Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26

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Research in Veterinary Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rvsc

The connection between animal abuse and interpersonal violence:

A review from the veterinary perspective
Stefany Monsalve a,⁎, Fernando Ferreira b, Rita Garcia a
a
Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Veterinárias, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Rua dos Funcionários, 1540, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
b
Escola de Medicina Veterinária e Ciência Animal, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Professor Doutor Orlando Marques de Paiva, 87, São Paulo, SP, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Several studies have reported a connection between animal abuse and interpersonal violence. The importance of
Received 3 November 2016 veterinarians in recognizing and intervening in the cycle of violence has been debated in different articles. This
Received in revised form 19 February 2017 review outlines the findings about this connection around the world and describes the role veterinarians play
Accepted 27 February 2017
in this field. We looked up electronic databases and analyzed articles published between 1960 and 2016. Publi-
cations were classified into three categories: area of publication, topic of the study and continent where the
Keywords:
Animal cruelty
study had been conducted. Out of the 96 articles included, 76 (79.2%) were from North America. None were
Domestic violence from South America or Africa. Ninety-four articles (97.9%) found some association between animal abuse and vi-
Child abuse olence against people. The rates of co-occurrence between domestic violence and animal abuse reported varied
Veterinary medicine between 25% and 86%. Furthermore, children who were abused, exposed to domestic violence, or animal abuse
Companion animal maltreatment were at risk of developing criminal behavior. Veterinarians play an important role in public health and animal
welfare. Yet, only seven articles (7.3%) were published in the field of veterinary medicine. Studies report that be-
tween 42.8% and 86% of veterinarians know about the “Link”. However, most veterinarians not being trained to
intervene in cases of animal abuse and human violence. This emphasizes the importance of educating veterinar-
ians about this topic and their participation in this area.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2. Articles included in this review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1. Search strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2. Selection criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Classification of articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1. Classification according to the area of publication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2. Classification according to the continent where the study was conducted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3. Classification according to the topic of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.1. Animal abuse and domestic violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.3.2. Risk factors for the development of childhood animal abuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.3.3. Animal abuse and the prediction of criminal behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.4. The veterinarians' role in the “Link” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Conflict of interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author at: Universidade Federal do Paraná, Departamento de Medicina

Veterinária, Rua dos Funcionários, 1540, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil.
Investigations about the “Link”, which is the association between
E-mail addresses: stefanymonsalve@ufpr.br (S. Monsalve), fernando@vps.fmvz.usp.br interpersonal violence and animal abuse, began in 1963 with the
(F. Ferreira), ritamaria@ufpr.br (R. Garcia). emergence of a triad of enuresis, fire-setting and animal cruelty during

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rvsc.2017.02.025
0034-5288/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26
childhood and its use as an indicator of criminal behavior toward
humans during adulthood (Macdonald, 1963). Thenceforth, animal pro-
tection groups and police sectors (McEwen et al., 2014) have encour-
aged research about the “Link” in situations of domestic violence,
criminal behavior and diagnosis of conduct disorders. Human and social
science research have supported the existence of this connection
(Gleyzer et al., 2002; Hensley et al., 2009). Countries like the United
States (USA) and Canada set more severe court sentences for crimes
against animals, and increased efforts to detect and report these crimes
(Arluke et al., 1999; Hensley and Tallichet, 2008; Lockwood, 2000).
The “Link”, involves different sectors of society and professionals.
Some state that veterinarians are the only health professionals skilled
to identify, signs of animal abuse and violence against people
(Benetato et al., 2011). However, only few professionals reported
suspected cases. This is due to the lack of knowledge about the topic,
ethical conflicts, fears regarding the consequences of a complaint and
professional confidentiality (Donley et al., 1999; Green and Gullone,
2005; Sharpe and Wittum, 1999; Williams et al., 2008).
2. Articles included in this review
2.1. Search strategy
This study examined articles published about the “Link” around the
world, analyzed the participation of veterinarians in this field, and un-
derlines the importance of training veterinarians to recognize and inter-
vene in cases of violence.
A search of published articles was conducted on March 3, 2015 and
updated January 17, 2017. We searched for relevant articles published
since 1960 using Pubmed, Scopus, Science direct, Medline, Scielo, Taylor
and Francis, PsycARTICLES and African Journal Online. Search terms of rel-
evance to this review included: “animal cruelty”, “pet abuse”, “companion
animal abuse”, “violence and animal cruelty” and “battered pets”.
2.2. Selection criteria
Studies were selected based on following inclusion criteria: (1)
study in English, Spanish or Portuguese; (2) study published between
January 1, 1960 and January 17, 2017; (3) original research article
Fig. 1. Flow diagram describing article selecting.
19
about the existence of a connection between animal abuse and interper-
sonal violence. Review and opinion articles were excluded.
The database search yielded 467 articles. After removal of duplicates,
266 studies remained. The majority of the remaining studies (74.7%)
were excluded, mainly because they reported either animal abuse or vi-
olence, but not the association between both. Ninety-six articles were
selected for inclusion in this review. Fig. 1 details the process of study
selection.
