Ms. Andrea B.

Martinez
CAS--Department of Behavioral Sciences
CAS

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“The brain is wider than the sky.”
— Emily Dickinson, 1830-1886

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Y Rene Descartes believed that fluid in your brain
flowed into appropriate set of nerves and
muscles when performing an action.
Y A physician can declare a person legally dead if
the parts of his brain involved with thinking,
feeling and acting are no longer alive—even
though his heart and lungs are still working.
Y Scientists in South Korea have created human
embryos through cloning, and the extracted
stem cells from these embryos will be used for
research and possible treatment for diseases
like cancer, Parkinson’s disease and diabetes.
Y The Nervous system is
the central information
processing system of the
body.

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 Composed of glands and
hormones, the endocrine
system is responsible for
body processes that happen
slowly, such as cell growth.

Both the nervous system

and endocrine system work
together to help the body
function properly.

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The pituitary gland
• Regulates the activity of the thyroid,
adrenals, and reproductive glands
• Produces growth hormone, which
stimulates the growth of bone and other
body tissues and plays a role in the
body's handling of nutrients and minerals
• It also secretes endorphins, chemicals
that reduce sensitivity to pain, and
hormones that signal the ovaries and
testes to make sex hormones.
• It also controls ovulation and the
menstrual cycle in women.

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The thyroid
• Located in the front part of the lower
neck, and produces the thyroid
hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine
which control the rate at which cells burn
fuels from food to produce energy.
• Thyroid hormones also play a key role in
bone growth and the development of the
brain and nervous system in children.
• Attached to the thyroid are f our tiny
glands that function together called the
parathyroids which release parathyroid
hormone, responsible f or regulating the
level of calcium in the blood.
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The adrenal glands
• The adrenal cortex produces
hormones called corticosteroids that
influence or regulate salt and water
balance in the body, the body's
response to stress, metabolism, the
immune system, and sexual
development and function.
• The adrenal medulla , produces
catecholamines , such as epinephrine
or adrenaline, which increases blood
pressure and heart rate when the body
experiences stress.
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The pineal glands
• It secretes melatonin, a
hormone that may help
regulate the wake-sleep cycle.
• The pancreas produces insulin
and glucagon that work
together to maintain a steady
level of glucose, or sugar, in
the blood and to keep the body
supplied with fuel to produce
and maintain stores of energy.
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The female gonads
• The ovaries produce eggs and secrete
the female hormones estrogen and
progesterone.
• Estrogen is involved in the development
of female sexual features such as breast
growth, the accumulation of body fat
around the hips and thighs, and the
growth spurt that occurs during puberty .
• Both estrogen and progesterone are also
involved in pregnancy and the regulation
of the menstrual cycle.
• The gonads are the main source of sex
hormones.
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The male gonads
• Located in the scrotum, the male gonads, or
testes, secrete hormones called androgens,
the most important of which is testosterone.
• These hormones regulate body changes
associated with sexual development,
including enlargement of the penis, the
growth spurt that occurs during puberty, and
the appearance of other male secondar y sex
characteristics such as deepening of the
voice, growth of facial and pubic hair, and the
increase in muscle growth and strength.
• Testosterone also supports the production of
sperm by the testes and has been linked to
aggressive tendencies.
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 There is a major
difference between
the peripheral and
central nervous
system:

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The Case of John Thomas
John Thomas was 18 when a farm
machine ripped off both of his arms just below
his shoulders. Since he was home alone, he had
to walk to the farmhouse, kick open the front
door, and with a pencil clenched in his teeth, dial
the phone for help. When paramedics arrived,
he reminded them to get his twin arms, which
were still stuck in the farm equipment .

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The Case of John Thomas
John was taken to the hospital
where doctors re-attached both of his
arms. Three months later , John could
raise arms up in the air but could not
move them below his elbows. After three
years of physical therapy and 15
operations, John could raise both of his
reattached arms over head, make fists
and grip with his hands. Surgeons
believe that John will regain additional
movement and feelings in his arms but
that may take 2-5 years of physical
therapy.
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Y Severed limbs such as arms,
hands or legs can be reattached
and regain movement and
sensation because their nerves
are part of the peripheral
nervous system.
Y Damage to spinal cords or brain
injury may result to loss of
sensation or motor movement
because neurons have a limited
capacity for repair or re -growth.

