Pharmaceutical

TUBING
Choosing alternatives to silicone

Also Inside

Direct-sealing diaphragm valves

for demanding applications

Bismuth alloys for oil well

plugging and abandonment

Advanced two-wire Coriolis

flowmeter technology

MARCH 2019 • Vol. XXIV, No. 3

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
 AHR EXPO
PREVIEW
Page 28

FLUID
Density
The effects of
temperature and
pressure

Also Inside

Automating custody transfer

level measurements

Ultrasonic flowmeters for

HVAC monitoring

Performing a storage
tank risk assessment

JANUARY 2019 • Vol. XXV, No. 1

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com

Connect
SOLUTIONS FOR FLUID MOVEMENT, MEASUREMENT & CONTAINMENT

Magazine Like us
Subscribe to our print or digital edition on Facebook

E-News Follow us
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 TAKING B2B MEDIA
TO NEW HEIGHTS
The Process Flow Network is now a
part of Endeavor Business Media.

Learn more at EndeavorBusinessMedia.com

www.processingmagazine.com FEBRUARY 2018

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Table of Contents | March 2019 • Vol. XXV, No. 3

Cover Story
10 Choosing alternatives to silicone
for pharmaceutical tubing
By Eric Rentsch, Cole-Parmer
To secure a supply chain during a global constraint of
silicone, flexibility is key.

Features
10
14 Considering innovative flow control
valves for highly demanding applications
By Jeff Jennings, Equilibar
Direct-sealing diaphragm valves can handle wide flow
coefficient ranges and harsh environments.

18 The flow of fluids in mixers

By Amin Almasi
Design, operating arrangement and power requirements
play a role when selecting the right mixer for product quality.
18 21

21 Advanced wiring technologies

for Coriolis flowmeters
By Anthony Gentile, Emerson Automation Solutions Departments
Two-wire Coriolis flowmeters with diagnostics are now
a viable option for many facilities including chemical 4 From the Editor
plants, refineries and power generation stations.
6 News & Notes

24 Developing alloy-based alternatives

for oil well plugging and abandonment
8 Application Corner & Quiz Corner
By Bob Eden, Rawwater Engineering Company Limited 29 Trade Shows & Events
While cement has been the most widely used
abandonment medium, the development of bismuth 30 Featured Products
alloys offers advantages as an alternative.
31 Advertiser Index

32 FlowControlNetwork.com
Cover: ugurhan/iStock

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THINK BIG!
Submit your innovative
technology solution today!
lowcontrolnetwork.com/innovationawards
Flow Control has honored the luid handling
industry’s ongoing commitment to manufacturing
excellence through our annual Innovation Awards
program for nearly two decades. Each year, we
are proud to present the latest innovations and
technology breakthroughs in our industry based on
an open nomination and reader voting process.

The deadline for nominations is APRIL 5.

 VICE PRESIDENT & GROUP PUBLISHER
From the Editor MICHAEL C. CHRISTIAN
mchristian@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
EDITOR IN CHIEF

I
t’s March and spring is here (or just
around the corner, depending on
where you live). I’ve planned a much-
anticipated, late-season snowboarding
trip this month, so I’m hoping the warm
weather will hold off a bit longer — and
that Punxsutawney Phil is wrong in his
predictions for an early spring.
Regardless of the weather, each spring
diaphragm valves and how they can MOLLY ROGERS
mrogers@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
handle wide flow coefficient ranges in
demanding applications, including bio- CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
AMY W. RICHARDSON
pharmaceuticals, or in conditions with
arichardson@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
highly corrosive gases and liquids, high MARIE MCBURNETT
temperatures or low flow rates. mmcburnett@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
You’ll also find an article on choosing GROUP ASSISTANT EDITOR
the right mixer for industrial processes DANIEL GADDY
from contributing author Amin Almasi. dgaddy@endeavorbusinessmedia.com

Flow Control opens the nominations for our Plus, Emerson Automation Solutions COLUMNIST

annual Innovation Awards program. If you
have a new technology solution or break-
through product supporting an industrial
fluid handling process that you’d like to
nominate, go to flowcontrolnetwork.com/
innovationawards and submit your entry
form. Once all nominations are in, we will
then share those with you, our readers,
author Anthony Gentile discusses how DAVID W. SPITZER
ART DIRECTOR
Coriolis flowmeters are now a viable
RYAN CARLSON
option for plants that have historically
PRODUCTION MANAGER
used two-wire technology. AMANDA PORTER
Lastly, Bob Eden with U.K.-based aporter@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
Rawwater Engineering shares the com- DISTRICT MANAGER
pany’s development of structural bismuth JAY HAAS | 205-572-1058
alloys as an alternative plugging medium, jhaas@endeavorbusinessmedia.com

and you will have a chance to cast your rather than cement, for well abandon- ACCOUNT MANAGER

vote in June. The deadline to submit a
nomination is April 5.
In the meantime, I hope you enjoy this
issue of Flow Control. Our cover story
includes a discussion from Cole-Parmer’s
Eric Rentsch on choosing alternatives to
silicone for pharmaceutical tubing. As he
explains, the robust demand for silicone
products has put a strain on global supply,
and he suggests that companies should
be flexible in considering alternative for-
mulations to ensure there’s no downtime
if a shortage occurs. Next, Jeff Jennings
with Equilibar talks about direct-sealing
ment. Eden provides demonstration ADDISON PERKINS | 205-861-5303
aperkins@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
results for potential offshore capability
NATIONAL ACCOUNTS MANAGER
as well.
JIM SEMPLE | 908-963-3008
This issue, we feature INTERPHEX on jsemple@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
the Trade Shows page, so be sure to ACCOUNT MANAGER
check out the preview before you go. LISA WILLIMAN | 205-332-5915
lwilliman@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
Happy (late) spring! DIGITAL BUSINESS DEVELOPMENT MANAGER
MICHAEL RING | 347-365-0641
mring@endeavorbusinessmedia.com
MARKETING MANAGER
NICK PHILLIPS
Molly Rogers
DIGITAL OPERATIONS MANAGER
mrogers@endeavorbusinessmedia.com MARY BETH ROMANO
@FlowControl_Mag AUDIENCE DEVELOPMENT MANAGER
ANNA HICKS
SUBSCRIPTION & REPRINT REQUEST
flowcontrol@omeda.com

CORPORATE TEAM
CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER
CHRIS FERRELL
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EXECUTIVE VICE PRESIDENT
SCOTT BIEDA
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Jeff Jennings: Equilibar LLC | Mitch Johnson: JMS Southeast | Gobind Khiani: Fluor Canada Ltd.
Jim Lauria: Mazzei Injector Company | John Merrill, PE: EagleBurgmann Industries
Steve Milford: Endress+Hauser U.S. | Tom O’Banion: Emerson Automation Solutions
David W. Spitzer, PE: Spitzer and Boyes LLC | George Weihrauch: ABB Motors & Mechanical
Andrew Yeghnazar: Blacoh Fluid Control | Jesse Yoder, Ph.D.: Flow Research

4 | March 2019 Flow Control

 subscribe today.
Flow Control is the voice of fluid handling professionals
in the Process Flow Network, which provides solutions
for the process industries and includes Processing
and Water Technology.