We analyzed whether the study found an association between
animal abuse and violence, and the presence of a comparison group
without characteristics of violence or psychiatric disorder. Articles relat-
ing to perceptions of social service professionals and veterinarians were
not included in this last analysis. Articles were classified into three
categories:
Area of publication: human and social science, health science, or vet-
erinary science;
Continent where the study has been conducted: due to the differences
of cultural and in the level of publication among regions, the Amer-
ican continent was divided into: North America, Central America
and South America;
Classification according to the topic of the study: according to the topic
we classified the studies into the following categories: animal abuse
and domestic violence; risk factors for the development of childhood
animal abuse; animal abuse and the prediction of criminal behavior;
and the veterinarians' role in the “Link”.
3. Classification of articles
3.1. Classification according to the area of publication
Most studies (90.6%) were from the area of human and social sciences.
Two articles (2.1%) were published in the field of human health and seven
(7.2%) in the area of veterinary medicine. Of these seven publications, five
(71.4%) focused on the perception, education and training of veterinarians
about the “Link”. This reveals the limited participation of veterinarians in
this area, and the need to encourage interdisciplinary work between
human sciences, social sciences, and veterinary medicine.
20 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26

Table 1 Table 2
Publications about the “Link” according to the continent and country. Relevant conclusions about the “Link” collected from the articles that met inclusion criteria
for this review.
Continent Publicationsa Country Publicationsa
Topic Relevant conclusions
N % Name N %
Animal abuse and domestic There is a co-occurrence between animal abuse
North America 76 79.2 USA 72 75
violence and intimate partner violence.
Canada 7 7.3
Animal maltreatment types reported: threats,
Oceania 9 9.4 Australia 8 8.3
physical abuse, prohibiting the supply of basic
New Zealand 1 1.04
resources and murder.
Europe 7 7.3 United Kingdom 3 3.1
Animal abuse is used to perpetuate the violence
Italy 2 2.1
against women.
Germany 1 1.04
Female victims of violence may delay entering
Switzerland 1 1.04
a shelter because of concern for the safety of
Asia 4 4.2 China 1 1.04
their pets.
India 1 1.04
Dogs and cats are the species most frequently
Japan 1 1.04
abused in the context of domestic violence.
Malaysia 1 1.04
Domestic violence is related to a lower level of
Central America 1 1.04 The Bahamas 1 1.04
companion animal care.
South America 0 0 _____ ____ ____
There is a lack of coordination between the
Africa 0 0 _____ ____ ____
human and animal protective services.
a
One research could be developed in more than one continent or country, resulting in a Risk factors for the development Children who observe acts of maltreatment of
total cumulative percentage higher than 100%. of childhood animal abuse animals are 3 times more likely to abuse animals.
Witnessing animal abuse promotes internalization
and externalization symptoms in children.
Children exposed domestic violence or victims
3.2. Classification according to the continent where the study was
of abuse are more likely to abuse animals.
conducted Children with behavioral disorders are more
likely to abuse animals (attention deficit,
Table 1 lists publications according to the country of origin of the conduct disorder, hyperactivity and depression).
Animal abuse and the prediction Animal abuse is associated with violent crimes
study. Most studies were done in North America (79.1%). We did not
of criminal behavior against people (murders, murders attempts,
find publications from South America or Africa. This shows the impor- robbery, assault, rape, harassment and treats).
tance of carrying out research in these regions, considering that cultural Recurrent abuse of companion animals is a
and family traditions regarding animals may influence the results. potential indicators of interpersonal violence in
adulthood.
Animal abusers display a strong need to control
3.3. Classification according to the topic of the study people and environments, antisocial
personality and poly-substance dependency.
The veterinarians' role in the Most veterinarians believe in the existence of
Table 2 displays a summary of relevant information about the “Link” “Link” the “Link”.
as described in scientific literature. Ninety-four articles (97.9%) found Veterinarians play a crucial role in the detection
some relation between animal abuse and violence against people. One of animal abuse and the intervention against
of the limitations of the studies about the “Link” is the lack of compari- different types of violence in society.
Veterinarians show reluctance to intervene and
son with groups without characteristics of violence or psychiatric disor-
to file a complaint in cases of animal abuse and
der (Ascione et al., 2007; Becker et al., 2004). Thirty-eight studies used a interpersonal violence.
comparison group, all of these publications showed some association The lack of training to identify animal abuse
between animal abuse and interpersonal violence. Table 3 lists the dis- cases is the most common reason reported by
tribution according to the topic and the presence of a comparison group veterinarians not to file a complaint.
The veterinarians' role in the cycle of violence is
without characteristics of violence or psychiatric disorder. not recognized by other professionals.

