe House (Emergency pipeline repair and
Coniscliffe Road isolation system)
Darlington Middlefield Road
County Durham Middlefield Industrial Estate
DL3 7EE Falkirk FK2 9HU
England Tel: +44 (1324) 623 682
Tel: +44 (0) 1325 390500 Fax: +44 (1324) 632 570
Fax: +44 (0) 1325 390555 E-mail:
www.ctcmarine.com eprisinternational@btconnect.com
www.eprisinternational.com
DIGGING DONALD AND
SUPPORT VESSEL, ESSO PETROLEUM
TRENCHSETTER (Chad-Camaroon pipeline and
(Mechanical subsea trencher) UK multi-product lines)
See Allseas ExxonMobil House
Ermyn Way
DIXON MARINE CONSULTING Leatherhead KT22 8UX
LTD Tel: +44 (1372) 222000
11 White Hart Street www.esso.com
Aylsham
Norwich EUROPIPE
Norfolk NR11 6HG Formerstraße 49
Tel: +44 (1263) 733 530 40878 Ratingen, Germany
Fax: +44 (1263) 733 730 Tel: +49 (2102) 857 0
E-mail: mail@dmcltd.com Fax +49 (2102) 857 285
www.dmcltd.com E-mail: europipe@europipe.com
www.europipe.com
FINE TUBES LTD FOUNDOCEAN

Estover Works (Formerly SeaMark Systems Ltd)
Plymouth Ledger House
Devon, UK, PL6 7LG Forest Green Road
Tel: +44 (1752) 735 851 Fifield
Fax +44 (1752) 733 301 Maidenhead, Berks
E-mail: smccoy@fine-tubes.co.uk SL6 2NR
www.finetubes.com Tel: +44-(0) 1628 788614
Fax: +44-(0) 1628 788604
FLEXCOM & FREECOM 3D www.foundocean.com
OFFSHORE SOFTWARE www.seamarksystems.com
See MCS International
FUEL SUBSEA ENGINEERING
FMC KONGSBERG OFFSHORE (DMaC umbilical connector tool)
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System) (Now part of Intec
(An FMC Corporation Subsidiary) Engineering/Heerema)
PO Box 1012 Bourne House
N-3601 Kongsberg, Norway Lansbury Estate
Tel: +47 32 73 98 98 102 Lower Guildford Road
Fax: +47 32 73 96 60 Knaphill
E-mail: subsea.systems@fmcti.com Surrey GU21 2EP
www.fmckongsbergsubsea.com Tel +44 (1483) 795300
Fax +44 (1483) 795315
FMC MEASUREMENT www.fuelsubsea.com
SOLUTIONS
(Oil and gas flowmeters) FUGRO NV
6677 Gessner Veurse Achterweg 10
Suite 315 P.O. Box 41
Houston 2260 AA Leidschendam
TX 77040 Tel: +31 (70) 311 1422
Tel: +1 (713) 510 6970 Fax: +31 (70) 320 2703
E-mail: E-mail: holding@fugro.nl
measurement.solutions@fmcti.com www.fugro.nl
www.fmcmeasurementsolutions.com
GEO-GRAF, INC
FORCE TECHNOLOGY (GPR gas pipeline leak detection)
Park Alle 345 511 Beechwood Drive
DK-2605 Kennett Square
Brondby PA 19348
Denmark Tel: +1 800 690 3745
Tel. +45 4326-7000 Fax: +1 (610) 444 3191
Fax +45 4326-7011 E-mail: info@geo-graf.com
www.force.dk www.geo-graf.com
FOSTER WHEELER GEOLINE APS

PETROLEUM DEVELOPMENT Sage Profile
(Kadanwari Field Case Study) (Subsea pipeline analysis)
Shinfield Park Vinagervej 11, 1
Reading 2800 Kgs, Lyngby
Berkshire RG2 9FW Denmark
Tel: +44-(118) 913 1234 Tel: +45 45875855
Fax: +44-(118) 9132333 Fax: +45 45875855
www.fwc.com E-mail: info@geoline.dk
www.geoline.dk
GETMAPPING PLC HELIX ENERGY SOLUTIONS