Essential
PROCESS
CONTROL
Automation isn’t optional

Also Inside

Flowmeter accuracy

Tank level measurement

Peristaltic pump safety

MAY 2018 • Vol. XXIV, No. 5

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com

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News & Notes
Company news
DSS Valves adds new
American and international
distributors
DSS Valves announced five new distribu-
tors for its Severe Service Knife Gate
Valves, increasing the company’s global
presence in the U.S. and Europe. The
American distributors joining the team
include TRIVACO, Nichols-Given &
Associates, Eastern Industrial Supplies
and Miller Valve & Controls Inc., while
BAFCON Engineering Valve and Control
Systems signifies DSS Valves’ first direct
representation in Europe. DSS Valves’
product line continues to grow to meet
the demands and requirements specific
to the severe service valve industry.
Transom Capital Group
acquires SemiTorr Group Inc.
Private equity firm Transom Capital Group
acquired SemiTorr Group Inc., a distributor
of high-purity products, from Riverlake
Partners. SemiTorr is a distributor of high-
purity gas and fluid handling systems and
components supporting the microelec-
tronics, sanitary and industrial markets.
SemiTorr’s products include process
equipment, tubing, hoses, fittings, valves,
filtration and instrumentation.
Vee Bee Filtration
announces investment
in new technology center
Vee Bee Filtration, which designs, manu-
factures and supplies strainers, filters and
pressure vessels, announced it will move
to new premises as part of a multimillion-
dollar investment strategy from its parent
company Signum Technology. The Vee Bee
Technology Centre will be in Halesowen in
the West Midlands, U.K., and will provide
design and assembly facilities.
Pragma pursues rollout
of Downhole Steam
Injection Valve
Aberdeen-based oil and gas production
technology company, Pragma Well
Technology, has been given the green
light by Pharis Energy and OGTC to prog-
ress with the manufacture and prototype
6 | March 2019
testing of its Downhole Steam Injection
Valve (DSIV) following a successful fea-
sibility study. Using advanced materials,
detailed fluid design and innovative engi-
neering features to maximize reliability
for extreme downhole conditions, the
surface-controlled DSIV will be the first
steam injection valve available on the
market to meet U.K. safety regulations.
The valve will be rated to withstand the
extreme downhole conditions required for
continuous high-pressure steam injection
and will operate at temperatures of up to
343ºC. The DSIV is a key enabling tech-
nology for the implementation of offshore
steam-flood, and Pharis will use the DSIV
valves to protect well integrity, as the
company progresses a steam assisted,
phased development of the pilot field,
which lies in UKCS block 21/27a. This
project will start with a steam-flood trial
injecting up to 36,000 bcwe/day (bar-
rels of cold water equivalent) of steam
into the southern part of the pilot field.
The full-scale steam-flood is aiming for
approximately 50 percent recovery (over
120 mmbbls), about three times as much
oil as would be expected to be recovered
using the standard cold water-flood tech-
niques used in most North Sea heavy oil
projects to date.
Private equity firm acquires
Marion Process Solutions
Private equity firm May River Capital
acquired Marion Process, which manu-
factures industrial mixers and blenders,
as well as microwave vacuum drying sys-
tems, for customers in the food, nutra-
ceutical, mineral, plastic, chemical and
biomass industries. Marion will continue
operations under its current name, and
Marion’s CEO, Lee Eilers, will continue to
head the leadership team.
Rockwell Automation
recognized for IoT
contributions
IoT Breakthrough announced Rockwell
Automation, a company specializing in
industrial automation and information,
as winner of the “Overall IoT Company
the Year” award in the global 2019
IoT Breakthrough Awards program. IoT
Breakthrough is an independent organi-
zation that recognizes the top companies,
technologies and products in the global
Internet of Things (IoT) market. The mis-
sion of the awards program is to recognize
innovators from around the globe in IoT
categories. This year’s award program
attracted more than 3,500 nominations
from companies all over the world.
FLOMEC Flowmeter app
now includes BACnet
communications protocol
Great Plains Industries (GPI) announced
the release of the latest FLOMEC App
installment, which now includes a BACnet
(Building Automation and Controls
Network) communications protocol. The
FLOMEC App with BACnet communica-
tion can provide building automation,
facility managers and organizations with
connected building solutions through
scalable wireless controls for their flow
measurement needs. BACnet allows prod-
uct/systems from various vendors, such
as FLOMEC, to communicate with other
BAS devices by providing a standard-
ized method for presenting, requesting,
interpreting and transporting information.
With the release of the new app and firm-
ware installment, FLOMEC customers can
upgrade their QSI version 1 (Q1) electron-
ics to communicate with BAS equipment.
REHAU acquires MB Barter
& Trading AG
REHAU Verwaltungszentrale AG acquired
MB Barter & Trading AG. REHAU
Verwaltungszentrale AG is the holding
company of the REHAU Group, a leading
systems and service provider for polymer-
based solutions in the construction, auto-
motive and industrial sectors with more
than 20,000 employees worldwide. MB
Barter & Trading AG (MBT) is a Swiss,
globally operating, family-owned company
for commodity polymers, PET and rubber.
The combination of REHAU’s expertise
in materials, process engineering and
applications combined with MBT’s global
trading, logistics and distribution exper-
tise creates new opportunities through
expanded business models, according to
a company announcement.
Flow Control
People news
OPW Engineered Systems
appoints Mohammad Noful
to product manager
OPW Engineered Systems appointed
Mohammad “Mo” Noful to product man-
ager. Noful will manage the entire range of
OPW’s LOK product portfolio, specifically
the Autolok and Kamlok quick discon-
nect products and the Drylok, Kamvalok,
Epsilon and Twist-Lok dry disconnect
product families. Noful joined OPW in
2017 as a member of the company’s
Leadership Development Program. Over
18 months, he was immersed in the
OPW culture while gaining experience
at OPW’s Retail Fueling subsidiary as a
manufacturing engineer and the Midland
manufacturing business unit as a produc-
tion scheduler. Originally from Chicago,
Noful earned a Bachelor’s of Science in
Chemical Engineering from the University
of Illinois at Chicago in 2017. While at UIC,
he was an undergraduate research assis-
tant and associate, and he completed an
internship as a quality engineer at Avocet
Polymer Technologies, Inc., in Chicago.
Association News
New ASTM International
standard supports sampling
in pharmaceutical
manufacturing
A new ASTM International standard could
help pharmaceutical manufacturers sup-
port product quality through sampling
done with certain instruments. ASTM
International’s committee on manufactur-
ing pharmaceutical and biopharmaceuti-
cal products developed the new standard
(E3177), which covers both the sample
from which data is taken and the sample
that is taken for reference. ASTM members
say this standard describes for the first
time the considerations around sampling
using process analytical technology, which
most new pharmaceutical products rely on
during development and manufacturing.
ISA adopts FDT 2.0 as
American national standard
FDT 2.0 technology has been fully adopted
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
as the International Society of Automation’s
(ISA) American standards. The standard
will meet demands in the region for
open, standardized device integration on
an enterprise-wide basis. It will enhance
the integration and application of vari-
ous fieldbuses and devices, in addition
to promoting widespread implementation
of standards-based automation solutions.
FDT Group is a member-based, inter-
national nonprofit corporation that
promotes the proliferation of an open
standard for network and asset integra-
tion. The FDT 2.0 standard addresses
market requirements in the American
market by defining the interfaces for
both vertical and the horizontal data
flow, called Function Control and Data
Access, in the framework of a client-
server architecture. It allows application
software and configuration tools to inter-
act with field devices in a unified way,
while hiding the manufacturer-specific
interaction with devices or sub-systems
in a software module.
ASTM International and
UK groups develop
international additive
manufacturing standards
Global standards organization ASTM
International and three U.K.-based
groups are partnering to fast-track
the creation of technical standards
needed by the additive manufacturing
industry. ASTM International identified
three potential areas for standardiza-
tion. British Standards Institution will
coordinate the development of the
three standards, which are focused on
directed energy deposition (DED), one
of seven categories of additive manufac-
turing as defined by ASTM International
and the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO/ASTM 52900). DED
uses focused thermal energy such as
lasers, electron beams and plasma arcs
to fuse materials by melting as they are
being deposited.
ASTM International officials say DED
is not as widely used nor understood as
some of the other additive manufactur-
ing processes, and the lack of standards
is evident.
The three DED standards under devel-
opment include:
• A specification for using wire as a
DED feedstock, helping address
key requirements including com-
position, dimensional tolerances,
contamination, packaging, handling
and storage.
• A standard for nondestructive testing
(NDT) that aims to address typical
causes and natures of DED defects
while also reviewing traditional test
methods for applicability to DED.
• A standard for DED wire-and-arc
additive manufacturing (WAAM),
which aims to cover terminology,
material opportunities and restric-
tions, geometrical constraints, fin-
ishing requirements and inspection.
After the specifications are created
through BSI, ASTM International’s com-
mittee on additive manufacturing technol-
ogies (F42) plans to develop international
standards based on each through a new
licensing agreement. FC
Send news and events for consideration
to Molly Rogers at mrogers@
endeavorbusinessmedia.com.
Upcoming events
ProFood Tech
March 26–28
Chicago
profoodtech.com
INTERPHEX
April 2–4
New York City
interphex.com
Offshore Technology Conference
May 6–9
Houston
otcnet.org
Sensors Expo
June 25–27
San Jose, California
sensorsexpo.com
March 2019 | 7
 Application Corner
By David W. Spitzer
Chemical composition of natural gas:
A game of alphabet soup
S
ometimes, the obvious is not quite
evident. Have you specified a flow-
meter for natural gas service in your
career? I suspect that a few individuals
routinely specify natural gas flowmeters,
while many others have specified a hand-
ful of such flowmeters in their careers,
and the remainder has not specified any
flowmeters for natural gas service.
Regardless of where you fall in this
spectrum, consider how you would
describe the process fluid in your speci-
fication. The obvious choice would be
“natural gas,” and you would be in good
company if this was your response.
However, natural gas is not a pure sub-
stance but rather a naturally occurring
gas that largely contains methane but
can also contain significant amounts of
other combustible and inert gases. The
North American Energy Standards Board
(NAESB) suggests that a typical natural
gas composition consists of 94.9 percent
methane, 2.5 percent ethane, 1.6 per-
cent nitrogen, 0.7 percent carbon diox-
ide, 0.2 percent propane, 0.03 percent
each of iso-butane and normal-butane,
0.1 percent oxygen, 0.01 percent each
of iso-pentane, normal-pentane and hex-
anes, and a trace of hydrogen. However,
NAESB suggests that these percentages
can vary considerably, such as 87 to 96
8 | March 2019
percent methane, 1.8 to 5.1 percent
ethane or 1.3 to 5.6 percent nitrogen.
In short, the chemical composition of
natural gas at a given location is deter-
mined by the nature of its source and
treatment. Further, the composition of the
natural gas can be different than typical
NAESB natural gas and can vary over
time as its source ages and/or changes.
Therefore, its physical properties such
as its density, heat content and thermal
properties can be different and vary over
time. This reality begs one to question
whether these (potentially large) differ-
ences from a typical NAESB composition
can affect the measurement of the flow
of natural gas.
Read more on this topic next month. FC
David W. Spitzer is a principal at Spitzer
and Boyes, LLC, which offers engineering,
focused market research, writing/editing
white papers, strategic marketing consult-
ing, distribution consulting, seminars and
expert witness services for manufacturing
and automation companies. Spitzer has
written more than 400 technical articles
and 10 books about flow measurement,
instrumentation and process control. He
can be reached at 845-623-1830 or via
spitzerandboyes.com.
Flow Control
 A flowmeter that measures velocity is designed to measure the