3.3.1. Animal abuse and domestic violence

Although 24 scientific publications report an association between in-
timate partner violence against women and abuse of companion ani-
mals (Allen et al., 2006; Ascione, 1998; Ascione et al., 2007;
Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004; Faver and Strand, 2003; Febres et al., 2012;
Fielding, 2010; Flynn, 2000a, 2000b; Gallagher et al., 2008; Gupta,
2008; Hardesty et al., 2013; Hartman et al., 2015; Krienert et al., 2012;
Levitt et al., 2016; Long and Kulkarni, 2013; Loring and Bolden-Hines,
2004; Newberry, 2016; Peak et al., 2012; Simmons and Lehmann,
2007; Strand and Faver, 2005; Tiplady et al., 2012; Travers et al., 2009;
Volant et al., 2008), the real prevalence of animal abuse in the context
of domestic violence is unknown, mainly because a systematic assess-
or veterinary care (Ascione, 1998; Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004; Faver
and Strand, 2003; Gallagher et al., 2008; Newberry, 2016; Strand and
Faver, 2005), and murder (Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004; Newberry, 2016;
Strand and Faver, 2005) as the most frequent types of animal maltreat-
ment (Ascione, 1998; Faver and Strand, 2003; Flynn, 2000b; Gallagher
Table 3
Publications about the “Link” according to the topic and the presence of comparison group
without characteristics of violence or psychiatric disorder.
Topic Publicationsa Comparison Groupa,b

ment of pet abuse is uncommon in the services that care for victims of N % With % Without %
violence (Ascione et al., 2007). Studies performed in female shelters re- Animal abuse and domestic violence 24 25 3 13.6 19 86.4
ported rates of co-occurrence of these two types of violence to vary be- Risk factors for the development of 35 36.4 22 62.8 13 37.1
tween 25% and 86% (Allen et al., 2006; Ascione, 1998; Ascione et al., childhood animal abuse
Animal abuse and the prediction of 39 40.6 16 41 23 59
2007; Faver and Strand, 2003; Flynn, 2000b; Gallagher et al., 2008;
criminal behavior
Hartman et al., 2015; Simmons and Lehmann, 2007; Strand and Faver, The veterinarians' role in the “Link” 5 5.2 ____ ____ ____ ____
2005; Tiplady et al., 2012; Volant et al., 2008), and reveal that pets a
One research could have more than one topic, resulting in a total cumulative per-
may be victims of the violence inflicted on their tutors (Gupta, 2008). centage higher than 100%.
Female victims of violence frequently report threats, physical abuse b
Articles on perception of veterinarians and social service professionals about the
and prohibiting the supply of basic resources, mainly food, water and/ “Link” were excluded from this analysis.
 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26
et al., 2008; Strand and Faver, 2005). In a study, of 28 criminals arrested
for animal cruelty against a pet belonging to their intimate partner or
ex-intimate partner, 13 (46%) had also been arrested for domestic vio-
lence, mainly physical abuse, at some point in their lives (Levitt et al.,
2016). The prevalence of co-occurrence of these two types of violence
is influenced by the cultural characteristics of the study population
(Hartman et al., 2015) and highlights the need to encourage research
in different countries and cultures.
Of the 24 publications that reported relation between animal abuse
and domestic violence, only 2 studies compared rates of animal abuse
in households with and without intimate partner violence (Ascione et
al., 2007; Volant et al., 2008). Intentional injury, or murder of pets,
were reported by 52.9 to 54% of female victims assisted in two 2 shel-
ters. In comparison, intentional injury of pets was reported by 0 to 5%
of female victims who had not suffered violence. Furthermore, 46–53%
of female victims who suffered domestic violence reported threats
against their pets, compared to 5.8–13% of victims who did not suffer
domestic violence. (Ascione et al., 2007; Volant et al., 2008). Female vic-
tims of domestic violence are eleven times more likely to report inten-
tional abuse of their animals (Ascione et al., 2007) and four to five
times more likely to report threats against their pets (Ascione et al.,
2007; Volant et al., 2008). Such acts of aggression are more often report-
ed by people with an emotional attachment to their animals (Flynn,
2000b; Hardesty et al., 2013; Tiplady et al., 2012). Because of their great-
er ability to establish emotional bonds with people, dogs and cats are
the main targets of family violence, followed by birds and small rodents
(Ascione et al., 2007). Physical violence and verbal aggression of
humans can predict threats, abuse and murder of animals in the same
home (Ascione et al., 2007).
Male animal abusers are significantly more likely to talk to their pets
only through commands or threats, to consider their companion ani-
mals as non-sentient property and one of life's key stressors, and punish
them for unrealistic expectations (Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004). Animal
abuse is a form of psychological control of victims and perpetration of
violence (Gupta, 2008; Levitt et al., 2016; Newberry, 2016). In addition
to the perpetration of violence, female victims of violence also mention
anger, revenge, discipline and jealousy as causes of animal abuse (Allen
et al., 2006; Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004; Gallagher et al., 2008; Newberry,
2016).
Different studies have shown that between 18% to 65% of female vic-
tims of violence delay moving to a shelter because of concerns regarding
their pet's welfare (Allen et al., 2006; Ascione, 1998; Ascione et al., 2007;
Faver and Strand, 2003; Flynn, 2000b; Hartman et al., 2015; Strand and
Faver, 2005; Travers et al., 2009; Volant et al., 2008). In this manner, fe-
male victims who reported threats or physical abuse of their animals
were respectively seven and eight times more likely to delay leaving
the violent home (Faver and Strand, 2003). In addition, victims who
considered their companion animals to be property rather than sentient
beings were more likely to abandon their pets when fleeing from vio-
lence (Carlisle-Frank et al., 2004). The difficulty to find a safe place for
animals, during the stay in the shelters, is the main reason why 20% to
50% of pets remain under the care of the abusive partner when the fe-
male victim decides to leave home. (Allen et al., 2006; Ascione, 1998;
Gallagher et al., 2008; Newberry, 2016). Likewise, Carlisle-Frank et al.
