PYL311 LASERS

Laser Doppler Velocimetry

Shubham Jain
2017PH10850

1. Introduction
Laser Doppler Velocimetry(LDV) is an optical technique which uses LASERS to
accurately measure velocities within fluids and gases by detecting frequency differences
in the transmitted and received laser beam after scattering from the fluid. It can make the
desired measurements with very high spatial resolution and has the inherent advantage of
being a non-invasive technique which makes it capable of functioning in a variety of
conditions(such as corrosive fluids) where most other techniques would not be suitable.
This report aims to describe the principles on which the technique works followed by
a description of the various ways in which LDV components can be set up. A discussion
on analysing the results of an LDV measurement and extracting the required velocity
information from the measurements is also presented. Finally, the report discusses in
some detail, the way in which this technique can be used to determine the wind velocity
profile near the boundary layer of wind turbine systems such as a windmill or an aircraft
turbine.

2. Working Principles and Theoretical Background

2.1 Summary of the Doppler Effect

The motion of the observer along the direction of

propagation of a wave leads to a shift in the
frequency of that wave observed by it(compared
to the frequency at which the wave is emitted)

Figure 1: Doppler Effect(Observer Motion)

Similarly, the motion of the wave source along the

direction of wave propagation also leads to a shift
in the frequency as recorded by the observer

Figure 2: Doppler Effect(Source Motion)

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2.2 Fundamentals of LDV

LDV makes use of the Doppler effect to relate the change in frequency of a
wave with the velocity of the moving particles. The setup is made such that the
frequency shift (∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 − 𝑓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 ) is proportional to the velocity of the
particles representing the flow.

β: Angle b/w angle

bisector of k1 -k2 and v

Figure 4: Overview of Basic LDV Setup Figure 3: Angles Involved in LDV

The frequency shift is explained in steps below:

• Step 1: The particle takes on the role of observer

𝑐 − 𝑣⃗. 𝑘̂1 𝑓𝑝 : frequency seen by particle

𝑓𝑝 = 𝑓𝑠 ( )
𝑐 c: speed of light

• Step 2: The scattering particle takes on the role of the source for the detector

𝑐 𝑐 − 𝑣⃗. 𝑘̂1
𝑓𝑑 = 𝑓𝑝 ( ) = 𝑓𝑠 ( )
𝑐 − 𝑣⃗. 𝑘̂2 𝑐 − 𝑣⃗. 𝑘̂2

• Step 3: Expressing ∆𝑓 in terms of parameters α and β (Fig. 4)

∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑑 − 𝑓𝑠
𝑣⃗. (𝑘̂2 − 𝑘̂1 )
∆𝑓 = 𝑓𝑠 ( ) (Assuming 𝑐 ≫ |𝑣|)
𝑐 − 𝑣⃗. 𝑘̂2
2𝑣 𝜆 : Laser Wavelength
∆𝑓 = cos(β) sin(α/2)
𝜆

It is clear from the calculation that the velocity of the particle is directly
proportional to the frequency shift ∆𝑓. Hence, the velocity can be easily
determined by measuring the doppler shift.
It is also worth noting that for measuring fluid velocities, particles of sizes
comparable to the LASER wavelength are seeded into the fluid to represent the
flow of the fluid and scatter the light.

3. Set-Up
LDV can be employed using various set-ups. They differ in characteristics such as
complexity of arrangement and Signal-to-Noise(S/N) ratios [6] and can be chosen from,
according to the specific problem at hand.

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3.1. Comparison of different set-ups

The set-ups are classified in three different categories:

• Local Oscillator Heterodyne

𝑆
( ) ~𝑛𝑝 𝜎𝑝 (𝜆2𝐿 /𝑙𝑠2 )
𝑁

Figure 5: Local Oscillator Heterodyne Set-up [5]

• Differential Heterodyne

𝑆
( ) ~𝑛𝑝 𝜎𝑝 (𝜆2𝐿 /𝑙𝑝2 )
𝑁

Splitter

Figure 6: Differential Heterodyne Set-up [5]

• Symmetric Heterodyne

𝑆
( ) ~𝑛𝑝 𝜎𝑝 (𝜆2𝐿 /𝑙𝑝2 )
𝑁

Figure 7: Symmetric Heterodyne Set-up [5]

(𝑛𝑝 : particle no. density, 𝜎𝑝 : scattering cross-section, 𝜆𝐿 : laser wavelength, 𝑙𝑠 :

scattering dimension, 𝑙𝑝 : particle dimension)

The seed particles are generally smaller than the scattering volume dimensions to
produce distinct scattering bursts(Fig. 10) and so that the particles follow the fluid
trajectory closely. This results in scattering dimensions(𝑙𝑠 ) being greater than the
particle dimensions(𝑙𝑝 ) making the differential and symmetric set-ups preferable in
terms of better signal-to-noise ratio.
A summary of other parameters and how they compare for different setups is given in
Table 1.