Quiz Corner flow of a gas whose temperature is controlled within 3°C of its
setpoint of 27°C. What is the approximate flow error resulting
from the expected temperature fluctuation?
A. ±1 percent B. ±3 percent C. ±5 percent D. ±10 percent

T
he output of a flowmeter that measures fluid velocity
will increase (or decrease) linearly as the size of the
fluid increases (or decreases). Therefore, the effect
of a 3°C temperature change on the flow measurement
depends upon the amount by which the gas volume changes.
One might be tempted to select Answer D because the
temperature change is almost 10 percent (27°C to 30°C).
However, the change in size of the gas is related to the
change in its absolute temperature, which is relative to
the temperature at which all heat is removed — not rela-
tive to the freezing and boiling points of water.
The setpoint of 27°C was, not coincidentally, chosen
for this application because it approximates room tem-
volume change (Charles’ Law), so Answer A is correct.
The answer may seem academic but a deeper under-
standing reveals that even relatively small temperature
variations under nonextreme operating conditions can
have a significant effect on flowmeter performance,
especially since flowmeter accuracy specifications are
often better than 1 percent of rate. The effect under
actual conditions can be dramatically larger.
Additional complicating factors
Flowmeters that do not measure linearly as a function of
velocity will exhibit different relationships. For example, a
differential pressure flowmeter will exhibit approximately
vchal/iStock

perature and corresponds to an absolute temperature of one-half the error as compared to a linear flowmeter. In
300 Kelvin. A 3°C temperature change represents a 1 contrast, thermal flowmeters should not be affected by
percent change in absolute temperature and a 1 percent temperature variations. FC

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com March 2019 | 9

Cover Story: Pharmaceutical Processing

Choosing alternatives to silicone

for pharmaceutical tubing
To secure a supply chain during a global constraint
of silicone, flexibility is key.
By Eric Rentsch, Cole-Parmer

T
he recent global constraint of
siloxane — a key ingredient in
silicone — has caused extended
lead times and increased pricing, creat-
ing headaches in supply chains across
the market that are sourcing this mate-
rial. Unfortunately, the constraint may
continue for many months; one major
source of silicone tubing is projecting
another 12 months of restricted flow
of siloxane.
Over the past few decades, silicone’s
dominance in the medical and pharma-
ceutical marketplace has expanded,
and various competitive elastic
materials have been developed
to grab some market share. The
associated benefits are as numer-
ous as the formulations available:
reduced costs, longer pumping life (for
those formulations designed to work in
peristaltic pumps), expanded chemical
and temperature compatibility, decreased
gas permeability and higher purity, to Figure 1. Masterflex L/S pump with Easy-Load II pump head and Puri-Flex tubing is biocompatible, heat
name a few. To quickly navigate this sealable and weldable. It has a longer peri-pump life and handles higher pressures compared to silicone.
sea of available silicone alternatives, first All images courtesy of Cole-Parmer
determine the critical process parameters
and the reason silicone was chosen, and the rate of the economy, leading to a excess capacity. However, at facilities that
then choose a source that can complete spike in demand. This new demand is produce siloxane, changes such as new
the fluid path for the need. reflected in the facilities popping up in environmental regulations, work stop-
growth markets such as those in the pages and a complete production facil-
Overview of the Asia-Pacific region. ity being taken out of the global capacity
siloxane constraint In addition to the new demand create a ripple effect downstream. Raw
Naturally, the demand for silicone prod- increase, supply constraints have been material lead times and prices have
ucts will increase alongside the gains in introduced. Normally, if one region’s increased, affecting the manufacturing
the global economy, which have been capacity was tight or experiencing issues plants that require the flow of siloxane to
robust. However, pharmaceutical, medi- with the flow of components or ingredi- produce the products used in personal
cal and construction industries have ents needed for production, the solu- lives or to make other items for the global
recently been expanding faster than tion would be to explore other regions for economy (e.g., vaccines, drugs, etc.).

10 | March 2019 Flow Control

Choosing an alternative
tubing formulation
Unfortunately, in some cases, the timing
needed to source the required grade
of silicone tubing does not match the
production timeline, and an alternative
formulation may be the necessary solu-
tion. To do this, one must first perform
a review of the fluid path. Consider what
is going on inside and outside the tub-
ing, as there are two parts of chemical
compatibility: what impact the fluid has
on the materials around the fluid path
and the impact those materials have on
the fluid being pumped. Other parameters
to consider are the size to accommodate
the needed flow rate, system and ambi-
ent pressure, as well as temperature,
Figure 2. Masterflex PharMed BPT tubing is biocompatible, nontoxic, nonhemolytic and weldable.
It has higher pressure and lower gas permeability compared to silicone.
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
accessibility, batch times and necessary
regulatory requirements. Some external
parameters are welded joints and steril-
ization technique, if necessary.
Internal considerations
Primarily, chemical compatibility needs to
be considered between the process media
and the tube material. Make sure to con-
sider every component of the fluid, espe-
cially if it is in contact with the tubing for a
long time. A quick search on the internet
for chemical compatibility charts of elastic
materials will yield many results. Pick a
few that fit the process and average their
data. Most should agree with one another.
If the fluid cannot be found or the pro-
cess does not fit the test parameters (most
charts assume room temperature), there
are other options. Some tubing suppliers
offer a tubing chemical compatibility kit or
samples of their formulations. This ensures
the customer’s formulation of choice is
compatible with the process. Cole-Parmer’s
tubing kit recommends an immersion test
where the sample tube’s dimensions and
weight are recorded before immersion into
the process media. The time for the sample
immersion should be 48 hours to deter-
mine any potential long-term effects the
process media may have on the formula-
tion. Once the period passes, the tubing is
removed from the fluid. Then it is weighed
and weighed again, noting any physical
changes to the tubing such as cracking,
scarring, brittleness or softening. These
indicate that the media damaged the tub-
ing and would not be recommended. Work
with quality control teams to determine a
suitable change tolerance.
System temperature and pressure
should be reviewed next. Some formu-
lations handle pressure better than oth-
ers. Some are supported by infrastructure
internal to the tubing such as braiding
or mandrel wrapping. The braiding is
inside the tube wall, and mandrel wrap-
ping is external, so they do not contact
the process fluid. Wrapping and exterior
stainless steel braiding typically offers a
higher-pressure maximum than braided
tubing. Alternatively, choosing a more
rigid tubing formulation, such as PTFE
or polypropylene, performs better than
flexible tubing such as silicone at high
system pressures. In addition to pressure,
minimum and maximum temperatures for
system and ambient to the tubing should
be measured. Flexible tubing unsuitable
for lower temperatures becomes brittle,
which may rupture or encourage spall-
ation — the fragmentation of particu-
lates from the inner surface of the tubing
wall. At higher temperatures, the pressure
capacity of the tubing decreases, which
can also lead to burst lines, resulting in
a potential safety hazard. Ideally, one will
find a tubing formulation with a working
temperature range where process tem-
perature is close to the midpoint.
Purity of the formulation is also impor-
tant to consider, especially in downstream
March 2019 | 11