(2004) report that a considerable percentage of female victims (35%)
returned to the violent home out of concern for their animals. Pets are
considered family members and a source of emotional support for vic-
tims, who are often isolated from family and friends (Flynn, 2000b).
Strategies to help sheltering animals of victims of violence would en-
courage them to leave the violent home (Allen et al., 2006; Flynn,
2000a; Gallagher et al., 2008; Komorosky et al., 2015; Krienert et al.,
2012).
Animal abuse is used not only to perpetuate domestic violence, but
also to force victims to commit crimes. A US-study reported that out
of 54 female owners of abused pets, 24 (44%) experienced coercion in
the form of threats and actual harm to animals. This type of coercion
21
was used to force them to commit illegal acts as: robbery, fraud or
drug trafficking (Loring and Bolden-Hines, 2004).
Research about the “Link” indicates that frequently males are the
main source of abuse and violence. Nevertheless, one study with 87 in-
mate females arrested for domestic violence revealed that 17% of partic-
ipants had threatened or abused animals (Febres et al., 2012).
Only one publication evaluated the association between the lack of
animal care and domestic violence. This study compared the level of
dog care in homes with and without violence, and reported that the
presence of domestic violence is related to a lower level of dog care, be-
cause in homes with domestic violence where family members are
more concerned with their interpersonal relationships, the care of ani-
mals may be less important (Fielding, 2010).
Despite scientific evidence, and although most shelters responsible
for protection of women and children are aware of the association be-
tween domestic violence and animal abuse, resources to fully support
victims with companion animals are limited (Komorosky et al., 2015).
There is little coordination between the different systems that work to
protect human and animal victims. Regarding identification and inter-
vention, violence against women and violence against animals are treat-
ed as separate types of violence that affect specific populations (Long
and Kulkarni, 2013; Peak et al., 2012).
3.3.2. Risk factors for the development of childhood animal abuse
Understanding why a child mistreats animals is essential to develop
strategies to reduce the prevalence of this behavior. Of the 96 articles in-
cluded in this review, 35 studies evaluated this aspect of violence
(Ascione et al., 2003; Baglivio et al., 2016; Baldry, 2005, 2003;
Baxendale et al., 2015; Becker et al., 2004; Boat et al., 2011; Browne et
al., 2016; Currie, 2006; Dadds et al., 2006; Degue and Dilillo, 2009;
Duncan et al., 2005; Felthous, 1980; Flynn, 1999; Girardi and Pozzulo,
2015, 2012; Hartman et al., 2016; Henry, 2006, 2004a; Hensley, 2005;
Hensley et al., 2012a; Kellert and Felthous, 1985; Knight et al., 2014;
McDonald et al., 2016, 2015; McEwen et al., 2014; Mellor et al., 2008;
Miller and Knutson, 1997; Sanders and Henry, 2015; Sujata et al.,
2016; Tallichet et al., 2012; Thompson and Gullone, 2006; Wong et al.,
2012; Yamazaki, 2010; Zilney and Zilney, 2005). Exposure to animal
abuse (Browne et al., 2016; Flynn, 1999; Henry, 2004a; Thompson and
Gullone, 2006), or other types of violence such as domestic violence,
being a victim of physical and sexual abuse, parental alcoholism, family
dysfunction (Ascione et al., 2003; Baglivio et al., 2016; Boat et al., 2011;
Browne et al., 2016; Degue and Dilillo, 2009; Duncan et al., 2005; Kellert
and Felthous, 1985; Knight et al., 2014; Sujata et al., 2016; Wong et al.,
2012; Yamazaki, 2010), or having some behavioral disorder, has been
associated with childhood animal abuse (Mellor et al., 2008; Sanders
and Henry, 2015; Wong et al., 2012).
Children are frequently exposed to acts of animal abuse in the com-
munity and at home (McDonald et al., 2015). Exposure rates between
29% and 61.5% have been reported (Ascione et al., 2007; Browne et al.,
2016; Gallagher et al., 2008; Henry, 2004a; McDonald et al., 2015;
Miller and Knutson, 1997; Thompson and Gullone, 2006; Volant et al.,
2008), especially in the case of males (Henry, 2004a; Miller and
Knutson, 1997; Vaughn et al., 2011). Frequently victims are small ani-
mals such as rodents, birds and reptiles, followed by dogs and cats
(Miller and Knutson, 1997). This differs from findings in studies of fam-
ily violence, which report that dogs and cats are most frequently abused
(Ascione et al., 2007; Degue and Dilillo, 2009). Usually family members,
friends and neighbors are the perpetrators of animal abuse (Degue and
Dilillo, 2009; Miller and Knutson, 1997). The participation rate of chil-
dren in animal abuse varies between 3% and 44.4% (Ascione, 1998;
Ascione et al., 2007; Baldry, 2005, 2003; Degue and Dilillo, 2009;
Gupta, 2008; Hartman et al., 2016; Henry, 2004a; Miller and Knutson,
1997; Sanders and Henry, 2015; Thompson and Gullone, 2006; Volant
et al., 2008; Walters, 2016a; Yamazaki, 2010), being significantly
lower when girls are involved (Baglivio et al., 2016; Baldry, 2005;
Henry, 2004a; Walters, 2016a).