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Arrangements
Parameters
Local Oscillator Differential Symmetric
Particle High Low Low
Concentration
Focal Volume Small Large and Small Large and small
Particle Size Large and small Small Small
Frequency Spread High High High
Alignment Difficult Easy Moderate
Complexity of Complex Moderate Simple
Optics
Table 1: Characteristics comparison of different set-ups [7]

3.2. Components of Set-up

The differential heterodyne is the most commonly used LDV set-up. Referring
to Fig. 6, the basic components of the set-up are described.

• LASER: Monochromatic LASER source of known wavelength.

• Beam Splitter and Mirrors: The combination of these two provides two
coherent beams which interfere to produce beats which are finally observed at
the PMT
• Lenses: Used to focus the beams over small localised regions in the fluid and
at the PMT
• Apertures and Pinhole: Used to control the amount of light passing through
different stages of the setup. This control allows for better characterisation of
the set-up.
• Photomultiplier Tube(PMT): It takes the weak incoming radiation and
converts it into an amplified electrical current

The arrangement can be such that the recorded signal is the one which is
backscattered. This gives the advantage of being able to place the PMT in the
same module as the LASER. But since the backscattered wave intensity is lower,
the LASER source in use needs to be of higher power output.

Figure 8: Transmitting and Receiving Optics in the same probe [4]

3.3. Output Analysis

A description of the output at the PMT in a differential set-up is presented
along with the discussion of deriving the particle velocity from the output.
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Figure 9: Schematic of scattering region in Differential Heterodyne Set-up

2𝑣 θ θ
∆𝑓1 = cos ( ) sin (− )
𝜆 4 4
2𝑣 θ θ
∆𝑓2 = cos ( ) sin ( )
𝜆 4 4

When Beam 1 and Beam 2 interfere at the Detector, the resultant wave exhibits
beats of frequency
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = |𝑓1 − 𝑓2 |[2]
2𝑣 𝜃
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = sin ( )
𝜆 2

If we imagine a single particle flowing

through the scattering region inside the
fluid, the resulting signal would be
oscillatory with the frequency 𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 .
The amplitude variation is a result of the
particle entering and leaving the
measurement volume.

Figure 10: Signal Burst recorded as one particle

passes through the measurement region [4]

By measuring the beat frequency then, the velocity can be determined as

𝜆𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑣=
𝜃
2 sin ( 2)

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Example[8]: A fluid with a velocity of 1.5 cm/s measured using a He-Ne

Laser(𝜆 = 6328 Å) intersecting at an angle of 26° would produce beats of
frequency ≈11KHz
It is also worth noting that this set-up is highly preferred over measuring the
Doppler Shift via a primitive 1-beam set-up such as that of Fig.3 because for the
same parameters, the single beam set-up would require the measurement of a
difference of ~10KHz in two beams of ~400 THz i.e. a change of approx. 10-9 %.
This would make the measurement much more difficult and inaccurate.

In real systems, however, the number of particles is greater than 1 and that
introduces some statistical variations in the resultant signal. To deal with that,
specialised data processing systems are used which separate out the required
frequency from the total signal by picking out the beat frequency from the Fourier
Transform of the received signal.

Beam 2

Beam 1

Figure 11: Bragg Cell in the set-up for additional frequency shift[10]

There is also an ambiguity in the direction of the velocity measured such that
there is no way to distinguish whether the particular particle is moving “upward”
or “downward”(refer to Fig. 9). To resolve this ambiguity, a known frequency
shift(φ) is introduced in one of the beams, say beam 1, using a Bragg Cell(as in
Fig 11). Then,

2𝑣 𝜃 2𝑣 𝜃
𝑓𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑡 = |φ + sin ( )| 𝑜𝑟 |φ − sin ( )|
𝜆 2 𝜆 2

for velocity upward and downward respectively. By observing whether the beat
frequency is greater than or smaller than the introduced frequency shift, the
directional ambiguity in the velocity measurement can be removed.

