EE 19 - MODULE 3

THEORY OF OPERATION OF REAL SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER

DIFINITIONS

OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lessons, the students should be able to:

1. Demonstrate understanding several fundamentals concepts used throughout the Manual

including working principle of real single-phase transformer.

2. Able to compute magnetizing current in real transformer and use Matlab software to

plot magnetizing current in different frequencies with respect to time.

3. Apply the problem-solving methodology used in this module.

3.1

Ideal transformer is supposed to be considered as no resistances. But then actual

transformer there is some resistances in primary and secondary windings. Due to

resistances, there is voltage drops in the windings of the transformer. Following are being

considered:

(i) is vectorially less than the secondary induced e.m.f. by an amount

where is the resistance of the secondary winding. Hence, is equal to the

vector difference of and resistive voltage drop .

∴ = − …vector difference

(ii) Similarly, induced e.m.f. at must be the same to the difference of and

in vector diagram. is the resistance of the primary winding.

∴ = − …vector difference

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Figure 26

The vector diagram for; (a) non-inductive, (b) for inductive and (c) for capacitive

loads are being shown in Figure 26.

3.2

Figure 27 shows a transformer that has primary and secondary resistances.

Resistances can be transferred any of the two windings. This happens when we want to

make our calculations simple and easy. Also, it will be proved that in secondary will be

equal to / in primary. This / will be denoted as ′.

Figure 27

The copper loss in secondary is / . This loss is supplied by primary which takes

a current of . Hence if ′ denoted as the equivalent resistance in primary, then this will

be caused same losses in .

= =

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Now, if we neglect no-load current then / = 1/ . Hence, ′= /

Therefore, if primary resistance when referred to secondary is equivalent to =

In Figure 28, when secondary resistances has been transferred to primary and

leaving secondary no resistance or resistanceless. Then + ′ = + / is

known as equivalent resistance or effective resistance of transformer referred to primary

winding. In most books, this is designated as .

∴ = + ′= + /

And for equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side.

= + ′= +

Above equations is shown in Figure 29, where in secondary winding all resistances

are being concentrated.

Figure 28 Figure 29

Pls. be noted of the following;

(a) transferring resistances from primary to secondary, multiply by

(b) transferring resistances from secondary to primary, multiply by 1/ or

divide by

(c) but if voltage are being shift from primary to secondary or secondary to

primary only is being used.

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3.3

In previous discussion, it is assumed that flux are being linked from primary and

secondary. But then in practice, transformers are impossible to see such conditions and it

is found that only completes the magnetic circuit by passing through the air rather the

core, this is shown in Figure 30. When m.m.f. produced leakage flux caused by primary,

ampere-turn exist between points and , and it will acts as leakage paths. Leakage flux

in primary is proportional to primary ampere turn itself because primary and secondary

turns do not link by magnetic circuit .

Figure 30

Secondary m.m.f. exist at points and , and it is leakage flux . Leakage flux

in secondary is proportional secondary turn itself because secondary and primary turns do

not link by magnetic circuit .

During light loads and no load, ampere-turns in both winding are small and leakage

flux is negligible. During increased of load, the primary and secondary windings is carrying

huge amount of current.

Earlier, it is discussed that each winding produces leakage flux that is link in both

windings and this will create inductive coil in series with each windings. Also, this series

coil in both windings has the same voltage drops. In Figure 31 shows the inductive coil in

each windings and the internal e.m.f. in both windings are equal.

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Figure 31

= / and = /

The terms and are known as the reactances in both windings primary and

secondary respectively.

3.4

In Figure 32, the windings in both primary and secondary of a transformer with

reactance windings taken out

Figure 32

The primary impedance is given by this equations;

= ( + )

Secondary impedance is given by this equation;

= ( + )

Resistances and leakage reactance are the one who is responsible for some voltage

drops in each windings. Equation below is for Voltage drop in Primary.