22 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26
It is important to consider that between 51% and 78% of children risk
their own safety in attempts to protect their animals (Ascione et al.,
2007; McDonald et al., 2015). Children who observe acts of animal mal-
treatment are three to eight times more likely to abuse animals (Baldry,
2005; Degue and Dilillo, 2009). The association is stronger in chronic ex-
posure to this type of violence (Henry, 2004a). This increased risk may
occur as a result of social learning (Browne et al., 2016; Degue and
Dilillo, 2009; Flynn, 2000c; Thompson and Gullone, 2006), children
may understand that abuse is acceptable (Henry, 2004b), and
redirected aggression (Degue and Dilillo, 2009). Witnessing animal
abuse may be traumatic and contributes to the development of antiso-
cial behavior (McDonald et al., 2015), psychological maladjustment
(McDonald et al., 2016), internalization (Girardi and Pozzulo, 2015;
Thompson and Gullone, 2006) and externalization symptoms
(Thompson and Gullone, 2006). However, it is important to consider
that learning and expressing violence against animals can differ based
on cultural differences (Tallichet et al., 2012).
Children who often mistreat animals are two to three times more
likely to be directly abused in the community, at school, in the family
(Ascione et al., 2003; Baldry, 2005; Baxendale et al., 2015; Degue and
Dilillo, 2009; Knight et al., 2014; McEwen et al., 2014), or to be exposed
to domestic violence, than those less involved in animal abuse (Baldry,
2003; Becker et al., 2004; Currie, 2006; Degue and Dilillo, 2009). Two
studies compared the prevalence of childhood animal abuse in violent
and non-violent homes, the differences were significant, the occurrence
in homes with domestic violence varied from 11% to 37.5%, compared
with 1% to 11.8% in homes without violence (Ascione et al., 2007;
Volant et al., 2008). Hartman et al. (2016) showed that exposure to do-
mestic violence can decrease the affective empathy in children and
make them less sensitive to animal suffering, increasing the occurrence
of childhood animal abuse in these households. However, two research
did not report an association between domestic violence and childhood
animal abuse (Dadds et al., 2006; McEwen et al., 2014).
Another important aspect is age of the children. Acts of abuse are
more common in young children (McEwen et al., 2014), and are com-
patible with the exploratory behavior of age (Currie, 2006). The aggres-
sion declines considerably between 10 and 12 years of age, (McEwen et
al., 2014). Children who witnessed animal abuse at young age, mainly
cases where the perpetrators are primary socializers like parents and
friends, are more likely to frequently abuse animals (Browne et al.,
2016; Hensley et al., 2012a).
Childhood animal abuse is more likely in children with behavioral
disorders as attention deficit, hyperactivity and depression (Becker et
al., 2004; Mellor et al., 2008; Wong et al., 2012). The development of
these behaviors is influenced by family environment and the child's
temperament (Felthous, 1980; Mellor et al., 2008).
3.3.3. Animal abuse and the prediction of criminal behavior
Thirty-nine articles tried to establish whether animal abuse may
predict criminal behavior (Arluke et al., 1999; Arluke and Madfis,
2014; Baxendale et al., 2015; Becker et al., 2004; Felthous and Kellert,
1986; Gleyzer et al., 2002; Heller et al., 1984; Hellman and Blackman,
1966; Henderson et al., 2011; Henry, 2004b, 2004a; Hensley, 2005;
Hensley et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2011, 2010, 2009, 2006, Hensley and
Tallichet, 2005, 2009, 2008; Kavanagh et al., 2013; Kellert and
Felthous, 1985; Levitt et al., 2016; Lucia and Killias, 2011; Miller and
Knutson, 1997; Overton et al., 2012; Sanders and Henry, 2007;
Sanders et al., 2013; Schwartz et al., 2012; Tallichet et al., 2005;
Tallichet and Hensley, 2009, 2005, Vaughn et al., 2011, 2009; Walters
and Noon, 2015; Walters, 2016a, 2016b; Wax and Haddox, 1974). Re-
sults are contradictory, mainly due to the lack of consensus regarding
the definition of animal abuse (Arluke and Madfis, 2014; Gleyzer et al.,
2002; Hensley et al., 2012b; Tallichet and Hensley, 2009) and the use
of small samples (Hensley and Tallichet, 2009). However, several stud-
ies report that animal abusers are more likely to show criminal behavior
(Arluke et al., 1999; Felthous and Kellert, 1986; Hellman and Blackman,
1966; Levitt et al., 2016; Schwartz et al., 2012; Tallichet and Hensley,
2005; Walters, 2014) and antisocial disorders (Gleyzer et al., 2002;
Kavanagh et al., 2013).