(Aerial photography) GROUP, INC
The Old Toy Factory (Well operations, production and
10 The Business Park Caldive)
Jackson Street 400 North Sam Houston Pkwy East
Coalville LE67 3NR Houston
Tel: +44 (1530) 835 685 Texas 77060
www.getmapping.com USA
Tel: +1 (281) 618 0400
GUSTO MSC INC and www.helixesg.com
IHC GUSTO BV
(Now part of SBM Offshore group) HYDRATITE SWEENEY
See SBM (Morgrip subsea connectors)
www.gusto.nl Bentley Road South
Darlaston
HDI HORIZONTAL DRILLING West Midlands WS10 8LQ
INTERNATIONAL INC Tel: +44 (121) 505 0600
(Colville River HDD case study) Fax: +44 (121) 505 0800
3430 Rogerdale Road E-mail: enquiry@hydratight.com
Houston TX 77042-5016 www.hydratightsweeney.com
Tel: 713-785-3369
Fax: 713-785-4094 INTERLIANCE LLC.
www.hdiinc.com Associates for the California Energy
Commission
HEAMAN PIPE BENDING INC (Gulf Coast to California Pipeline Case
6030 - 30 Street Study)
Edmonton 151 Kalmus Drive, Suite K-2
Alberta Costa Mesa
Canada California 92614
Tel: +1 (780) 440 1955 Tel: +1 (714) 540 8889
Fax: +1 (780) 468 6117 Fax: +1 (714) 540 6113
E-mail: info@heaman.com E-mail: info@interliance.com
www.heaman.com www.interliance.com
HEAT TRACE LTD ITAS

(Pipeline heat tracing) (Pigging and isolation plugs)
Cromwell Road Tankbåtveien 1
Bredbury 4056 Tananger
Stockport Norway
Cheshire SK6 2RF Tel: +47-51 69 08 00
Tel: +44 (161) 430 8333 Fax: +47-51 69 08 01
Fax: +44 (161) 430 8654 E-mail: itas@itas-no.com
Email: webmail@heat-trace.com www.itas-no.com
www.heat-trace.ltd.uk
ITP INDUSTRIAL THERMO
HEEREMA MARINE POLYMERS LTD
CONTRACTORS NEDERLAND (Pipeline insulation)
BV 2316 Delaware Avenue
(Balder laybarge) Suite 216
Vondellaan 47 Buffalo
2332 AA Leiden NY 14216
The Netherlands Fax: +1 (905) 846 0363
Tel: +31 (71) 579 9000 Tel: +1 800 387 3847
Fax: +31 (71) 579 9099 www.tundrafoam.com
E-mail: info.hmc@heerema.com
www.heerema.com
JME LTD LINCO EQUIPMENT INC