pharmaceutical and medical applications.
There are many testing agencies that pro-
vide standards for purity and safety such as
the U.S. Food & Drug Administration (FDA),
the United States Pharmacopeia (USP),
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization,
and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH)
and Restriction of Hazardous Substances
(RoHS). Both REACH and RoHS have lists
of chemicals determined to be harmful to
human health or the environment by the
European Union. These chemicals include
lead, mercury and phthalate plasticizers
such as DEHP. Both regulations come
under review and receive updates on occa-
sion. If biocompatibility is a concern, look
for formulations certified as USP plastic
class VI or simply USPVI. This classification
outlines the parameters and guidelines
for three main tests: systemic injection,
intracutaneous injection and implantation.
12 | March 2019
Figure 3. Masterflex
bulk-packed
C-FLEX L/S tubing
has a lower gas
permeability and
handles higher
pressures compared
to silicone. It is also
weldable.
The first two inject a range of different
biocompatible fluids such as saline and the
latter simply being implanted into muscle.
FDA 21 CFR is another that sets guidelines
for the testing of materials intended for
human end use.
Most suppliers of high-grade tubing will
supply a certificate of compliance (CoC)
that lists the various regulatory approvals
that the material meets. The certificate
can even offer additional testing informa-
tion as well. However, the latter testing
information is usually gated content and is
part of a more detailed validation packet.
External considerations and
partnering with a supplier
External effects on the tubing are often
overlooked compared to internal effects,
but they are still pertinent. Silicone is
moldable, so it is common that joints
and flow intersections are molded
together. However, not all flexible rub-
bers have this capability. Unfortunately,
there is no rule of thumb whether one
elastomer is weldable or not. The best
solution is to partner with suppliers
and inquire what tubing they can offer
that is weldable. This is also true for
sterilization techniques. Silicone can
withstand the most common steriliza-
tion techniques such as autoclave and
gamma irradiation for some formula-
tions. However, this is not the case for
all alternative formulations.
Overall, to ensure that the correct alter-
native tubing is obtained, it is key to partner
with a competent and resourceful tubing
supplier on a solution. A supplier should
review the complete fluid path and develop
a plan to help ensure a continuous flow of
necessary components to meet produc-
tion timelines. By working through STAMP
(size, temperature, application, media
and pressure) of finding formulations and
components that meet process needs, the
supplier should also work on the necessary
regulatory approval documentation, stock-
ing and application support and do so from
a global perspective, that is, find stocking
locations around the globe. Let them help
to confirm purity and compliance to regula-
tions required by the process.
How does one trust the recommenda-
tions or information from a supplier? The
supplier should have comprehensive
traceability and purity documentation of
its formulations such as a certificate of
compliance and validation guides; specific
test data is also usually available upon
request. Additionally, they should have
quality trained support staff available to
assist with any questions one may have
regarding their products.
Be flexible, like silicone rubber
The siloxane supply constraint is not
expected to be resolved until after 2019,
so it would be wise for customers of
silicone tubing to consider validating
alternative formulations to ensure con-
tinuity of product in their supply chain.
This is not new information. Preparation
and flexibility have always been good
practices to follow, whether there is a
Flow Control
supply shortage or not. Making sure the
process has some flexibility in its critical
parameters mitigates unpredictability in
supply forecasts, and having some safety
stock ensures no downtime if a shortage
occurs. Any supplier of quality tubing
should collaborate on a process to help
keep a business moving forward. FC

Eric Rentsch is the prod-

uct marketing manager
for the fluid handling
business unit at Cole-
Parmer. He is responsible for Masterflex,
MasterflexLive and Ismatec brand mar-
keting initiatives including new product
launches. Prior to this role, Rentsch was
a technical expert at Cole-Parmer where
he assisted customers with product
selection, education and troubleshoot- Figure 4. Masterflex L/S stainless steel process pump with Easy-Load II pump head,
open-head sensor and Tygon E-LFL tubing is an alternative formulation to silicone for
ing. He can be reached at eric.rentsch@ a range of liquid transfers, including in labs and bioprocess applications.
coleparmer.com.

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com March 2019 | 13

Features: Valves

Considering innovative
flow control valves
for highly demanding
applications
Direct-sealing diaphragm valves can
handle wide flow coefficient ranges
and harsh environments.
By Jeff Jennings, Equilibar

A
s manufacturing processes
become increasingly complex, it
is common for fluid control appli-
cations to involve increasingly demanding
requirements. These requirements can
include extremely low or extremely high
differential pressure (DP), wide flow coef-
ficient ranges, two-phase flow and super-
critical states. As a result, choosing the
right flow control solution can be a much
more complicated task than it used to be.
A wide variety of flow control valves are
available to meet specific requirements.
Popular choices include rising stem globe-
style valves, rotating ball valves and slide
gates. Each class of valve offers custom-
ized variants for extreme pressure, extreme
temperatures, corrosion resistance and
specific flow ranges. Even so, chemical
engineers often encounter problems find-
ing the perfect flow control solution for a
particular combination of circumstances.
A new approach
Direct-sealing diaphragm valves with dome-
loaded actuation have been used to control
back pressure for more than 10 years. They
are especially well-suited for processes
requiring wide flow range, high precision,
two-phase flow and other specific demands.
Accordingly, the devices have been adopted
in applications including catalysis research,
core sampling, gas chromatography and
supercritical extraction.
Figure 1. Equilibar direct-sealing diaphragm valve with a pilot regulator.
Recently, innovative engineers and
scientists have begun adapting direct-
sealing diaphragm valves to control flow
rate in complex applications. They have
discovered that these devices offer the
same advantages for flow control that
they offer for pressure control, making
them suitable for scenarios that cannot
be solved by traditional methods.
Some of the demanding requirements
involved in these applications include:
• Flow coefficient (Cv) ranges wider
than traditional valves (>100:1)
• Extremely low DP and extremely
high DP
• Two-phase, phase-change and
supercritical states
How it works
Diaphragms are frequently used in pressure
Courtesy of Equilibar
regulators to sense pressure and actuate
valve movement. Standard diaphragm
valves use a mechanically actuated dia-
phragm to seal against a weir, typically
for on/off service. The direct-sealing dia-
phragm valve (as shown in Figure 1) takes
a completely different approach by using
multiple orifices and pneumatic pilot pres-
sure on top of the diaphragm to create
precise control across a wide range of flow.
As shown in Figure 2, the device works
in conjunction with a pilot pressure controller
and a flowmeter in a control loop. A pro-
portional-integral-derivative (PID) controller
monitors the flow from a flow transmitter
(FT) and adjusts the pilot pressure to bring
the flow under control. An electro pneumatic
transducer (E/P) translates the electronic
signal into a pressure signal for the pilot
controller. Flow is decreased by raising the

14 | March 2019 Flow Control


Figure 2. The direct-sealing diaphragm valve works in conjunction with a pilot pressure controller and a
flowmeter in a control loop. Courtesy of Equilibar
pilot pressure up to the media supply pres-
sure. Flow is increased by lowering the pilot
pressure below the media supply pressure.
The PID controller must be switched to
direct mode instead of the more com-
mon inverse mode, as pressure must be
increased in response to an increase in flow.
See Figure 3 for a comparison of a
traditional globe control valve and a
direct-sealing diaphragm valve.
Pilot pressure control
A high-resolution pressure controller is
required to provide the pilot pressure for
the diaphragm valve throughout the full
range of the supply pressure. A single
proportional control valve can be used to
provide this control. Single-valve configura-
tions could include either a fill control valve
with fixed bleed orifice or a fixed fill orifice
and a bleed control valve. Another option
is to use a commercial electronic pressure
controller with two proportional valves to
minimize gas usage. Regardless of the
configuration, it is important to select a
controller with high resolution and negli-
gible deadband (less than 0.01 percent).
Application example #1:
Phase-change gases
Berlin-based Integrated Lab Solutions,
Gmbh, (ILS) develops automated labora-
tory testing systems worldwide. ILS sys-
tems allow customers to conduct process
research and development (R&D) with a
strong focus on catalyst and materials R&D.
Laboratory R&D systems like these require
enormous flexibility in flow rate, pressure,
temperature and chemical compatibility.
ILS faced a specific problem in the dosing
of propylene for a particular R&D system.
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
As a liquefied gas, propylene undergoes
strong Joule-Thomson cooling and phase
change during the expansion and pressure
drop of the dosing valve. These effects,
combined with the tendency to swell elas-
tomeric seals, make flow control of this
fluid especially difficult. ILS previously
used needle-type globe control valves.
These control valves are a proven tech-
nology where steady-state conditions with
Figure 3. Graph shows the flow versus actuation pressure for a traditional globe control valve compared
to a direct-sealing diaphragm valve. Courtesy of Equilibar
minimal downtime are of primary impor-
tance. However, ILS found the 15:1 flow
coefficient turndown ratio of this type of
valve extremely limiting for such R&D appli-
cations where the ability to test a wide
parameter space is of utmost importance.
The founder and creative force behind
ILS, Dr. Anton Nagy, developed and suc-
cessfully implemented a dosing system
using a direct-sealing diaphragm valve to
meet the application’s broad requirements
— one of the first commercial applications
of these valves for flow control. The system
uses an Equilibar direct-sealing diaphragm
control valve downstream of a manual
Swagelok pressure-reducing regulator and a
Bronkhorst mass flow controller (as shown
in Figure 4). The nitrogen pilot pressure for
the diaphragm valve was controlled by rede-
ploying the flow control valve supplied with
the mass flow controller. The ILS system
was able to control the propylene dosing
Figure 4. The system
developed by ILS uses a
direct-sealing diaphragm
valve downstream of a
manual pressure-reducing
regulator and a Bronkhorst
mass flow controller.
Courtesy of ILS
March 2019 | 15
 across wide ranges of absolute pressures,
differential pressures and flow rates.
“We dosed liquefied gases both with
and without flashing in the valve and
saw no effect on flow control, which is
amazing,” Nagy said. “We can say con-
clusively that the implementation of a
direct-sealing diaphragm valve gave us
equal or superior performance for all the
conditions we tested.”