Studies conducted in this area reported a significant association be-
tween the abuse of anthropomorphized vertebrate animals, as dogs and
cats, and recurrent violent crimes against people (Arluke and Madfis,
2014; Felthous and Kellert, 1986; Hensley et al., 2012b, 2009; Lucia
and Killias, 2011; Overton et al., 2012; Sanders and Henry, 2007;
Walters and Noon, 2015; Walters, 2014). In contrast, two studies did
not find this association. It is important to note that one of these did
not distinguish between witnessing and committing animal abuse
(Miller and Knutson, 1997) and the other analyzed the prevalence of
animal cruelty along with fire-setting and enuresis (Heller et al.,
1984). Arluke et al. (1999) examined the criminal records of people in-
volved in animal abuse, and noticed that abusers were three times more
likely to have committed other offenses. Murders, murder attempts
(Hensley et al., 2009), robbery, assault, rape, harassment, threats and
drug possession were crimes associated with animal abuse (Hensley
et al., 2009; Levitt et al., 2016; Vaughn et al., 2009). In a 10-year prospec-
tive study, Becker et al. (2004) found an association between childhood
animal abuse and self-reporting of violent and non-violent crimes in
adulthood, displaying that animal abuse desensitizes the perpetrator
to the effects of violence (Sanders and Henry, 2007).
Understanding the characteristics of animal abusers is important for
prevention, intervention and treatment strategies for this complex phe-
nomenon (Hensley and Tallichet, 2008). Research has focused on study-
ing the factors related to mistreatment of animals and criminality. With
regard to the psychological profile, animal abusers are significantly
more likely to display fearlessness (Walters, 2016b) and a strong need
to control people and environments, to bully or to be bullied (Sanders
and Henry, 2007; Sanders et al., 2013; Schwartz et al., 2012). In addition,
they have a significantly higher prevalence of antisocial personality and
poly-substance abuse (Gleyzer et al., 2002; Kavanagh et al., 2013;
Vaughn et al., 2011, 2009). Levitt et al. (2016) observed that more
than half (64%) of the offenders who perpetrated physical animal cruel-
ty had a history of substance dependency. Alcohol and drug use may
lower the threshold against violence and tolerance for animal misbe-
haviors. In the same way, substance dependent people fail to meet the
basic needs of animals and neglect them (Levitt et al., 2016). Animal
abuse committed alone has been associated with violent behavior
(Henry, 2004b; Hensley et al., 2011; Tallichet et al., 2005), because
this is related to insensitivity to animal suffering and pleasure in causing
injuries to the animals (Henry, 2004b).
The major motivations for animal abuse are: anger, fun, fear, dislike
of the animal, control, revenge against the animal or a person, imitation
and sexual pleasure (Hensley et al., 2011; Kellert and Felthous, 1985;
Levitt et al., 2016; Overton et al., 2012). Anger, fun and desire to control
the animal are significantly associated with repeated abuse of animals
(Hensley and Tallichet, 2005; Overton et al., 2012). The prevalence of
animal abuse in inmate populations varies from 25% to 68.7%, with re-
current reports of dog and cat abuse (Arluke and Madfis, 2014;
Hensley et al., 2012b; Kellert and Felthous, 1985; Miller and Knutson,
1997). In contrast, the prevalence of self-reported childhood animal
abuse during interviews at school and university populations varied be-
tween 8.8% and 30%. However, the recurrence rate was lower (Lucia and
Killias, 2011; Sanders and Henry, 2015). Recurrent abuse of companion
animals suggests a greater degree of social deviance (Tallichet et al.,
2005), and is a potential indicator of interpersonal violence in adulthood
(Arluke and Madfis, 2014; Tallichet et al., 2005).
The types of abuse more frequently reported are: shooting, kicking,
drowning, burning and having sex with animals (Hensley and
Tallichet, 2009), acts that need close physical contact are more likely as-
sociated with development of violence toward humans (Arluke and
Madfis, 2014; Henderson et al., 2011; Hensley et al., 2012b). Bestiality
is one of the most common factors related to violent and recurrent
crimes against people, demonstrating that this behavior is associated
 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26
with aggression (Henderson et al., 2011; Hensley et al., 2010, 2006;
Hensley and Tallichet, 2009; Vaughn et al., 2011). Likewise, hiding the
act of abuse may be an indicator of violence in adulthood (Tallichet
and Hensley, 2009). Students who self-reported abusing animals were
more likely to commit vandalism or other violent crimes (Lucia and
Killias, 2011; Sanders and Henry, 2007). Animal abuse should be consid-
ered as a step toward delinquency, attention and intervention are key to
prevent violence (Lucia and Killias, 2011).
3.3.4. The veterinarians' role in the “Link”
In the context of one health, which recognizes the interconnection of
human and animal health and their social and ecological environment
(Zinsstag et al., 2011), veterinarians must protect the health and well-
being of people (Osburn et al., 2009; Pappaioanou, 2004). Traditionally,
the actions of veterinary medicine include food security and safety;
preventing and controlling zoonotic diseases; and promoting ecosystem
health (Osburn et al., 2009; Pappaioanou, 2004). By contrast, the role
veterinarians play in the prevention and control of non-infectious public
health problems, such as violence, has only been considered in the last
two decades and the importance of their participation is not widely
accepted.