(NDT equipment) (Mobile soil sampling)
Crown House I-39 & U.S. 24 West
Crown Street West El Paso
Lowestoft IL 61738
Suffolk NR32 1SG Tel: +1 (309) 527 6455
Tel: +44 (1502) 500 969 Fax: +1 (309) 527 6600
Fax: +44 (1502) 511 932 E-mail: info@linco.com
E-mail: info@jme.co.uk www.linco.com
www.jme.co.uk
LØGSTØR RØR A/S
KONGSBERG (Pre-insulated pipelines, pipe-in-pipe)
(UTIS - Universal Tie-In System) Løgstør Rør A/S
See FMC Kongsberg Danmarksvej 11
DK-9670 Løgstør
LAND AND MARINE PROJECT Tel.: +45 99 66 10 00
ENGINEERING LTD Fax: +45 99 66 11 80
(Directional drilling, landfalls and E-mail: info@logstor.com
bundles) www.logstor.com
(Formerly part of Costain / Smit
Groups) MCCONNELL DOWELL
Dock Road North (Natural Gas Line Australia)
Bromborough Tally Ho Business Park
Wirral 16 Lakeside Drive
Merseyside Burwood East
CH62 4LN Victoria 3151
Tel: +44 (151) 641 5600 Australia
Fax: +44 (151) 641 9990 Tel: + 61 3 8805 5200
www.landandmarine.com Fax: +61 3 8805 5376
www.mcconnelldowell.com
LASMO PLC
Now part of Eni Saipem Group MACCAFERRI LTD
(Kadanwari Field Case Study) (Gabions and geotextiles,
101 Bishopsgate Severn River Bank - Case Study)
London 7400 The Quorum
EC2M 3XH Oxford Business Park
Tel: +44 (20) 7892 9000 Garsington Road
Fax: +44 (20) 7892 9292 Oxford OX4 2JL
www.lasmo.com Tel: +44 (1865) 770 555
Fax: +44 (1865) 774 550
LEIGH PAINTS www.maccaferri.co.uk
Tower Works
Kestor Street MAT AND TIMBER SERVICES
Bolton BL2 2AL Division of Sarum Hardwood
Tel: +44 (1204) 521 771 Structures Ltd
Fax: +44 (1204) 382 115 124-126 Stockbridge Road
E-mail: enquiries@leighspaints.co.uk Winchester
www.wjleigh.co.uk Hampshire SO22 6RN
Tel.: +44 (1962) 87 75 00
LIFTEX CORPORATION Fax: +44 (1962) 84 22 92
(Pipeline lifting slings) E-mail: sarumhs@interalpha.co.uk
7266 Wynnpark www.grootlemmer.com/Groot-
Houston, TX 77008 NL/Mats.htm
Tel: +1 (800) 863 0900
Fax: +1 (713) 868 3234 MATIS MODULAR ADVANCED
www.liftex.com TIE-IN SYSTEM
See Stolt Comex Seaway
MCS INTERNATIONAL OIL STATES INDUSTRIES LTD

(Flexcom & Freecom 3D offshore (Merlin pipe connectors)
software) 7701 South Cooper Street
Lismoyle House Arlington, TX 76001
Merchants Road Tel: +1 817 548 4200
Galway Fax. +1 817 548 4250
Ireland E-mail: headqtrs@oilstates.com
Tel: +353 (91) 566 455 www.oilstates.com
Fax: +353 (91) 566 457
E-mail: info@mcs-international.com OLYMPIC PIPELINE COMPANY
www.mcs-international.co.uk (Whatcom Creek /
Bellingham Gas Pipeline Case Study)
MERLIN CONNECTORS 2319 Lind Ave SW
See Oil States Industries Renton
WA 98055
MILLER ELECTRIC Tel: +1 (425) 235 7736
MANUFACTURING CO www.olypipeline.com
(Welding equipment)
1635 W Spencer St ORCINA LTD
PO Box 1079 (Orcaflex software)
Appleton WI 54912-1079 Daltongate
Tel: +1 (920) 734 9821 Ulverston
www.millerwelds.com Cumbria LA12 7AJ
Tel: +44 1229 584742
MOLESEYE LTD Fax: +44 1229 587191
(Records of underground services) E-mail: enquiry@orcina.com
Washington Court www.orcina.com
Washington Lane
Edinburgh EH11 2HA PACTIV CORPORATION
www.moleseye.com See CCP
MORGRIP PETROBRAS
(Underwater connector) Maracal Adhemar de Queiroz
See Hydratight Sweeney EDISE
Avenida Republica do Chile 65
NKT FLEXIBLES I/S Centro
(Flexible subsea pipelines) Rio de Janeiro RJ
Priorparken 510 Brasil
DK-2605 Broendby Tel: +55 (21) 2534 4477
Denmark Fax: +55 (21) 2534 2288
Tel: +45 43 48 30 00 www.petrobras.com.br
Fax: +45 43 48 30 10
E-mail: nkt.flexibles@nkt.dk PII PIPELINE SOLUTIONS
www.nktflexibles.com Atley Way
North Nelson Industrial Estate
NORFRA A/S Cramlington
(Dunkirk landfall) Northumberland NE23 1WW
Strandveien 106 Tel: +44 191 247 3486
N-9292 Tromsø Fax: +44 191 247 3419
Norway www.piigroup.com
Tel: +47 77 60 24 00
Fax: +47 77 60 24 25 PIPE INDUCTION HEAT LTD
E-mail: postmaster@norfra.no (PIH)
www.norfra.no See CRC-Evans
PSI PLUGGING SPECIALISTS RUPTURE PIN TECHNOLOGY