= + ( + )= +

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Similarly, there are and drops in secondary which combine with to

give .

= + ( + )= +

The vector diagrams for such a transformer for different kinds of loads is being

shown in the Figure 33. Vector diagram for resistive are being drawn to parallel with

current vector. Whereas, the vector diagram for reactive drops are perpendicular to the

current vector. For power factor , it is between and .

Leakage reactance is also to resistance when transferring from winding to the other.

Equation below will follows;

′= / and ′ =

and = + ′= + / and

= + ′= +

Figure 33

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Figure 34.1 Figure 34.2

From then, total impedances in both windings will be represented by this

equation;

= ( + )

and = ( + )

Example 3.1

A 30 transformer has a voltage ratio of 2400/120 V in 50 . Its primary

winding resistance and leakage reactance is 0.1 Ω and 0.22Ω respectively. Secondary

winding resistance and leakage reactance is 0.035 Ω and 0.012 Ω respectively. Determine

the equivalent winding resistance and leakage reactance referred to (i) primary side and (ii)

secondary side.

Solution.

= 120 2400 = 1 20 ; = 0.1 Ω, = 0.22Ω

= 0.035 Ω and = 0.012 Ω

(i)
1
= + = + = 0.22 + 0.12/ = .
20

= + = 14.1 + 5.02 =

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(ii)

1
= + = + = 0.035 + × 0.1 = .
20

1
= + = + = 0.012 + × 0.22 = .
20

= + = 0.0325 + 0.01255 = .

(or = = × 15 = . )

Example 3.2

A 50-kVA, 4,400/220-V transformer has = 3.45 Ω, = 0.009 Ω. Reactances are

= 5.2 Ω and = 0.015 Ω.Calculate for the transformer (i) equivalent resistance referred

to primary side (ii) equivalent resistance referred to secondary side (iii) equivalent

reactances referred to primary side and secondary side (iv) equivalent impedance referred

to primary side and secondary side (v) Total Cu losses, using individual resistance in two

windings, using equivalent resistance referred to each sides.

Solution.

Full-load = 50,000/4,400 = 11.36 (assuming 100% efficiency)

Full-load = 50,000/2,220 = 227 ; = 220/4.400 = 1/20

.
(i) = + = 3.45 + = .

(ii) = + = 0.009 + × 3.45 = .

(iii) = + = + / = 5.2 + 0.015/ = .

.
= + = + = 0.015 + = .

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Also = = 11.2/400 = . (check)

(iv) = + = √7.05 + 11.2 = .

= + = 0.0176 + 0.028 = .

.
Also = = = . (check)

(v) Cu loss = + = 11.36 × 3.45 + 227 × 0.009 =

Also Cu loss = = 11.36 × 7.05 =

= = 227 × 0.0176 =

Example 3.3

A transformer with a ratio of 10: 1, 50 kVA, 2400/240 V, 50 Hz is being used by a

distribution system to step down voltage. The low tension voltage is to be kept constant at

240 V.

(a) What load impedance connected to low-tension size will be loading the transformer

fully at 0.8 power factor (lag)?

(b) What will be the value of impedance referred to primary side?

(c) What will be the value of current referred to primary side?

Solution.

(a) . . = 50,000/240 = 625/3 ; = 240 (625/3) = .

(b) = 240 2400 = 1 10

The secondary impedance referred to primary side:

′= / = 1.142/ = .

(c) The secondary current referred to primary side:

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= = (1/10) × 625/3 = .

Example 3.4

The full-load copper loss on the high voltage side of a 100 , 11000/317 ,

single phase transformer is 0.62 and for the low voltage side is 0.48 .

(i) Calculate , and in ohms (ii) the total reactance is 4 per cent, find , and

in ohms if the reactance is divided in the same proportion as resistance.

Solution.