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Y The spinal cord is the
great highway of
information into and out
of the brain.
Y It can initiate some
automatic behaviors on
its own.
Y These involuntary,
automatic behaviors are
called reflexes—an
innate, automatic
response to a stimulus. 22
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 The most numerous brain cells
(about 900 billion)
They wrap
They provide
themselves They release
scaffolding to
around neurons chemicals that
guide the growth
and form a kind provide nutrition
of developing
of insulation so for neurons’
neurons and
that neural growth and
support mature
messages don’t function.
neurons
get scrambled.
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Y Neurons
Neurons— —numbering about 100 billion,
these are specialized cells that
communicate neural impulses or
messages throughout the brain and the
rest of the body.
Y Depending upon their size, neurons
receive and transmit electrical signals at
the speed of up to 200 miles per hour.
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 Neurons transmit information throughout the
nervous system. There are about 100 billion
neurons in the human brain and each has as many
as 15,000 physical connections with other cells.

Interneurons
Efferent neurons
mediate sensory
Afferent neurons (motor nerves)
input and motor
(sensory nerves) carry information
output; do most
carry information from the central
of the
to the central nervous system to
information
nervous system. muscles, glands
processing within
and other organs.
the brain.

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• Excitatory messages
A chemical secretion that
makes it more likely that a
receiving neuron will fire
and an action potential will
travel down its axon.

• Inhibitory Messages
A chemical secretion that
prevents a receiving
neuron from firing
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 Y Neurotransmitters—are chemical
substances that carry information
(whether inhibitory or excitatory)
across the synaptic gap to the
next neuron.

Y Synapse—tiny
gaps between
neurons. 37
Y GABA—inhibits the firing of neurons and
thereby decrease anxiety;
Y ACh—involved in the action of muscles,
learning and memory; associated with
Alzheimer’s disease.
Y Norepinephrine (NE)—involved in the
control of alertness and wakefulness; high
levels have been associated with anxiety-
proneness, dependency and sociability, low-
levels on disinhibition and impulsivity such as
criminal behavior.
Y Dopamine (DA)—involved in the control of
voluntary movement and attention. Lack of
DA is associated with Parkinson’s disease
whereas excessive amount is linked with
schizophrenia
Y Enzyme MAO—implicated in aggression,
extraversion, sensation seeking 38
Y Serotonin —affects mood, sleep,
appetite, impulsivity, aggression, pain
suppression, sensory perception,
obsessive worry, irrational anger,
chronic pessimism and depression; too
little serotonin can lead to depression
Y Endorphins —increase pleasure,
elevate mood, increase appetite and
reduce pain
Y Epinephrine (adrenalin)—affects
emotional arousal, memory storage
and metabolism of glucose necessary
for energy release.
Y Glutamate—the most common
neurotransmitter in the CNS and is
important in memory;, excessive
amounts of glutamate is toxic to neuron
and can kill them. 39
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Y The human brain is shaped like a small wrinkled
melon, weighs about 1,350 grams (less than 3
pounds), has a pinkish-white color, and has the
consistency of a firm Jell-O.
Y The human brain has about 1 trillion cells divided
into two groups: 900 billion are glial cells and 100
billion are neurons.

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BRAIN

Hindbrain

Midbrain

Forebrain
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Y Hindbrain—the lowest portion located at the
posterior part of the brain or at the rear of
the skull. Three main part s of the hindbrain:
1. Medulla—governs vital reflexes such as
breathing, heart rate and blood pressure,
swallowing and vomiting.
2. Pons—governs sleep, arousal.
3. Cerebellum —coordinates movement
and balance but not in initiating body
movements and timed motor responses
such as those required in playing sports.

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Y Midbrain—located between the
hindbrain and the forebrain, it
is an area where many nerve-
fiber systems ascend and
descend to connect the higher
and lower portions of the brain.
Y Two systems of the midbrain:
1. Reticular formation—involved
arousing higher centers of the
brain when something happens
that demands attention.
2. Other system consists of small
groups of neurons that use
special neurotransmitters.
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Y Forebrain—the
largest, most
prominent part
and highest region
of the human brain
found at the
anterior part of
the brain.