INTERNATIONAL AS (Pressure safety systems ESDVs)
(Smartplug) 8230 SW 8th Street
Fabrikkveien 15 Oklahoma City
PO Box 8011 OK 73128
Postterminalen Tel: +1 (405) 789 1884
N-4068 Stavanger Fax: +1 (405) 789 1942
Norway www.rupturepin.com
Tel: +47 51 44 32 40
Fax: +47 51 44 32 41 SAGE PROFILE
www.plugging.com (Subsea pipeline analysis)
See GeoLine
RAHCO INTERNATIONAL INC
(Onshore pipeline construction vehicle) SAPURA CREST PETROLEUM
8700 N Crestline BERHAD
Spokane WA 99217 (incorporating Teknik Lengkap, TL
Tel: +1 (509) 467 0770 Geosciences and TL Offshore)
Fax: +1 (509) 466 0212 7 Jalan Tasik
E-mail: rahco@rahco.com The Mines Resort City
www.rahco.com 43300 Seri Kembangan
Selangor
RENDA MARINE INC Malaysia
(Marshland dragline and dredging) Tel: +603 8659 8800
17128 Market Street Fax: +603 8659 8811
Channelview www.crest.com.my
TX 77530
Tel: +1 (281) 864 9552 SAS GOUDA BV
Fax: (281) 864 9554 Tielweg 1
E-mail mail@rendamarine.com 2803 PK Gouda
www.rendamarine.com The Netherlands
Tel: +31 (182) 538800
R J BROWN Fax: +31 (182) 534443
See Technip-Coflexip www.sasgouda.nl
ROCKWATER SASOL GAS LTD

(CDT) (Mozambique river crossing case study)
See Haliburton Subsea – now Subsea 7 32 Hill Street
Ferndale
ROYAL DUTCH SHELL GROUP Randburg 2125
See Shell South Africa
Tel: +27 (11) 889 7600
RSK ENVIRONMENT LTD Fax: +27 (11) 889 7956
Spring Lodge www.sasol.com
172 Chester Road
Helsby SBM OFFSHORE NV
Cheshire WA6 0AR (Single buoy moorings, FSOs and
Tel: +44 (1928) 726 006 FPSOs)
Fax: +44 (1928) 725 633 5 Route de Fribourg
www.rsk.co.uk PO Box 152 CH
1723 Marly
RTD GROUP LTD Switzerland
RTD Head Office Tel: + 41 26 439 99 20
Delftweg 144, 3046 NC Fax: + 41 26 439 99 39
Rotterdam www.sbmoffshore.com
The Netherlands www.singlebuoy.com
Tel: +31 (0) 10 208 82 08
Fax: +31 (0) 10 415 80 22
www.rtd-group.com
SEAEYE MARINE LTD SONAR RESEARCH &