(i) . . = 100 × 10 /11000 = 9.1 . . . = 100 × 10 /317 = 315.5

Now, = 0.62 = 620/9.1 = 7.5 Ω

= 0.48 , = 480/315.5 = 0.00482 Ω

,
= / = 0.00482 × = 5.8 Ω

× 9.1 ×
% reactance = × 100 or 4 = 11000 × 100, = 48.4 Ω

+ ′ = 48.4 Ω. Given / ′= / ′

or ( + ′)/ ′=( + ′)/ ′(7.5 + 5.8)/5.8 = 48.4/ ′∴ ′ = 21.1 Ω

317
∴ = 48.4 − 21.1 = 27.3 Ω, = 21.1 × = .
11000

Example 3.5

The following data refer to a single phase transformer:

Turn ratio 19.5:1; = 25 Ω; = 100 Ω; = 0.06 Ω; = 0.25 Ω. No-load

current = 1.25 and the flux is leading by 30°.

The secondary current is 200 with a terminal voltage of 500 and p.f. of 0.8

lagging. By the aid of vector diagram, determine the primary applied voltage, the primary

p.f. and the efficiency.

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Solution.

Use the vector diagram in Figure 35. Let us take as the reference vector.

∴ = 500∠0° = 500 + 0

= 200(0.8 − 0.6) = 160 − 120

= (0.06 + 0.25)

= +

= (500 + 0) + (160 − 120)(0.60 + 0.25)

= 500 + (39.6 + 32.8) = 539.6 + 32.8 = 541∠3.5°

Obviously, = 3.5°

= / = 19.5 = 19.5(539.6 + 32.8)

= 10,520 + 640

∴ − = −10,520 − 640 = 10,540∠183.5°

= −8.21 + 6.16

Figure 35

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As seen from Figure 35, leads by an angle

= 3.5° + 90° + 30° = 123.5°

∴ = 1.25∠123.5°

= 1.25(cos 123.5° + 123.5°

= 1.25(− cos 56.5° + 56.5°)

= −0.69 + 1.04

= + = (−8.21 + 6.16) + (−0.69 + 1.04)

= −8.9 + 7.2 = 11.45∠141°

=− +

= −10,520 − 640 + (−8.9 + 7.5)(25 + 100)

= −11,462 − 1350

= 11,540∠186.7°

Phase angle between and is = 186.7° − 141° = 45.7°

∴ primary p.f. = cos 45.7° = 0.698 ( )

No-load primary input power = sin

= 11,540 × 1.25 × cos 60° = 7,210

= + = 0.06 + 25/19.5 = 0.1257Ω

Total Cu loss as we referred to secondary side = = 200 × 0.1257 = 5,030

Output = cos = 500 × 200 × 0.8 = 80,000

Total losses = 5,030 + 7,210 = 12,240

Input = 80,000 + 12,240 = 92,240

= 80,000/92,240 = 0.8674 86.74%

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3.5

The vector diagram of Figure 33 may be considerably simplified if the no-load

current is neglected. Since is 1% to 3% of full-load current in primary . Figure 36

shows the diagram of Figure 33 with omitted altogether since may be neglected and

doesn’t affect the primary current.

In Figure 36, , , are known, hence will be found by the sum of and

to . Similarly, is given by the vector addition of and to . All of the

voltages on the primary side can be transformed to secondary side. However, it should be

noted that voltages or voltage drops should be multiplied by K or transformation ratio.

The lower side of the diagram has been shown separately in Figure 38 laid

horizontally where vector for has been taken along X-axis.

Figure 36

It is a simple matter to find transformer regulations as shown in Figure 38 or Figure

39.

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Just be noted of the following equation: = − ( + )= −

Figure 37 Figure 38

3.6

When transformer is in no load operation, it is the time when is approximately

equal with . Hence = = . Also, = where is the secondary

terminal voltage on no load, hence no load secondary terminal voltage is . The

secondary voltage on load is . The difference between the two is as shown in Figure

39.