Application example #2:

Ultra-wide Cv range
Armand Bergsma of Pressure Control
Solutions (PCS), a fluid control specialty
company in Veenendaal, the Netherlands,
also recognized the advantages of using
direct-sealing diaphragm valves to address
wide-ranging flow control applications.
PCS works extensively with research sci-
entists throughout Northern and Western
Figure 5. Graph of measured mass flow rate versus setpoint using a direct-sealing diaphragm valve. Plot also Europe who are testing the boundaries.
shows pilot pressure delivered to the direct-sealing diaphragm valve to control flow. Courtesy of PCS “Experimental setups are often well-
engineered processes built to explore
a broad range of process conditions,”
Bergsma said. “Often, the process condi-
tions are only roughly known; therefore,
these conditions need to be flexible
but kept as constant as possible during
experiments. We often receive inquiries
for applications that require instrumenta-
tion that can operate over a large range.”
For one particular client application,
PCS needed to develop a system capable
of dosing both H2 and Cl2 gases with inlet
pressures from 100 bar to 5 bar and with
flow rates from 5 gram/hour up to 700
gram/hour (see Figure 5). Such an applica-
tion carries an impressive range of flow Cv
from 1E-5 to 2E-2 and a turndown ratio of
approximately 2500:1. Bergsma demon-
strated the system using the Bronkhorst
Coriolis-type mass flowmeter and propor-
tional control valve together with a direct-
sealing diaphragm valve from Equilibar.

Valve considerations
In most chemical process flow control
applications, a traditional globe or needle-
style control valve will be the most econom-
ical and convenient solution. Advantages
of these methods include:
• Highly proven, rugged design

16 | March 2019 Flow Control

 • Industry approvals such as
American Petroleum Institute
• Convenient actuation (3 to 15 psig
air or electric motor actuation)
• Defined fail-open and fail-closed
spring states
While the direct-sealing diaphragm
valve approach offers distinct advantages,
it is more complex than many traditional
methods. Implementing this approach
involves the following requirements:
• An instrument gas supply, such as air
or nitrogen, is required equal to the sup-
ply pressure of the fluid being controlled.
For higher pressure applications, this
can require using bottled nitrogen.
• A high-resolution pressure controller
is required to control pilot pressure
in the same range as the fluid supply
pressure. Electronic pressure control-
lers can be more expensive for higher
pressure ranges.
• Depending on the configuration of the
pilot pressure controller, the PID con-
troller may need to be switched to
direct mode. In some cases, further
modifications may be required to the
PID configuration.
• A block valve may be required to pre-
vent high flow in the event of loss of
pneumatic supply pressure.
Jennings has more than 30 years of
Jeff Jennings, PE, is engineering experience including 16
founder and president years with The DuPont Company. He
of Equilibar, LLC, which holds several international patents and
designs and manufac- continues active research in the field
tures direct diaphragm sealing back of fluid controls. He may be reached at
pressure regulators and flow control jeff.jennings@equilibar.com. For more
valves near Asheville, North Carolina. information, visit equilibar.com.
System Beneits:
• High accuracy low measurement
• Flow sensor can be used as single use to prevent
cross-contamination or re-used
• No moving parts -> no particle generation
• Improved bubble robustness due to DSP technology
• Easy integration into OEM equipment via analog
and digital output signals
• Product contact materials are gamma sterilizable
polypropylene & USP Class VI
Technical Details:
• Sanitary lange inlet/out
• Flow range up to 80 L/min
• Pressure range up to 72 psi

Advantages for demanding

application requirements
Process engineers should consider direct-
sealing diaphragm valves as a possible solu- PART #: FMT-LFS
tion when application parameters exceed
the ranges commercially available from tra-
ditional control valves. These direct-sealing
diaphragm control valves have been proven
to perform in the following conditions:
• Wide range of required flow Cv
• Highly corrosive gases and liquids
(available in exotic alloy bodies
and diaphragms with FFKM)
Four different size
• High temperature (seals available tubes available
up to 500ºC)
• Sanitary and biopharmaceutical
applications (available with USP
Class VI diaphragms)
• Extremely low flow rates (controls
Princeton, NJ USA • www.pendotech.com
Cv down to 1E-9) FC

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com March 2019 | 17

Features: Mixers
The flow of fluids in mixers
Design, operating arrangement and power
requirements play a role when selecting the
right mixer for product quality.
By Amin Almasi
M
ixers are widely used to mix
different materials and facili-
tate processes and reactions
in industrial and manufacturing plants.
However, little has been published for
engineers about these machines. The
specific design, operating arrangement
and power requirements of mixers and
mixing systems depend largely on the
degree of mixing and the desired form of
mixed product. In most cases, the mix-
ing process is for intermediate mixing of
product that will be used in the process,
reaction, production and manufacturing.
Therefore, quality and characteristics of
mixing play a major role in the operation
as well as the quality and quantity of
the final product.
Mixing applications
Mixing is applied to achieve specified results
in many different situations and applica-
tions, including: creating a suspension of
18 | March 2019
solid particles, blending miscible liquids,
dispersing gases through liquids, blending or
dispersing immiscible liquids in each other,
and promoting heat transfer between a fluid
or different fluid and the coil or jacket of
a heat exchanging device, among others.
The operating characteristics and
design configuration of a mixer or mix-
ing system are based on the power rating
and required energy expenditure to create
or approximate a homogeneous fluid. For
example, in producing an emulsion, suf-
ficient installed mixer power should be
available, and enough energy should be
applied to break up the dispersed phase.
In doing so, high shear stresses, which
depend on velocity gradients, are devel-
oped in the mixing medium.
In zones where the velocity gradient
approaches a maximum, an intensive
breaking up of the dispersed phase
occurs. Mixing action reduces concen-
tration and temperature gradients in the
baranozdemir/iStock
mixing materials, thus exerting a favorable
situation for a homogeneous product. This
applies particularly to dissolving applica-
tions, electrolysis, crystallization, absorp-
tion, extraction, heating or cooling and
heterogeneous reactions, which proceed
mostly in a liquid medium.
Increased turbulence of the fluid
caused by mixing leads to a decrease in
the fluid’s boundary layer thickness. This
is derived from a continuous renewal of
the surface contact area, resulting in a
pronounced rate of increase in heat and
mass transfer mechanisms.
Mechanical mixers and
pneumatic mixers
Regardless of the medium that is mixed,
whether liquid-liquid, gas-liquid, liquid-
solid, etc., two basic methods are
employed for the mixing. These are
mechanical mixers, which use differ-
ent types of impellers, and pneumatic
mixers, which use air or an inert gas
to affect mixing. In addition to these
options, mixing is achieved in normal
fluid handling operations, such as in
pumps and jet flows. This might be con-
sidered as mechanical mixing. In fact,
pneumatic mixers have been commonly
specified and used.
Flow Control
Major characteristics
of mixing
Two major characteristics of all mixing
devices that provide a basis for compara-
tive evaluations include:
• Efficiency of a mixing device
• Intensity of mixing
The efficiency of a mixer or mixing
device characterizes the quality of the
process to be treated. This is often
expressed differently depending on the
mixing purpose. For example, in producing
suspensions, mixing efficiency is charac-
terized by the uniform distribution of the
solid phase in the volume of product.
For the intensification of thermal and dif-
fusion processes, it is characterized by
the ratio of mixed and unmixed heat and
mass transfer coefficients, respectively.
Mixing efficiency depends not only on the
design of mixer or mixing equipment, but
also on the amount of energy introduced
in the liquid or materials being agitated.
The intensity of mixing is determined
by the time required to achieve a desired
result or by the mixer speed for mechani-
cal mixers. It is nearly always beneficial
to achieve the required mixing effect in
the shortest possible time. In evaluating
the energy required for a mixing opera-
tion, total energy consumption should be
considered during the time needed to
achieve a specified mixing result.
Mechanical mixers
Mechanical mixers or mechanical mixing
devices comprise three basic parts: an
impeller, a shaft and a driver system,
which usually includes a speed-reduc-
ing gearbox. The impeller constitutes
the working element of the apparatus,
mounted on a vertical, horizontal or
inclined shaft. The shaft may be con-
nected directly to an electric motor —
usually a low-speed one — or through a
gearbox. While there are many impeller
types for mixers, the three most widely
used are: propeller, turbine and paddle
mixers. The shaft can be rotating verti-
cally, horizontally or an inclined shaft.
The propeller type is similar to an air-
craft propeller. The turbine type resem-
bles a turbine, centrifugal pump impeller
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
or marine propeller. Depending on the
height of the liquid layer, one shaft may
carry one, two or three propellers.
Propeller mixers
Propeller mixers are used in different ser-
vices and applications. Due to their more
streamlined shape, a propeller mixer’s
power requirements are less than other
types of mixers at the same Reynolds num-
ber. They are capable of high-speed opera-
tion without the use of a gearbox, hence
provide a more cost-effective operation
because there are no mechanical losses
in the gear system and transmission.
Propeller mixers produce an axial flow,
which has a great pumping effect and pro-
vides short mixing times. Disadvantages
compared to paddle and turbine mixers
include higher initial cost, the sensitiv-
ity of operation to the geometry of the
container (vessel or tank) and its location
within the tank/vessel. They should not
be used in square tanks or in vessels with
flat or concave bottoms.
Mixing efficiency depends not only on the design of
mixer or mixing equipment, but also on the amount
of energy introduced in the liquid being agitated.
A rotating propeller traces out a helix in
the fluid, from which a full revolution moves
the liquid longitudinally to a fixed distance.
There is a flow of materials, which results
from the delivery head of the propeller
and the helical turbulent flow of the entire
contents of the container or vessel. This is
caused by the radial velocity gradients in
the liquid strata at different distances from
the impeller. At high rotational speeds, the
entire fluid mass swirls despite the axial
flow, and a central vortex begins to form
around the shaft.
Draft tubes are employed to improve
the mixing of large quantities of liquids
by directing the motion of the liquid. In
such applications, a high pumping capac-
ity of the mixer is used, especially where
mixtures of low viscosity are concerned.
The draft tube directs the flow to the
regions of the vessel (or tank) that oth-
erwise would not be agitated by the liquid
stream. In the absence of draft tubes and
at high rotational velocities of the propel-
ler, baffles are generally located at vari-
ous points in the vessel or tank. Baffles
minimize vortex formation and divide it
into a number of local eddies, increasing
the total turbulence of the tank or vessel.
Depending on the application, multiple
impellers may be mounted on a single
revolving shaft, and more than one shaft
may be employed in a given tank or ves-
sel. In some applications, it is desirable
to have two adjacent impellers rotating
in opposite directions, forming a beater.
Propeller mixers are used for mixing
liquids in a wide range of viscosities. They
are suitable for the formation of low-vis-
cosity emulsions, for dissolving applica-
tions and for liquid-phase reactions. As a
rule of thumb for suspensions, the upper
limit of the particle size is 0.1 to 0.5 mil-
limeters, with a maximum dry residue of
10 percent. While these are preferred
values, some mixers have been used
outside the mentioned values. Propeller
mixers are unsuitable for suspending rapid
settling substances and for the absorption
of gases. Propellers are usually provided
on the basis of data obtained from prop-
erly executed modeling experiments.
Turbine mixers
Turbine mixers represent an important class
of mixers. A turbine mixer is like a centrifugal
pump impeller; it has essentially a constant
blade angle with respect to a vertical plane,
over its entire length or over finite sections,
having blades either vertical or set at an
angle less than 90 degrees with the verti-
cal. Blades may be curved or flat.
Turbine mixer operation is analogous to
that of a centrifugal pump impeller working
in a vessel against negligible back pres-
sure. The mixing action is accomplished
by the turbine blades, which entrain and
discharge the liquid. The predominantly
radial flow from the impeller impinges onto
the vessel walls, where it splits into differ-
ent streams. These streams cause mixing
March 2019 | 19
by their energy. When turbine mixers are
operated at sufficiently high rotational
speeds, both radial and tangential flows
become pronounced, along with vortex
formation. This flow situation needs the
installation of baffles to ensure a more
uniform flow distribution throughout the
mixing vessel or tank.
Paddle mixers
Paddle mixers are devices consisting of two
or more blades mounted on a vertical or
inclined shaft. The main advantages of
paddle mixers are their simplicity and low
cost. A disadvantage is their small pumping
capacity (a slow axial flow), which does not
provide a thorough mixing of the volume of
the tank or vessel. Perfect mixing is obtained
only in a relatively thin stratum of liquid in the
immediate vicinity of blades. The turbulence
spreads outward slowly and imperfectly into
the entire contents of the tank (or vessel);
hence, circulation of the liquid is slow.
20 | March 2019
Because of a concentration gradient
that often is created in the liquid when
these mixers are used, they are often
considered unsuitable for continuous
operation. This can be remedied by tilt-
ing the paddle blades 30 to 45 degrees
to the axis of the shaft, resulting in an
increase in axial flow and, consequently,
a decrease in concentration gradients.
Such a mixer can keep particles sus-
pended, provided settling velocities are
not high. Mixers with tilted blades are
used for slow reactions, which are not
limited by diffusion.
To increase the turbulence of the
medium in tall tanks or vessels with a
large height-to-diameter ratio, a special
configuration of multilevel paddle mixer
has been introduced. This consists of sev-
eral paddles mounted one above the other
on a single shaft. The separation between
individual paddles lies in the range of 0.4
to 0.9 times the diameter of the paddle
and is selected according to the viscosity
of the mixture. Paddle diameters are usu-
ally slightly smaller than the inside diam-
eter of the tank in such applications, so
the outer and bottom edges of the paddle
move close to the walls and bottom.
Leaf-shaped (broad-blade) paddle mix-
ers are used in some applications. They
provide a predominant tangential flow
of liquid, but there is also turbulence at
the upper and lower edges of the blade.
Leaf-type blades are usually employed for
services such as mixing low-viscosity liq-
uids, intensifying heat transfer processes,
promoting reactions in a reactor vessel
and for dissolving materials. For dissolving
applications, leaf blades usually are perfo-
rated. During the mixer’s rotation, jets are
formed at the exits from the holes, which
promote the dissolution of materials.
The rotational velocity of paddle mixers
is in the range of 15 to 60 rpm; however,
some special types might be operated
outside of this speed range. For these
mixers, the pumping action is small,
and there is generally no danger of vor-
tex formation. As such, paddle mixers
are most often used in vessels or tanks
without baffles. However, for broad-blade
paddles, which operate at speeds up to
120 rpm, baffles are incorporated into
the design to minimize vortex formation.
Conclusion
Millions of mixers in many types and mod-
els are used in industrial plants and facili-
ties. Careful consideration of the quality
and characteristics of the mixer can help
determine the right one for the process,
ensuring the desired quality and quantity
of final products. FC
Amin Almasi is a senior
r ot at ing machiner y
and equipment consul-
tant. He is a chartered
Professional Engineer of Engineers
Australia and IMechE. Almasi is an active
member of Engineers Australia, IMechE,
ASME and SPE and has authored more
than 100 papers and articles dealing with
rotating equipment, condition monitoring,
offshore, subsea and reliability.
Flow Control
Features: Flowmeters