Sister company to Hydrovision DEVELOPMENT LTD
(Panther ROV) See SRD
Seaeye House
Lower Quay Road SPM INSTRUMENT AB
Fareham (Condition monitoring systems)
Hampshire PO16 0RQ Box 4
Tel: +44 (1329) 289 000 645 21 Strängnäs
Fax: +44 (1329) 289 001 Sweden
E-mail: rovs@seaeye.com Tel: +46 152 225 00
www.seaeye.com Fax: +46 152 150 75
E-mail: info@spminstrument.se
SEAMARK SYSTEMS LTD www.spminstrument.se
(concrete mattresses)
See Foundocean SRD SONAR RESEARCH &
www.seamarksystems.com DEVELOPMENT LTD
(Underwater video)
SEAWAY FALCON Grovehill Industrial Estate,
(Reel barge) Beverley
See Stolt Comex East Yorkshire HU17 0LF
Tel: +44 (1482) 869 559
SERIMER DASA Fax: +44 (1482) 872 184
(Automated pipe welding) E-mail: enquiries@srduk.com
Serimer Dasa www.srduk.com
8 rue Mercier
77290 Mitry-Mory STARTRAK PIGGING
France TECHNOLOGIES
Tel: +33 1 60 21 67 00 (Pigging and river crossing inspections)
Fax: +33 1 60 21 67 01 27235 Highway Blvd
www.serimerdasa.com Katy
TX 77493
SHELL EXPLORATION & Tel: +1 (281) 599 7557
PRODUCTION Fax: +1 (281) 578 9181
(Nigerian Pipeline sabotage) E-Mail: startrak@starpig.com
Shell Centre www.starpig.com
London SE1 7NA
Tel: +44 (20) 7934 1234 STATOIL ASA
Fax +44 (20) 7934 8060 N-4035 Stavanger
www.shell.com Norway
Tel: +47 51 99 00 00
SIERRA PACIFIC CORP Fax: +47 51 99 00 50
(Infrared thermography) www.statoil.com
284 Sea Rim Ave
Las Vegas STOLT COMEX SEAWAY MS
NV 89148 LTD
Tel: +1 (702) 369-3966 See Acergy
Fax: +1 (702) 369-397
www.x20.org SUBSEA 7
(Formed from Halliburton Subsea and
SMIT INTERNATIONALE N.V. the subsea activities of DSND)
(CDT – see also Land and Marine) Stoneywood Park
Zalmstraat 1 Dyce
3016 DS Rotterdam Aberdeen AB21 7DZ
The Netherlands Tel: +44 (1224) 722 877
Tel: +31 (10) 454 9911 Fax: +44 (1224) 795 459
Fax: +31 (10) 454 9298 www.subsea7.com
www.smit.com
SUPERPESA TOTAL DUNBAR

Av Brasil, 42301 (Insulated pipe connector)
Rio de Janeiro See Total
RJ Brazil 23095-700
Contact Augusto Cesar Abreu TOTAL EXPLORATION UK PLC
Tel: +55 (21) 2394-9000 (formally TotalFinaElf)
Fax: +55 (21) 2413-7521 2 place de la Coupole
www.superpesa.com.br La Défense 6
92400 Courbevoie
TALON SUBSEA TRENCHER France
See Stolt Comex Seaway Tel: +33 (1 47) 44 45 46
Fax: +33 (1 47) 44 78 78
TAPS TRANS-ALASKA www.totalfinaelf.com
PIPELINE SYSTEM
See Alyeska TTI
See Technical Toolboxes
TDW
See Williamson TRANSCANADA
TransCanada Tower
TECHNIP-COFLEXIP 450 - 1 Street SW
(Apache, Pliant wave and S risers) Calgary
22 rue Jean Moré Alberta T2P 5H1
BP 7 – 76580 Le Trait Tel: +1 (403) 920 2000
France Fax: +1 (403) 920 2200
Tel +33 2 95 05 50 00 www.transcanada.com
Fax +33 2 95 37 49 60
www.technipcoflexip.com TRANSCO
(Gas transmission pipelines for British
TECHNICAL TOOLBOXES INC Gas)
(TTI) (Study for Shah Deniz in Azerbaij, –
(Software products for the energy with BP and Advantica)
industry) 31 Homer Road
Technical Toolboxes Solihull
P. O. Box 980550 West Midlands B91 3LT
Houston, TX Tel: +44 (121) 626 4431
77098-0550 www.transco.uk.com
TEKNIK LENGKAP TRELLEBORG CRP AB

See Sapura Crest P.O. Box 153
SE-231 22 Trelleborg
THRUST SHORE Sweden
See Trench Shore Street address: Henry Dunkers gata 2
Tel: +46 410 670 00
TIG TITANIUM INFORMATION Fax: +46 410 427 63
GROUP www.trelleborg.com
Unit B2
Dudley Central Trading Estate TRENCH SHORE LTD
Shaw Road (Landline trench support products)
Dudley Unit 22
West Midlands DY2 8TP Amalgamated Industrial Park
Tel: +44 (1384) 254563 Cheddington Lane
Fax: +44 (1384) 258381 Long Marston
www.titaniuminfogroup.co.uk Tring
Herts HP23 4QR
TL (TEKNIK LENGKAP) Tel: +44 (1296) 661 622
OFFSHORE Fax: +44 (1296) 668 234
See Sapura Crest E-mail: info@trenchshore.com
www.trenchshore.com
TRENCOR INC VIA+ VISITLESS INTEGRITY