With as the center and the radius draw an arc cutting produced at . The

total voltage drop = = which will be approximately equal to . From

draw perpendicular on produced. Draw perpendicular to and draw

parallel to .

Figure 39

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Approximate voltage drop

= = +

= cos + sin

where = = (approx)

For a lagging power factor, this will be the value of approximate voltage drops.

The different figures for unity and leading power factors are shown in Figure 40

(a) and (b) respectively.

Figure 40

The approximate voltage drop for leading power factor becomes

cos ± sin

In general, approximate voltage drop is cos ± sin

It may be noted that the approximate voltage drops referred to primary side is

cos ± sin

cos ± sin
% voltage drop in secondary is = × 100

100 × 100 ×
= cos ± sin

= cos ± sin

100 × 100 ×
where = = percent resistive drop =

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100 × 100 ×
= = percent resistive drop =

3.7 Exact Voltage Drop

With reference to Figure 39, it is to be noted that exact voltage drop is and not

. If we add the quantity to , we will get the exact value of the voltage drop.

Consider the triangle , we get

= − =( + )(0 − )=( + )( − )=2 ×

∴ = . Now, = − = −

( cos − sin )
∴ = cos − sin ∴ =
2

∴ The exact voltage drop in a lagging power factor is

( cos − sin )
= + =( cos + sin ) +
2

For leading power factor, the expression will become

( cos + sin )
=( cos + sin ) +
2

In general, the voltage drop is

( cos ± sin )
= cos ± sin +
2

Percentage drop is

( cos ± sin ) × 100 ( cos ∓ sin ) × 100

= +
2

= ( cos ± sin ) + (1/200) ( cos ∓ sin )

The lower sign will be used for leading and for the upped is for lagging power factor

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Example 3.6

A 230/460-V transformer has = 0.2 Ω and = 0.5 Ω and for the = 0.75 Ω

and = 1.8 Ω respectively. Determine the secondary voltage at 10 A and 0.8 p.f. lagging.

Solution.

= 460⁄230 = 2 ; = + = 0.75 + 2 × 0.2 = 1.55 Ω

= + = 1.8 + 2 × 0.5 = 3.8 Ω

Voltage drop = ( cos + sin ) = 10(1.55 × 0.8 + 3.8 × 0.6) = 35.2

∴ Secondary terminal voltage = 460 − 35.2 = .

Example 3.7

A transformer has a reactance drop of 5% and a resistance drop of 2.5%. Find the

lagging power factor at which the voltage regulation is at maximum and the value of this

regulation

Solution.

The percent voltage regulation (µ) is

= cos + sin

where is the percentage resistive drop and is the percentage reactive drop.

Differentiating the above equation, we get =− sin + cos

For regulation to be maximum, =0 ∴ − sin + cos =0

Or tan = ⁄ = 5⁄2.5 = 2 ∴ = tan (2) = 63.5° Now, cos = 0.45

and sin = 0.892

Maximum percentage regulation = (2.5 × 0.45) + (5 × 0.892) = 5.585

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Maximum percentage regulation is 5.585 and occurs at the power factor of 0.45

(lag).

Example 3.8

Calculate the percent voltage drops for the transformer with a percent resistance of

2.5% and a percent reactance of 5% with a rating of 500 when it is delivering a load

of 400 at 0.8 . . lagging.

Solution.

(% ) (% )
% = +

Where is the full-load current and the actual current.

(% ) (% )
∴ % = +

In the present case, kW = 400 × 0.8 = 320 = 400 × 0.6 = 240

2.5 × 320 5 × 240

∴ % = + = %
500 500

3.8

The transformer shown diagrammatically in Figure 41 (a) can be resolved into an

equivalent circuit in which whose only function then is to transform the voltage given the

external resistance an reactance (Figure 41(b)). The no-load current is the total current

from pure inductance and in taking from non-inductive resistance that is

connected in parallel.