Advanced wiring technologies

for Coriolis flowmeters
Two-wire Coriolis flowmeters with diagnostics are now a
viable option for many facilities including chemical plants,
refineries and power generation stations.
By Anthony Gentile, Emerson Automation Solutions

C
oriolis flowmeters are a proven and
highly reliable technology in the
flow measurement field. They are
known for accuracy and consistency,
but until recently, this technology was
not considered for plants that could only
accommodate two-wire devices due to a
variety of reasons.
When considering replacing legacy two-
wire flowmeters, many facilities lack the
necessary cable rack space due to years
of unmined cable to upgrade to standard
four-wire Coriolis flowmeters. And, while
plant managers may wistfully sigh and say
they are simply using what is available,
the reality is, these same plant manag-
ers will continue to deal with unexpected
shutdowns, accuracy issues, unplanned
maintenance or a need for workarounds.
Budgets are getting tighter, and many
facilities need to find ways to increase
efficiencies with less staff, especially as
highly skilled workers are retiring at an
increasing rate. So, what is the solution
and how does it work?

Coriolis flowmeter
reliability
What makes a Coriolis flowmeter so reli-
able in the first place? The obvious
answer is that the meter has no moving
parts that require servicing or replace-
ment. But there’s more to the story.
Even though Italian scientist Giovanni
Battista Riccioli first described the actual
Coriolis effect in 1651, noting that a
cannonball fired to the north will deflect
to the west due to the rotation of the
Earth, it wasn’t until 1835 when French
Figure 1. Built-in diagnostic tools make data collection and analysis easier.
All images courtesy of Emerson Automation Solutions
mathematician and scientist Gaspard- principles by inducing a vibration in tubes
Gustave de Coriolis first mathematically that a fluid passes through. The vibra-
noted the Coriolis effect. tion along the tubes provides a rotating
From Coriolis’ work in mathematical frame of reference that indicates the
notation, it became possible to deter- Coriolis effect.
mine and clearly describe the Coriolis Specific methods may vary depending
effect in more than just the Earth’s rota- on the design of the meter, but the
tion and the meteorological effects cre- changes in the vibration observed rep-
ated by that rotation. A flowmeter uses resent the mass flow rate and density of
the same mathematically measurable the fluid, which can be mathematically