(Landline trenching machines) ASSESSMENT LTD
1400 East Highway 26 (Satellite earth condition monitoring)
Grapevine Lacey Court
TX 76051 344 12th Ave SW
Tel: +1 (817) 424 1968 Calgary
Fax: +1 (817) 421-9485 Alberta T2R 0H2
www.trencor.com Tel: +1 (403) 265-8420
Fax: +1 (403) 243-0042
TRIAD WESTERN E-mail: info@via-plus.net
CONSTRUCTORS INC www.via-plus.net
(Auger boring, pipe ramming and
HDD) T D WILLIAMSON INC
512 North Broadway (Shortstopp® connection)
PO Box 850 6801 S 65th W Ave
Cortez Tulsa
Colorado 81321 Ohio
Tel: +1 (970) 565 4257 Tel: +1 (918) 447 5100
Fax: +1 (970) 565 1057 www.tdwilliamson.com
E-mail: twc@fone.net
www.triadwestern.com THE WELDING INSTITUTE LTD
See TWI LTD
TWI LTD
(The Welding Institute) WWW.X20.ORG
Granta Park (infrared thermography)
Great Abington See Sierra Pacific Corp
Cambridge CB1 6AL
Tel: +44 (0)1223 899 000 X100 STUDIES
Fax: +44 (0)1223 892588 See Shell Global Solutions,
www.twi.co.uk TransCanada, Advantica, Serimer Dasa,
Cranfield University and BP
VERMEER MANUFACTURING
COMPANY
(Rock trenchers and HDD)
1210 Vermeer Road
Pella
Iowa 50219
Tel: +1 (641) 628 2000
Fax: +1 (641) 628 4283
www.vermeer.com
Additional Help
Additional help was provided by individuals:
Cyril Bishop
(Pipe freezing and hot tapping)
Herman Duff
(Malaysian pipeline)
Mike Mosedale
(Cartoonist)
Frank Gibbons
(Marsh and wetlands)
References
“Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States”, G.H. Koch, M.P.H.
Brongers, N.G. Thompson, Y.P. Virmani, and J.H. Payer, Study by CC Technologies,
Report FHWA-RD-01-156, September 2001.
“Oman India Pipeline: Development of Design Methods for Hydrostatic Collapse in

Deep Water”, C Tam, P Raven, R Robinson, T Stensgaard, A M Al-Sharif & R Preston,
Offshore Pipeline Technology Conference (OPT96) Amsterdam, 15-16 February.
“Liquefaction hazards and their effects on buried pipelines”, T D O’Rourke and P A

Lane (1989), Tech Rep NCEER-89-0007, National Center for Earthquake Engineering
Research, Buffalo, NY, 1 February.
Web Sites
The following web contact addresses may also be of use:
API
American Petroleum Institute
www.api.org
ASME
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
www.amse.org
ANSI
American National Standards Institute
www.ansi.org
BS
British Standards Institute
www.bsi-global.com
DTI
Department of Trade and Industry
www.dti.gov.uk
DNV
Det Norske Veritas
www.dnv.com
GIS RESOURCE
University of Edinburgh
(Geographic Information System)
www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/giswww.html
HSE
UK Health and Safety Executive
(Offshore Safety Reports and
Contact Research Reports)
www.hse.gov.uk
WORKSAFE VICTORIA
Australian State of Victoria
Health and Safety Accident Prevention Arm
(Good international contacts worldwide)
www.workcover.vic.gov.au
IP
Institute of Petroleum
www.petroleum.co.uk
ISO
International Organisation for Standardization
www.iso.org
MINERALS MANAGEMENT SERVICE (MMS)