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 Baby Theresa w as one of
the 1,000 babies born each
year in the United States with
almost no brain. This rare
condition, caused by errors in
genetic instructions, is called
anencephaly, a condition of
being born with little or no
brain. Babies with
anencephaly have limited
survival; the longest has been
two months.
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Y Limbic system—plays an
important role in memory,
drive reduction and emotion.
Y Two principal structures of
the limbic system:
1. Amygdala—involved in the
discrimination of objects that
are important in the
organism’s survival (e.g.
appropriate foods, mate,
social rivals) and in emotion,
particularly aggression and
fear.
2. Hippocampus—has a special
role in the storage of
memories.
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Y Thalamus—sits on top of the
brain stem and serves as the
major sensory relay station
between lower and higher brain
centers; controls sleep and
wakefulness
Y Basal ganglia—essential to
starting and stopping voluntary
movements.
Y Hypothalamus—the “master
control” for emotions and basic
drives such as hunger, thirst, sex
and aggression; it is also
involved in stress and reward.

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 The “ new brain ”
responsible for our ability
to think, evaluate and
make complex
judgments.

The cerebral cortex is

relatively recent
evolution; it has four
major sections called
lobes ”
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Y Left hemisphere—
receives information
only from the right
side of the body.
Y Right hemisphere—
receives information
only from the left
side of the body.
Y Language functions
(speaking, listening,
reading, writing and Y Non-verbal and spatial abilities
understanding such as music and art,
language) perceptual and spatial-
manipulative skills, expression of
Y Analytical functions emotion, recognition of faces,
(figuring things out some language comprehension,
step-by-step; knowing directions, solving
mathematics) puzzles, drawing pictures, and
Y Controls right side recognizing familiar objects or
of the body people.
Y Synthetic functions (figuring
things out by combining to form
wholes)
Y Controls left side of the body
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 Left Hemisphere
Processing & Analysis of - Logical.
Information - Sequential.
- Analytical.
- Concentrates on details.
- Deductive reasoning.
Specialized Skill - Verbal.
- Relationships between self
and environment.
- Analytical space-time
concepts (e.g. numerical
operations).
- Language (speaking,
listening, reading, writing).
Sensory Perception & - Responsible for the right
Motor Function side of the body's skeletal
muscles and
somatosensation.
- Interprets the left visual
field.
Right Hemisphere
- Holistic.
- Global.
- Parallel processing.
- Comprehension.
- Inductive in reasoning.
- Spatial abilities (knowing
directions)
- Solving puzzles .
- Drawing pictures.
- Recognizing objects and
people.
- Nonverbal language (timing,
intention, pragmatics).
- Space-time complex
concepts (e.g., physics).
Responsible for the left side
of the body's skeletal and
muscles and
somatosensation
- Interprets the right visual
field.
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Y The corpus callosum is a
bundle of nerve fibers
that connects the brain’s
left and right
hemispheres.

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Y The occipital lobes are
located at the lower back of
the brain.
Y They are responsible for
vision and visual perception,
as well as shape, color and
motion perception.
Y Damage to occipital lobes
may cause blindness. 63
 What happens when it is
Where is it? What does it do?
injured?
The occipital lobe is This lobe is dedicated - Visual agnosia - not
located in the extreme entirely to vision in terms consciously knowing that
rear of the cerebral of detection, identification, one has seen an object.
hemisphere at the back of and interpretati on of - Difficulty locating objects
the brain. objects. in the environment.
- Color Agnosia - difficulty
with identifying colors.
- Word Blindness -
difficulty in recognizing
words.
- Inability to track the
movement of objects.

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Y The temporal lobes are found
on the sides of the brain right
above the ears.
Y Their major functions are
auditory perception, language
comprehension, memory and
some emotional control.
Y The auditory cortex processes
sound coming from the ears.
Y An area of the left temporal
lobe, Wernicke’s area, is involved
in language comprehension. 65

Where is it?
The temporal lobe is a large
thumb-shaped extension of
the cerebral hemisphere
located near the temples on
either side of the head.
What does it do?
The auditory cortex is
responsible for hearing.
The temporal lobes are also
involved in memory acquisition
and storage, perception, and
categorization of objects.
- Involved in processing
auditory information (e.g.,
sound discrimination,
comprehension of language,
listening, reading; music).
- Important for sense of smell.
Left temporal lobe
- Specialized for the
comprehension of language
such as listening and reading.
Right temporal lobe
- Specialized for the
comprehension of music.
What happens when it is
injured?
- Disturbances with selective
attention to what is seen and
heard.
- Memory problems.
- Categorization problems.
Left temporal lobe
- Wernicke's Aphasia - An
inability to read and
comprehend what someone is
saying
- Persistent talking.
Right temporal lobe
- Inability to recognize and
appreciate music.
- Prosopagnosia - difficulty in
recognizing faces.
- Difficulty understanding
spoken language (i.e., some
types of aphasia).
- Specific memory
impairments (e.g., inability to
recognize faces).
- Impaired detection of smell.
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 Wernicke’s area, located in the left temporal lobe,
it plays an important role in understanding language
Y Damage to Wernicke’s area results to problems
comprehending words.