For the value of , this will be obtained from the difference of and

vectorially. The value of = / and of = / . It is clear that

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Figure 41

and are related to each other by expression

/ = / =

To make transformer calculations simpler, this manual suggest to transfer all the

parameters such as voltage, current and impedances either to primary or secondary. In that

way, it is more convenient to work in a single winding only.

The primary equivalent induced voltage of the secondary is ′= / = .

Similarly, the output voltage is ′= /

For transferring impedance of secondary to primary is used

′= / , ′= / , ′= /

The same relationship is used for shifting an external load impedance to the

primary.

The secondary circuit is shown in Figure 42 (a) and its equivalent primary values

are shown in Figure 42 (b).

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Figure 42

Figure showing the exact equivalent circuit of the transformer but it also present

somewhat harder circuit to be solve. A simplified circuit diagram is shown in Figure 44

and Figure 45 (a). In this case please be noted that it should be = / µ.

Figure 43 Figure 44

Further simplification may be achieved by omitting altogether as shown in Figure 45(b).

From Figure 43 it is found that total impedance between the input terminal is

( + )
= + ||( + )= +
+( + )

where ′= ′+ ′ and = impedance of the exciting circuit.

This is so because there are two parallel circuits, one having an impedance of

and the other having ′ and ′ in series with each other.

∴ = +

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Figure 45 (a) Figure 45 (b)

Example 3.9

The parameters of a 2300/230 , 50 transformer are given below:

= 0.286 Ω ′ = 0.319 Ω = 250 Ω

= 0.73 Ω ′ = 0.73 Ω = 1250 Ω

The secondary load impedance = 0.387 + 0.29. Solve the exact equivalent

circuit with normal voltage across the primary.

Solution.

= 230/2300 = 1/110; = 0.387 + 0.29

′= / = 100(0.387 + 0.29) = 38.7 + 29 = 48.4∠36.8°

∴ + = (38.7 + 0.319) + (29 + 0.73) = 39.02 + 29.73 = 49.0∠36.8°

= (0.004 − 0.0008); = 1/ = 240 + 48 = 245∠11.3°)

+( + ) = (240 + 48) + (39 + 29.7) = 290∠15.6°

2300∠0°
= =
+ 0.286 + 0.73 + 41.4∠33°

2300∠0°
= = 54.8∠ − 33.7°
42∠33.7°

Now

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245∠11.3°
′= × = 54.8∠ − 33.7° ×
( + )+ 290∠15.6°

= 54.8∠ − 33.7° × 0.845∠4.3° = 46.2∠ − 38°

( ′+ ) 49∠37.3°
= × = 54.8∠ − 33.7° ×
(( ′ + ′) + 290∠15.6°

= 54.8∠ − 33.7° × 0.169∠21.7° = 9.26∠ − 12°

Input power factor = cos 38° = 0.832 lagging

Power input = cos = 2300 × 54.8 × 0.832 = 105

Power output = 46.2 × 38.7 = 82.7

Primary Cu loss = 54.8 × 0.286 = 860

Secondary Cu loss = 46.2 × 0.319 = 680 ; Core loss = 9.26 × 240 = 20.6

∴ = (82.7⁄105) × 100 = 78.8%; ′= ′ ′ = 46.2 × 48.4 = 2,240

2300 − 2240
= × 100 = . %
2240

Example 3.10

A transformer with a voltage rating in its primary winding of 600 V. Its secondary

voltage is 1080 V, with 720 V additional tap. A resistive load of 8 kW is connected across

1080 V output. While in 720 V, a purely inductive load of 10 kVA is connected. Calculate

the current primary and its power factor. Correlate your answer with the existing loads in

secondary. Neglect losses and the magnetizing current.

Solution.

Loads are connected as shown in Figure 46

8000
= = 7.41 . .
1080

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10000
= = 13.89 . .
720

These are reflected on to the primary sides with appropriate ratios of turns, with

corresponding power-factors.