USA Authority for Pipelines – Offshore incidents in Pacific and Gulf of Mexico
www.mms.gov and www.mms.gov/offshore/index.htm
NACE - THE CORROSION SOCIETY

National Association of Corrosion Engineers
www.nace.org
OS
Ordnance Survey (of Great Britain)
www.ordsvy.gov.uk
SHEET PILING SPECIFICATIONS

Search engine for sheet piling specifications
www.pilespecs.com
DEAL DATA REGISTRY FOR UK OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

Data and information about offshore oil and gas exploration and production for the UK
www.ukdeal.co.uk
USDA US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

(Forestry. drainage, energy and environment)
www.usda.gov

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Pipeline, riser and

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© Jee Limited 2006

EXTERNAL COATINGS 151

DESIGN METHODS 199

COMMON WORK 245

INSTALLATION METHODS 279

TIE-INS, SPOOLS AND RISERS 353

INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRITY 403

FLOW ASSURANCE 425

PIPELINE INSPECTION 449

MODIFICATION AND REPAIR 493

ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS 581

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS & REFERENCES 589

 Worldwide variations in field layout

Examples are presented of typical developments, including examples of equipment.

L spool Flowline (oil/gas mix )

We differentiate between flowlines, trunk pipelines and pipework.

MORPETH - GULF OF MEXICO

FOINAVEN - WEST OF SHETLANDS

FPSO AND SHUTTLE TANKER

 Floating production storage and offloading

EXAMPLE LAYOUTS - SUMMARY

 Three typical layouts

Three typical arrangements of offshore field developments have been described.

In shallower water, it is convenient to construct simple un-manned platforms with the

The flowlines run to a central manned process platform.

PIPELINE AND CABLE USES

 From wellhead or manifold

 From platform or FPSO

JUMPERS AND SPOOLS

 Short lengths around 100 m (328ft)

OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND

 Fram Vest Development, Norway

OTHER IN-FIELD LINES AND

 Co-mingled flow pipeline

 Helps to recover oil from reservoir

PIPELINE & CABLE USES -

 Flowlines or in-field lines

 Fits onto drilling template

 Serve remote well clusters

The left photograph shows a manifold with fishing protection structure.

The right photograph shows installation of an FMC-designed manifold (with the

TROIKA DEVELOPMENT - GREEN

 Compact eight slot manifold

PLETS AND PLEMS

 Pipeline end terminations

 Pipeline end manifolds

SPM AND SALM

 Single point mooring

 Single anchor leg mooring

The left photograph shows a Mitsubishi SPM located in Himegi Japan.

At pipeline crossings, it is common to provide supports to ensure a vertical separation of

SUBSEA EQUIPMENT - SUMMARY

PLATFORM AND RISER CONFIGURATIONS

Tubular steel jackets Shearwater Troll

Up to 500 m (1600ft)

OTHER FIXED PLATFORMS

Worldwide variations in field layout

Floating production storage and offloading

Three typical layouts

From wellhead or manifold

From platform or FPSO

Short lengths around 100 m (328ft)

Fram Vest Development, Norway

Co-mingled flow pipeline

Helps to recover oil from reservoir

Flowlines or in-field lines

Fits onto drilling template

Serve remote well clusters

Compact eight slot manifold

Pipeline end terminations

Pipeline end manifolds

Single point mooring

Single anchor leg mooring

Tubular steel jackets Shearwater Troll

Up to 500 m (1600ft)

Floating production storage offloading

Tension leg platforms (TLP) Heidrun TLP

Section of line from

Catenary vertical axis riser

Rigid tower Buoyancy

Types of production platform and

Typical field layouts

Preparation for design and construction

Survey means gathering information on the

Sonar used to find seabed profile, wrecks,

Remotely operated towed vehicles

ROV survey can include:

Autonomous underwater vehicles

Sample and test seabed soils

Wind, tide, wave and current

Three sets of data

Texturally, soils divided into:

Shear strength versus normal stress

Plasticity and cohesion

Inherent soil variability Pipe in trench

Vertically and laterally CPT

No international standard as yet

Any ideas on the obstacles to routing the