Despite of the modest intervention of veterinarians in the publica-
tion of original articles about the “Link”, several opinion and review ar-
ticles published in veterinary journals have reported the importance of
active participation of this professional in the cycle of violence
(Benetato et al., 2011; Bond and Lawrie, 2004; Lockwood, 2000;
Lockwood and Arkow, 2016; Robertson, 2010; Yoffe-Sharp and Loar,
2009). Animal abuse can serve as a sentinel of violence in society
(Ascione et al., 2007; Levitt et al., 2016; Volant et al., 2008). Thus, con-
sidering that veterinarians are in a unique position to identify animal
cruelty (Benetato et al., 2011), and have contact with human victims
of abuse (Landau, 1999), they play a key role in preventing and inter-
vening against interpersonal violence, reporting suspected cases of ani-
mal and human abuse to authorities (Benetato et al., 2011; Lockwood,
2000; Yoffe-Sharp and Loar, 2009). In this way, just like veterinarians
are important agents in the control of zoonotic diseases (Osburn et al.,
2009), they can and should be regarded as relevant actors in the context
of violence.
In addition, the basis of the veterinary profession includes the
human-animal bond (Eyre, 2001). One of the most problematic
human-animal relationships is encountered in cases of animal abuse
(Hammerschmidt and Molento, 2014; Nathanson, 2009). Preservation
of this bond is fundamental to welfare and health of pets and one re-
sponsibility of veterinary medicine (Sherman and Serpell, 2008). In
this way, veterinarians have a vital role in detection of problems in the
human-animal bond (Sherman and Serpell, 2008), and in the prosecu-
tion of animal abuse cases, helping in the collection of evidence
(Benetato et al., 2011; Lockwood, 2000). Their knowledge about veter-
inary forensic pathology allows them to report important information
to judicial processes, such as the methods used by the perpetrator.
They can determine the risk the offender represents for other animals
and for society (Lockwood and Arkow, 2016). In this study, we found
five original articles that analyze the importance of veterinarians and
the limiting factors for their participation in the “Link” (Creevy et al.,
2013; Green and Gullone, 2005; Landau, 1999; Sharpe and Wittum,
1999; Williams et al., 2008).
In 1962, The Journal of the American Medical Association published
an article about a new disorder called the Battered-Child Syndrome.
This initiated a debate about the role of health professionals in detect-
ing, intervening and reporting child abuse, and their reluctance to inter-
vene in these cases (Kempe et al., 1962).Today, society is more aware of
the care and the protection of animals, and demands that animal abuse
be recognized as an antisocial and illegal behavior that affects animal
welfare (Burchfield, 2016). Scientific publications have shown an asso-
ciation between animal abuse and interpersonal violence, and that ani-
mal abuse is an indicator of other forms of violence (Flynn, 2000c).
23
Despite all these advances, the veterinary community has not played
an important role in reducing animal abuse and interpersonal violence
(Lockwood and Arkow, 2016). Veterinarians are still reluctant to report
cases of animal abuse (Donley et al., 1999; Stolt et al., 1997). Studies in
Australia, New Zealand and the USA reported that 93.7% to 96.6% of vet-
erinarians recognize their moral responsibility to intervene in suspected
cases of animal abuse (Donley et al., 1999; Green and Gullone, 2005;
Williams et al., 2008). In Massachusetts, USA, only 44.5% of surveyed
veterinarians agreed to take legal responsibility in cases of non-acciden-
tal injuries, and only 33.7% in cases of neglect (Donley et al., 1999). In
the USA, although veterinarians frequently report suspected cases of an-
imal abuse (78.9%), only a minority files complaints (27–36.4%) (Donley
et al., 1999; Stolt et al., 1997). Yet, most professionals interviewed
(92.7%) indicated that they know how to file a complaint (Donley et
al., 1999).
An important aspect is the amount of training veterinarians have on
animal abuse and its connection with human violence. The higher the
level of consciousness, the greater the possibility that they may contrib-
ute to reducing violence (Flynn, 2000c; Williams et al., 2008). In the
USA, Australia and New Zealand, most veterinarians (61.7–86%) believe
that people who abuse animals are more likely to abuse children. Be-
tween 56.7% to 77.1% believe in this connection regarding violence
against women by a partner (Green and Gullone, 2005; Sharpe and
Wittum, 1999; Williams et al., 2008). In Australia and New Zealand,
42.8% to 57% of veterinarians believe that there is an association be-
tween animal abuse and frequent practice of other crimes. Female par-
ticipants were significantly more likely to believe in this association
(Green and Gullone, 2005; Williams et al., 2008). In the USA, most vet-
erinarians aged over 40 did not recognize this association and decided
not to intervene in cases of abuse toward animals and people (Sharpe
and Wittum, 1999). Moreover, despite the recognition of the existence
of the “Link”, only half of respondents (44.7–50.2%) in Australia, New
Zealand and the USA felt responsible for the human victims of violence
(Green and Gullone, 2005; Sharpe and Wittum, 1999; Williams et al.,
2008). In an interview with 169 Australian veterinarians, only 5.9%
said to be sure and 17.8% suspected of the occurrence of violence toward
women and children in the same home, where animals were abused. In
most cases the perpetrator was an adult male (Green and Gullone,
2005).