This type of setup can also be used to calculate all 3 components of the particle
velocity using 3 separate source lasers of same or different(for simultaneous use)
wavelengths oriented in three independent directions along with PMTs sensitive
to chosen particular wavelengths. Hence, the fluid flow velocity profile can be
completely determined using Laser Doppler Velocimetry.

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4. Measuring Boundary Layer Velocities on Rotating Blades

There are a number of scenarios where it is important to characterise the wind flow
near rotating blades. In wind turbines, the air flow right at the boundaries of the rotor
blade affects the dynamics of the rotor and in turn, the performance of the turbine. In
aircrafts, the air flow in the wind tunnel of the turbine engine is crucial in the design as
well as performance and diagnostics of the craft. The use of LDV to characterise the air
flow at the boundary layers of such rotors is discussed.

Figure 12: LDV employed in an aircraft Wind Tunnel

Using backscatter Differential Heterodyne arrangement gives the advantage of a

single probe for complete measurement. This arrangement can be used to completely
determine the wind velocity near a wind turbine rotor in the following way.

Figure 13: LDV Arrangement for determining all three components of the wind velocity at the boundary layer of a rotor [9]

u1, u2, u3 can be used to determine the axial(u), tangential(v), and radial(w)
components of the velocity, using simple trigonometry, via the following equations:

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−𝑢2 𝑢3
𝑢 = 𝑢1 cos 𝜃1 + ( + ) sin 𝜃1
tan 𝜃2 sin 𝜃2
𝑣 = 𝑢2
−𝑢2 𝑢3
𝑤 = −𝑢1 sin 𝜃1 + ( + ) cos 𝜃1
tan 𝜃2 sin 𝜃2
Since all three components of the wind velocity is known, the flow is completely
characterised.
The flow characterisation can be used to estimate a number of quantities and
properties. Some examples are:
• The relative velocity of the rotor with respect to wind, which affects the durability of
the rotor.
• The drag coefficient can be determined using the knowledge of the rotor velocity and
the wind velocity.
• The flow type(i.e. laminar or turbulent) and the various parameters which affect the
transition from laminar to turbulent can be analysed, enabling the designer to better
optimise the turbine shape and design.
For ex:- Takao Maeda et al[9] found that for their turbine, the flow transited from
laminar to turbulent near half the width of any turbine blade.
LDV is preferred for this application due to its high spatial resolution(<1mm, in
typical cases) which allows for precise measurements at nearby points at the boundary
layer. The flow transitions and velocity profiles can vary greatly over small distances in
space due to which high spatial resolution becomes extremely desirable.

5. Conclusion
The report has described, in some detail, everything about the LASER Doppler
Velocimetry system, beginning from the basic theoretical principals going till the process
of setting up the components and making the actual measurements. The use of LDV in
determining the air flow pattern close to wind turbines is also discussed. The LDV set-ups
can measure all three components of fluid velocities without any ambiguities as
discussed. The variety of ways in which the velocimetry technique can be used along with
the advantage of being non-invasive and providing high spatial resolution makes it a very
useful way for measuring fluid velocities and characterising different kinds of flows by
measurement which may be difficult or even impossible, in some cases, theoretically.

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.
6. References
[1] NPTEL Lectures – Measurement Technique in Multiphase Flows, Dr. Rajesh Kumar
Upadhyay, IIT Guwahati
[2] Lecture 5 Notes- MIT 8.03SC, Yen-Jie Lee
[3] Lectures on Experimental Methods, Jaywant H. Arakeri, Fluid Mechanics Lab, IISc
Bangalore
[4] Fluid Mechanics Modules, MIT, http://web.mit.edu/fluids-modules/www/
[5] C.P. Wang, Laser doppler velocimetry, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. 40 (1988)309–
319
[6] C P Wang 1972 J. Phys. E: Sci. Instrum. 5 763
[7] C. P. Wang and D. Snyder, "Laser Doppler Velocimetry: Experimental Study," Appl.
Opt. 13, 98-103 (1974)
[8] Kalkert, C., & Kayser, J. (2006). Laser Doppler Velocimetry.
[9] Takao Maeda et al 2014 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 555 012057
[10] NASA Wind Tunnel Index, https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/tunldv.html
[11] VIDYA MITRA- Measurement in Fluid Mechanics-Lecture 4