www.flowcontrolnetwork.com March 2019 | 21


Figure 2. A visual and mathematical representation of mass flow rate
calculated to give an accurate density
and flow rate measurement.
Because of the simplicity and effective-
ness of the design, a Coriolis flowmeter
is highly accurate under a range of cir-
cumstances. It can accommodate signifi-
cant turndown as well to meet efficient
and safe plant operating requirements.
Particularly in the hydrocarbon and chemi-
22 | March 2019
cal industries, a turndown ratio of 50:1 is
a desirable option to meet flow needs and
process parameters.
The desire for two-wire
technology
When many of today’s chemical plants,
refineries and power generation stations
were built, Coriolis flowmeters were not
available in a two-wire configuration.
However, with advances in technology,
this is now a viable option. For many
plants that have historically used two-
wire technology and are now in need of
retrofitting, this is good news.
In the past, many plants had to use
whatever was available in the market,
which included differential pressure
(DP), positive displacement (PD) and
turbine meters. Each of these meters
presents challenges with reliability
and accuracy; not the least of those
problems is that they all have moving
parts that can wear out, need mainte-
nance and lead to unscheduled plant
shutdowns.
Historically, turbine meters have been
relatively inexpensive, but when adding
up regular scheduled and unscheduled
maintenance, part replacement and
revenue lost through scheduled — and
unscheduled — downtime over the life
of the meter, they become far less of
a bargain.
Flowmeter reliability
is key
In industries where volatility is an issue
and an unnoticed change in the mate-
rial flowing through the pipes can spell
disaster — ranging from lost material and
revenue, to plant shutdowns, to the pos-
sibility of causing an unsafe plant environ-
ment — reliability of the equipment and
tools is a critical must.
Not only do meters need to operate
within set parameters, but also provide
the ability to add in the right diagnostic
tools to help improve overall measure-
ment data. Having the right diagnostics
is like having an engineer built right into
the meter, checking all elements of the
flow and alerting users to problems well
before they become critical.
Meter diagnostics have been an inte-
gral part of the standard Coriolis flow-
meter and are now a part of a two-wire
Coriolis flowmeter, giving the meter an
advantage over existing technologies.
These added tools make the Coriolis
flowmeter more accurate and reliable,
which saves costs over the life of the
flowmeter.
Flow Control
Capital expense versus ROI for success and have a greater ability to Solutions, Micro Motion. He has 15
In any project, from an upgrade or retrofit reduce risks to the processes and the years of experience in the area of
to engineering the configuration and plant — a benefit for management at Coriolis flow measurement and holds
technology of a completely new plant, all levels. FC a bachelor’s degree in chemical engi-
cost is a primary factor in every step of neering and petroleum refining from
the process. Colorado School of Mines, as well as
Consider a retrofit as an example. An Anthony Gentile is a mar- an MBA from Regis University.
existing plant might have cabling in the keting product manager
overhead racks that goes back 40 or 50 with Emerson Automation
years to when the plant first began opera-
tion. Over the years, more cables may
have been added to replace old ones,
but the old cables were left in place
because the plant could not afford to
stand idle during any removal work. Even Connect to the Future NOW ... with
today, removing that much cabling would Festo Digitalization
require significant time and manpower
— an expense no plant wants to put on
its books.
However, a simpler and more cost-
effective solution is to swap out existing
two-wire meters and reuse the exist-
ing cable by installing a Coriolis two-
wire flowmeter without adding wiring
expenses or needing to run piping for
flow conditioning.

Sign of the times I/O &

Modular
Having the best possible tools for the job pilot valve
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increases safety and efficiency and assemblies
system
improves the bottom line. It can also
smooth the transition — as experienced
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goals are met.
Many of those retiring engineers and
technicians take with them decades of
experience on how to work with the infra-
structure, how to read a meter and how
to troubleshoot. They know the shortcuts,
Energy Sanitary
the workarounds and temporary fixes to
eficiency process
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New meters with advanced diagnostic within the facility control systems generate process data that can be mined for optimum
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www.flowcontrolnetwork.com March 2019 | 23

Features: Oil & Gas

Developing alloy-based alternatives

for oil well plugging and abandonment
While cement has been the most widely used abandonment medium,
the development of bismuth alloys offers advantages as an alternative.

By Bob Eden, Rawwater Engineering Company Limited

G
lobally referred to as plugging and abandonment (P&A), the
decommissioning of depleted oil and gas wells involves the
insertion of plugs downhole to seal the reservoir. The objec-
tive is to prevent surface leakage and cross contamination and to
return the integrity of the caprock — penetrated when the well was
first opened — to a predrilled state.
Plugging and abandonment is completed almost exclusively by the
application of cement slurry, typically with three cement plugs inserted
at different depths in the wellbore to achieve a secure seal. The
process consumes hundreds of feet of cement, can cost hundreds
of thousands of dollars per well, can take several days to complete,
and, offshore, requires the use of a rig. The three cement plugs in
the P&A process follows the requirements in the U.K., Norway and
the U.S. for plugging: namely, a primary plug above the depleted
reservoir, a secondary plug (that can also form a continuous seal
with the primary plug), and a surface plug sitting beneath the
seabed (see Figure 1). The plugging process is designed to create

Figure 1. Three cement plugs in

the P&A process
24 | March 2019 All images courtesy of Rawwater

Figure 2. Cross-
section showing
possible routes to
leakage
The bismuth plug is lowered Sensors mounted in a
down the casing on wireline/ dedicated telemetry
slickline, along with the rest module help determine
of the tool string.
when the plug has reached
the desired location. By
measuring temperature,
pressure, depth and
orientation of the plug, the
plug can be placed to a
high degree of accuracy.
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
a permanent barrier, reaching across the
well and securely enclosing downhole flu-
ids and gases. For the North Sea, industry
trade association Oil & Gas UK specifies
a design life of 3,000 years for plugs.
Although cement is the most widely
used abandonment medium both
onshore and offshore, cement plugs have
been found to fail over time, primarily
as a consequence of microcracks and
the subsequent permeability, resulting
in gas leaks. There are, however, various
causes of failure. For example, leakage
can occur through percolation pathways
that formed when the cement plugs were
curing. Leakage can result from cement
shrinkage, reducing overall seal integrity.
Leakage can also occur around the plug
Once in position, an The remaining alloy fills
internal heating system the annular gap between
is activated to melt the the casing ID and the
bismuth alloy. The molten mandrel OD.
alloy flows downward
until it is caught by the
base of the mandrel; the
base is kept cool, which
causes the alloy to freeze
upon contact, forming
the “casting platform.”
and through the formation of secondary
pathways, such as cracks or damaged
annulus cement (see Figure 2).
The leakage of downhole fluids and
gases not only poses an environmental
risk, but also presents a significant finan-
cial burden for the operating companies
that, in the event of plug failure, would
be exposed to additional reabandonment
and replugging costs. Furthermore, re-
entry into a wellbore following plug failure
is a challenging process due to the length
of the cement plugs used, which can be
up to 500 feet in length.
The metal alloy alternative
For an alternative plugging medium to
cement, structural metal alloys — being
Once the bismuth alloy is The casting process is now
solidified, the tool string complete.
is recovered, and the
heater and x-over tool are
left behind with the plug.
Figure 3. Rawwater’s bismuth
plug casting process
March 2019 | 25
 Figure 4. Rawwater’s bismuth plug anatomy: 1. Mandrel | 2. Mandrel rib | 3. Mandrel skirt | 4. Internal heater (cold) | 5. Bismuth alloy reservoir |
6. Cross-over adaptor | 7. Internal heater (hot)

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 The advantages of using structural bismuth alloys
include enhanced long-term plug integrity, longer
plug life and reduced deployment costs.

developed by U.K.-based Rawwater
Engineering Company Limited, which
invented the Bismuth Plug — are strong,
formable and impermeable to withstand
the rigors of both onshore and offshore
applications, and the plugs are capa-
ble of operating effectively from shal-
low to deep wells. The development of
structural bismuth alloys (as opposed
to off-the-shelf eutectics) presents the
opportunity for a reassessment of cur-
rent approaches to well abandonment in
particularly challenging applications. The
advantages of using this type of bismuth
alloy include enhanced long-term plug
integrity, longer plug life and reduced
deployment costs — a factor that is even
more significant offshore. Compared
to the lengthy setting time associated
with cement plugs, which takes days to
complete, the deployment of metal alloy
plugs is undertaken in a matter of hours
(see Figure 3). As the need for a rig ves-
sel is negated, deployment savings are
also accentuated.
Rejecting common bismuth alloys and
through a £1 million developmental pro-
gram, Rawwater has produced a suite
of proprietary expanding metal alloys
for use as high-integrity seals in oil well
abandonment. The alloy properties of
low melting point and expansion upon
solidification are exploited to cast seals
in-situ, but without the inherent creep
issues typical of bismuth tin. The seals
are also highly resistant to corrosion
and have a certified 3,000-year-plus life
expectancy even in harsh environments.
The technology can be applied in a range
of other industries and situations where a
high-integrity seal is required for difficult
and demanding situations.
Why bismuth?
Bismuth has the unusual property of
expanding when solidifying, similar
to water expanding when freezing to
become ice. Bismuth can be combined
with various other metals to produce a
wide range of fusible (low melting tem-
perature) alloys.