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Y The parietal lobes interpret
bodily sensations such as
pressure, pain, touch,
temperature and location of
body parts.
Y A bond of tissue on the front of
the parietal lobe, called
somatosensory cortex, receives
information about touch in
different body areas. 69

Where is it?
The parietal lobe is located on
both sides of the head near the
top and to the back.
What does it do?
- Responsible for perceiving,
analyzing, and assembling
touch information from the
body.
- Integrates visual, auditory,
and touch information in order
to formulate complete
impression of the world.
Left parietal lobe
Area where letters come
together to form words and
where words are put together
in thoughts.
Right parietal lobe
Responsible for understanding
the spatial aspects of the world
including recognizing shapes,
being aware of one's body in
space and deficits.
What happens when it is
injured?
- Difficulties with hand and eye
coordination.
Left parietal lobe
- Inability to recognize or locate
touch sensations from the right
side of the body.
- Inability to know the meaning
of words.
- Anomia- inability to name
objects.
- Dyscalculia - inability to do
mathematic calculations.
Right parietal lobe
- Inability to recognize or locate
touch sensations from the left
side of the body.
- Perceptual Agnosia - "not
knowing" (e.g., not able to
recognize familiar objects
touched by the hands).
- Difficulty with drawing objects.
- Lack of awareness of certain
body parts and/or surrounding
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space.
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 The accident occurred on Sept.
13, 1848 in Vermont. Phineas Gage
and several railroad co-workers were
using blasting powder to construct a
roadbed. In a blasting incident, an iron
rod blew up through the left side of
Gage’s face and out through the top of
his head. Though the wound in his
skull healed in a matter of weeks,
Phineas became a dif ferent person.
From being mild-mannered,
hardworking and emotionally calm
individual prior to the accident,
Phineas became moody, irresponsible
and incapable of participating in
planned activities. The accident
altered his personality.
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Y The frontal lobe located towards the “front” of the
brain has primary role in the integration and
response output to the environment.
Y The frontal lobe receives and integrates the
information (e.g., sensations) f rom the other
lobes, and then determines the best way to
interact with the environment based on the
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sensory inf ormation.
Y Three Major Functions:
1. Motor control—at the very back of
the frontal lobes lies the motor
cortex, which sends messages to the
various muscles and glands in the
body.
2. Speech production—the Broca’s area
is known to play a crucial role in
speech production.
3. Higher functions—thinking,
personality, emotion and memory are
controlled by the frontal lobes. 76

Where is it?
The frontal lobe is located at - Provides executive control
the front of the brain just
behind the forehead.
What does it do?
over much of the brain's
higher functions.
- Consciousness.
- Self-awareness.
- Judgment.
- Initiation/Motivation.
- Control over emotional
responses.
- Planning / Sequencing.
- Word formation.
- Prospective memory-
remembering to do
something.
What happens when it is
injured?
- Inability to synthesize
signals from the
environment.
- Inability to assign priorities.
- Inability to make decisions.
- Inability to initiate actions.
- Inability to control
emotions.
- Inability to behave and
interact socially and make
plans.
- Changes in personality.
- Poor judgment.
- Inability to plan a
sequence of complex
movements needed to
complete multi-stepped
tasks.
- Inability to behave
appropriately in social
situations. 77
 Broca’s area, found in the left frontal lobe, it
plays an important role in the control and
production of speech.
Y Damage to Broca’s area results to problems
in saying words correctly.

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The meninges can serve as a cushi on or shock -absorber of the brai n. 79
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• What happens when the brain is
damaged?
– The brain is made up of cells
called neurons. At birth, we have
essentially all the neurons we will
ever have for the rest of our lives.
– Once the nucleus (or cell body) of
the neuron has been damaged,
the neuron is unable to
successfully reconnect or heal
itself.
– Therefore, once a neuron is
injured and dies, the damage to
the brain as a whole is
permanent.
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Take care of your brain.
There’s no spare parts
left for a damaged
brain.

FIN.
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