Veterinarians fail to file complaints against animal abuse due to dif-
ferent reasons: lack of training to identify animal abuse (Sharpe and
Wittum, 1999); lack of clarity and uniformity in the definitions of
abuse, cruelty and negligence (Green and Gullone, 2005); lack of re-
sources to help victims (Williams et al., 2008); fear of reprisals from
the abuser and the legal consequences for violating the confidentiality
(Donley et al., 1999); frustration about impunity (Donley et al., 1999);
fear of losing customers (Creevy et al., 2013; Green and Gullone,
2005), and the lack of information regarding legal rights and responsi-
bilities toward the victims of abuse, only 7.8% of small animal veterinar-
ians of the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) report
being able to provide relevant legal foundation regarding violence
against women and children, and 43.6% about animal abuse (Sharpe
and Wittum, 1999).
The lack of training to identify animal abuse cases is the most com-
mon reason reported by veterinarians not to file a complaint (Creevy
et al., 2013; Green and Gullone, 2005; Woolf, 2015). Signs that help in
the diagnosis of non-accidental trauma are: history inconsistent with
injury, analysis of the owner and animal behavior, and injuries such
as: bruises, fractures of limbs, ribs and teeth, burns, lacerations, ocular
injuries. As many veterinarians are not familiarized with these signs,
the diagnosis of animal abuse is difficult (Green and Gullone, 2005;
Munro and Thrusfield, 2001).
Veterinary colleges recognize the possibility that veterinarians will
face cases of animal abuse during their professional practice. However,
this issue is not tackled in most universities. In the USA and Canada,
97% of deans of 31 veterinary universities agreed that most veterinarians
24 S. Monsalve et al. / Research in Veterinary Science 114 (2017) 18–26
must face cases of animal abuse, and 61% indicated that these cases could
be related to family violence. Only 17% cited that their students receive
adequate information on this topic (Landau, 1999). The average training
time concerning animal abuse was 76 min, and 8 min on the topic of cli-
ent abuse (Landau, 1999). Most veterinarians (84.2%) confirmed that
professional education does not include information about preventing
animal abuse and human violence (Sharpe and Wittum, 1999), and ap-
proximately 30% said that they were not trained to work in this area
(Green and Gullone, 2005). This reveals the importance of improving
training and awareness of veterinarians. Extracurricular programs to
support human and animal victims of violence, in partnership with spe-
cialized agencies in the area, can provide mechanisms to raise awareness
and train veterinary students. The presence of such programs in 9 of 33
colleges improved significantly the awareness of students with regard
to the “Link” (Creevy et al., 2013).
Veterinarians play a key role in detecting animal abuse and interven-
ing in different types of human violence. Veterinarians may be the first
or only professionals who have access to abusive family situations. They
play a key role in the routing of cases, and have a moral obligation to im-
plement different strategies and approaches that help reduce violence
in society (Benetato et al., 2011; Landau, 1999; Sharpe and Wittum,
1999). However, at present, the role veterinarians play in the cycle of vi-
olence is neither recognized by other professionals, nor by the victims of
abuse (Hardesty et al., 2013). The human victims have contact with vet-
erinarians, but do not trust them to report abusive situations (Febres et
al., 2012; Tiplady et al., 2012). Studies about the contact of abused peo-
ple with veterinarians may help to identify how veterinarians can offer
support and information to these victims (Hardesty et al., 2013).
Child protection workers often report concerns about the welfare of
companion animals. During the investigations, few agencies routinely
ask questions about animal abuse (Girardi and Pozzulo, 2012; Zilney
and Zilney, 2005). Similarly, few investigations about interpersonal vio-
lence are started as a result of animal maltreatment (Girardi and
Pozzulo, 2012). These results display the need to create cross-sectorial
work that promotes the welfare of human and animal victims of abuse
(Long and Kulkarni, 2013; Peak et al., 2012); fosters humanitarian edu-
cation programs for animal abusers and people (Tallichet et al., 2012);
and places the veterinarian as a fundamental part in the identification,
reporting and referring of cases to the corresponding agencies
(Hardesty et al., 2013). Unfortunately, few studies have been developed
about interventions that should be made in cases of animal abuse
(Hensley and Tallichet, 2008; Tiplady et al., 2012).
4. Conclusions
The co-occurrence rate between animal abuse and interpersonal vi-
olence were considerable in the majority of articles. This underlines that
pets should be included as vulnerable population frequently affected by
family violence. Almost all articles reported that animal abuse is associ-
ated with domestic violence, child abuse, criminal behavior, and that it
may be an indicator of other types of violent behavior. However, less
than half of all publications compared the study population with a
group without characteristics of violence or psychiatric disorder. This
highlights the importance of approaching animal maltreatment in
non-violent populations in order to identify human and family factors
related to this type of abuse.
The majority of studies are concentrated in North America. Thirteen
countries published at least one article about this subject, suggesting
that the “Link” is still unknown in different regions in the world and
studies must focus on understanding its occurrence in different cultures
worldwide. The involvement of veterinarians in this area is crucial for
the protection of people and animals. Therefore, veterinary colleges
must offer appropriate training to their students. The limited number
of published studies in the field of veterinary medicine reflects the
lack of recognition of the role veterinarians play in preventing and inter-
vening of cycle of violence. Multidisciplinary and inter-sectorial works
that include the veterinary community and promote welfare of people
and animals victims of abuse, are crucial for the prevention and reduc-
tion of violence in society.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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