1080
′ = 7.41 × = 13.34 . .
600
720
′ = 13.89 × = 16.67 . .
600

Hence,

= + = 21.35 , 0.625 . .

Figure 46

Correlation: Since losses and magnetizing current are ignored, the calculations

for primary current and its power-factor can also be made with data pertaining to the two

Loads (in / ), as supplied by the 600 V source.

S = Load to be supplied: 8 kW at unity . . and 10 lagging

Thus, = + = 8 − 10

.
= (8 + 10 ) = 12.8

Power-factor = cos = 8/12.8 = 0.625

Primary current = 12.8 × 1000/600 = 21.33

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3.9 The Voltage and Frequency Ratings of a Transformer

The voltage rating of a transformer serves two functions. One is to protect the

winding insulation from breakdown due to an excessive voltage applied to it. This is not

the most serious limitation in practical transformers. The second function is related to the

magnetization curve and magnetization current of the transformer. Figure 47 shows a

magnetization curve for a transformer. If a steady-state voltage.

(a)

Figure 47.1 The magnetization curve of the transformer core

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(b)

Figure 47.2 The magnetization current caused by the flux in the transformer core.

( )= sin

is applied to a transformer's primary winding, the flux of the transformer is given by

1
( )= ( )

1
= sin

( )=− cos

If the applied voltage v(t) is increased by 10 percent, the resulting maximum flux

in the core also increases by 10 percent. Above a certain point on the magnetization curve,

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though, a 10 percent increase in flux requires an increase in magnetization current much

larger than 10 percent. This concept is illustrated in Figure 48. As the voltage increases,

the high-magnetization currents soon become unacceptable. The maximum applied voltage

(and therefore the rated voltage) is set by the maximum acceptable magnetization current

in the core.

Notice that voltage and frequency are related in a reciprocal fashion if the maximum

flux is to be held constant.

Thus, if a 60-Hz transformer is to be operated on 50 Hz, its applied voltage must

also be reduced by one-sixth or the peak flux in the core will be too high. This reduction in

applied voltage with frequency is called derating. Similarly, a 50-Hz transformer may be

operated at a 20 percent higher voltage on 60 Hz if this action does not cause insulation

problems.

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Figure 48

Example 3.11

A l-kVA, 2301115-V, 60-Hz single-phase transformer has 850 turns on the primary

winding and 425 turns on the secondary winding. The magnetization curve for this

transformer is shown in Figure.

(Electric Machinery Fundamentals, Chapman 2012)

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(a) Calculate and plot the magnetization current of this transformer when it is run

at 230 V on a 60-Hz power source. What is the rms value of the magnetization

current?

(b) Calculate and plot the magnetization current of this transformer when it is run

at 230 V on a 50-Hz power source. What is the rms value of the magnetization cur-

rent? How does this current compare to the magnetization current at 60 Hz?

Figure 49

Figure 49 is the Magnetization curve for the 230/l15-V transformer of Example

3.11

Solution.

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The best way to solve this problem is to calculate the flux as a function of time for

this core, and then use the magnetization curve to transform each flux value to a

corresponding magnetomotive force. The magnetizing current can then be determined from

the equation;

Assuming that the voltage applied to the core is ( ) = volts, the flux in

the core as a function of time is given by;

( )=− cos

The magnetization curve for this transformer is available electronically in a file

called mag_curve_l.dat. This file can be used by MATLAB to translate these flux

values into corresponding mmf values, and above equation can be used to find the required

magnetization current values. Finally, the rms value of the magnetization current can be

calculated from the equation;

1
=

(a) At 230 V on a 60-Hz power source, Figure 50 shows the simulated output using
Matlab.

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Figure 50 (a)

Figure 50 (b)

(b) At 230 V on a 50-Hz power source, Figure 51 shows the simulated output using
Matlab.

Figure 51 (a)

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Figure 51 (b)

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