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 When expanding bismuth comes in contact with the inside diameter
of the wellbore casing, a large contact load is generated, which leads
to the forming of an ultra-high integrity metal-to-metal seal.
Once molten, bismuth alloys have a
very low viscosity, allowing them to con-
form to the profile of any surface they
come in contact with. When expanding
bismuth comes in contact with the inside
diameter of the wellbore casing, a large
contact load is generated, which leads
to the forming of an ultra-high integrity
metal-to-metal seal. The bismuth casting
process takes only hours. For compari-
son, a 3-foot (0.91 meter) bismuth plug
can outperform a conventional cement
seal, which may be up to 500 feet (152
meters) in length (see Figure 4).
Low-melting-point alloys such as bis-
muth can be applied easily with little heat
input to the substrate — generated either
by an electric charge or by the use of a
pyrotechnic device, dependent on depth
— and have the property of expanding
on solidification to form a tight seal on
almost any surface. The low viscosity
of the molten alloy enables penetration
into porous substrates with pore sizes as
small as 25 microns, with expansion on
solidification giving a gas-tight seal. The
high density of the alloy displaces water
to enable sealing underwater or against
large leaks, while also being easily remov-
able if necessary, or if the output from a
well was merely being suspended at the
time of plugging.
Offshore capability
In 2010, as a demonstration, Rawwater
deployed bismuth alloy seals in two
onshore wells in Alberta, Canada, at
a 1,000-foot depth and 1,000 psi
pressure differential. The bismuth tin
eutectic alloys used in this initial appli-
cation, however, offer limited applica-
bility, especially offshore. To develop
offshore capability and reliability, the
company completed a two-year program
to deliver 7-inch plugs for deployment in
the North Sea, rated to 6,000 psi dif-
ferential pressure at 60 centimeters (2
feet) in length. Extensive development
28 | March 2019
and testing have been conducted in col-
laboration with an operator consortium
to develop the formulation of the metal
seals. The qualification of the alloy has
included material testing, thermal mod-
eling, stress testing, accelerated cor-
rosion testing and compatibility testing
with casing materials.
Strict technical qualification
Having undertaken onshore deployment
trials of a number of novel alloys specifi-
cally formulated for plugging and aban-
donment, Rawwater needed to establish
the mechanical properties and creep
behavior of the alloy as a simulation under
service pressure and temperature condi-
tions. To achieve this, the organization
partnered with the University of Aberdeen
and, through an OGIC-funded (Oil & Gas
Innovation Centre) partnership, deter-
mined the alloy’s creep parameters at
stress and temperature conditions simi-
lar to those experienced downhole. The
result is a suite of alloys for onshore,
offshore and subsea plugging and aban-
donment, with operating envelopes to
cover downhole geothermal temperature
conditions from 158°F to 194°F (70°C
to 90°C) and 284°F to 320°F (140°C to
160°C). These alloys have been subjected
to a strict technical qualification program
overseen by Bureau Veritas, with stringent
adherence to the qualification processes
stipulated by DNV-RP-203 – Jul 2013, ISO
14310 (V0) and Oil & Gas UK. They are
intended as a cost-effective alternative for
sealing well abandonments and resealing
failed abandonments that were previously
plugged using cement. The application
includes both casing plugs and plugs/
seals in undefined and/or rough walled
geometries (e.g., caprock) that are dif-
ficult to seal with existing technologies
such as cement.
As part of the initiative, Astrimar, an inde-
pendent U.K.-based specialist engineer-
ing consultancy, is developing predictive
well integrity modeling software to fore-
cast future plug performance, reflecting
the specific downhole well and casing
conditions and plug material behavior.
These predictions will support well risk
assessments and provision of plug reli-
ability assurance, as well as support the
definition and analysis of Rawwater’s
qualification testing activities. In-house,
Rawwater formulates the new alloys and
test these alloys in custom autoclaves
and downhole-simulated temperature-
controlled pressure chambers to replicate
as close as possible the conditions seen
in service.
Conclusion
Bismuth alloys present an opportunity for
the reassessment of the current
approaches to plugging and abandon-
ment. These plugging solutions may
significantly reduce deployment costs,
particularly when used subsea. FC
Dr. Bob Eden is manag-
ing director of Rawwater
Engineering Company
Limited and serves as
a technology developer for the oil
industry, with activity in the exploita-
tion of innovative technologies for Shell
International and BP. Before estab-
lishing Rawwater, Dr. Eden worked
at UMIST (University of Manchester
Institute of Science and Technology),
developing technologies over 15 years
in the fields of explosive cutting and
cladding, corrosion, subsea engineering
and well technology. His oilfield tech-
nology has included the development
of subsea reservoir injection systems,
bismuth alloy well-sealing technology
for plugging and abandonment and
the development of forecasting tools
for oilfield reservoir souring.
Flow Control
Trade Shows & Events
INTERPHEX 2019
offers pharmaceutical solutions
through innovative technologies
T
he 40th annual International
Pharmaceutical Expo (INTERPHEX)
will be April 2–4 at Javits Center in
New York City. The event brings together
pharmaceutical, biotechnology and man-
ufacturing professionals to “experience
science through commercialization.”
Sponsored by the Parenteral Drug
Association (PDA), INTERPHEX will
include 12,000 global industry pro-
fessionals and more than 625 industry
suppliers coming for exhibits, dem-
onstrations, partnering opportunities,
networking and a no-cost technical con-
ference. Attendees will see the latest
advancements in technology and equip-
ment and have in-person discussions
with subject-matter experts.
Founded in 1946, the PDA is a non-
profit organization that serves as an
industry provider of science, technology
and regulatory information.
INTERPHEX has supported more than
20 North American and worldwide tech-
nology launches.
This year, organizers of the expo will
introduce INNOPHEX, which will feature
dedicated exhibits, a technical conference
and networking opportunities focused on
cell processing, gene therapy and Pharma
4.0 technologies, including robotics, 3D
printing, augmented reality and virtual
reality (AR/VR), Internet of Things (IoT)
and information management.
“With the strength of the North
American gene therapy market and the
emergence of Pharm 4.0, INNOPHEX
offers access to knowledge and solutions
to reduce operational costs, increase
www.flowcontrolnetwork.com
Images courtesy of INTERPHEX
Javits Center | New York City
EXHIBITION SCHEDULE
Tues., April 2, 10 a.m.–5 p.m.
Wed., April 3, 10 a.m.–5 p.m.
Thurs., April 4, 10 a.m.–3 p.m.
interphex.com
flexibility and improve processes and “Growing and sharing knowledge of
productivity in new and innovative ways,” advancements in our industry is part
said Michael Mandl, group vice president of our long-standing commitment to
of INTERPHEX, in an announcement. our customers, colleagues and employ-
“We believe adding INNOPHEX to the ees, and serves as the guiding principle
show floor further strengthens the value behind INNOPHEX and our long-estab-
proposition of INTERPHEX. As a premier lished IPS Technologies Tours,” he said.
“With INTERPHEX’s global reach and key
decision-making attendees, we believe
INNOPHEX will deliver awareness and
knowledge-sharing that might be critical
in getting the next cure to market.”
INTERPHEX will include Exhibitor
Awards presented to suppliers in six
categories: Best in Show, Best New
Product/Service, Editor’s Choice, Best
Technological Innovation, Efficiency
Champion and Biotech Innovation.
In 2018, INTERPHE X debuted
FormulationX, which featured exhibits,
a technical conference and networking
focused on drug substance. Sponsored
by Elsevier, Dow Chemical, Colorcon and
Marcor, FormulationX offered attendees
an opportunity to meet, procure and
industry event, we continually lead the share expertise in a dedicated space
way in showcasing advancements in featuring exhibitors and a no-cost tech-
pharma, bio and device development and nical conference program specific to
manufacturing solutions to develop and drug substance.
manufacture quality product.” As part of INTERPHEX 2018’s techni-
INNOPHEX was organized in collabora- cal conference, U.S. FDA Deputy Director
tion with Integrated Project Services (IPS), Lawrence X. Yu presented to attendees
an engineering firm that specializes in “The Future of Pharmaceutical Quality
projects for highly regulated fields like and the Path to Get There.” Yu shared
the pharmaceutical industry. his expertise and insight on perfor-
Tom Piombino, a vice president with mance-based regulation, advanced
IPS, said in an announcement that com- manufacturing technologies, con-
pany officials were honored to collaborate tinuous improvement and operational
on INNOPHEX. excellence. FC
March 2019 | 29
Featured Products

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Ultrasonic flowmeter Vortex flowmeter

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technology does not require and superheated steam or hot water
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welding. Installation is typically designed in accordance with IEC 61508
less than 10 minutes. It has isolated 4-20 mA output functional safety standards. The all-in-one
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Viatran’s Model 570 Viega’s MegaPress

pressure transmitter with Stainless XL fittings are
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30 | March 2019 Flow Control

 Connect
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@FLOWCONTROL_MAG

Best practices for performing

a storage tank risk assessment
— via @Endress_Hauser |
ow.ly/FMyC30nESgi
Temperature sensors are critical to pharmaceutical
quality assurance since even slight variations in
Pragma (@pragma_well) temperature can affect product quality and safety.
pursues rollout of Downhole
Steam Injection Valve:
These devices need to be checked for reliability and
ow.ly/e0Dg30nESBb accuracy on a regular basis.
–Edward Simpson, RS Calibration Inc.

In this case study, a university

upgrades its HVAC monitoring
system with ultrasonic low
EduardHarkonen/iStock

measurement to meet WHAT'S ON FACEBOOK

environmental goals |
ow.ly/gg1F30nzByP

Quiz Corner: How #lowmeters

operate in different low
regimes | ow.ly/jvLq30nwKxA The effects of temperature
and pressure on
fluid density
How pump manufacturers
and service providers are Knowledge of the density of a fluid
using #virtualreality and and its variation with temperature
and pressure is vital for many flow
#augmentedreality in areas
measurement applications.
such as manufacturing,
assembly, repair, maintenance bit.ly/2SDggdKw
and training personnel:
ow.ly/WuSO30nuPRv
— via @axcontrol
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32 | March 2019
 MULTIPLE INDUSTRIES
THREE BRANDS
ONE POWERFUL NETWORK

ProcessFlowNetwork.com
 Is your
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To achieve Top Quartile

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Emerson’s new fit-for-purpose

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Four independent, non-clogging sensors
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You can now handle aggressive

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The Emerson logo is a trademark and service mark of Emerson Electric Co. ©2019 Emerson Electric Co.