Sports Facilities
and Technologies
Developers, designers and operators increasingly need to create
safe, versatile sports amenities that are of lasting value to local
and wider communities. Successful sports and leisure facilities
have to be user-friendly and operate efficiently. The design process
involves many disciplines which are interdependent and mutually
supportive, using a holistic approach to achieve the appropriate
controls, simplicity, efficiency and economy.
This guide covers planning, design, construction, operation
and maintenance criteria, including:
• buildings for indoor and outdoor sports;
• building regulations and health and safety;
• structure and facades;
• heating and ventilation;
• acoustics and lighting;
• infrastructure;
• communications and security;
• stairways and elevators;
• sustainability;
• sports-led urban regeneration.
Containing most types of sports building, this book uses examples
from around the world to develop a definitive reference for
practitioners, researchers and students in the areas of sport,
leisure, the built environment, building design and facilities
management.
Peter Culley is an independent engineer whose work ranges from
housing to closing-roof stadiums. His specialist experience in
sports facilities design dates back to 1990 when, as a Structural
Advisory Engineer with British Steel, he was asked to take a lead-
ing role in marketing the steel industry’s products to developers
and designers of the new generation of all-seater stadiums.
John Pascoe is a content editor (electromechanical) with Electro­
components plc. He previously worked with Arup (1979–2002),
Constrado (1978–79) and British Steel (1972–77).
Peter and John co-edited the award-winning book Stadium
Engineering (2005).
Cover photo
Time Warner Cable Arena, City of Charlotte in North Carolina,
USA, is the home of the National Basketball Association’s (NBA)
Charlotte Bobcats and a premier host venue for concerts and other
arena events. The dominant visual element in the arena’s seating
bowl is the centre-hung state-of-the-art video display and score-
board. It is the most technologically advanced scoreboard and
sound system in the country and features the largest video screen
in use in any NBA facility. Full-screen LED technology allows an
unlimited configuration of live and recorded video, scores, anima-
tion and graphics. A unique, three-dimensional backlit cityscape
above the scoreboard features the Charlotte skyline. This uses a
360° projection system which allows the skyline to change and
feature graphics such as airplanes and fireworks, and night-time
or daytime skies. Photograph by Mark Steinkamp, courtesy
Daktronics.
 To those who advocated publication of the book –
Jaime Aldaya, Eddie Hole, Geraint John, Caroline Mallinder,
Ian Mudd and Eric Taylor

And to those who inspired us to write it –

Colin Dexter, Les Hackett, Kisho Kurokawa, Peter Rice,
Ron Taylor and David Whyte
Sports Facilities
and Technologies
Peter Culley and John Pascoe
First published 2009 in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, USA

Simultaneously published
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2009.

To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.

© 2009 Peter Culley & John Pascoe

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the

accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal
responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Culley, Peter.
Sports facilities and technologies / Peter Culley & John Pascoe.
  p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Sports facilities. 2. Physical fitness centers. 3. Recreation centers. 4. Public
architecture. I. Pascoe, John, MCAM
II. Title.
GV405.C85 2009
725’.8043—dc22
2008052779

ISBN 0-203-87602-4 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0-415-45868-4 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0-203-87602-4 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978-0-415-45868-9 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978-0-203-87602-2 (ebk)
Contents

Preface vii

Foreword by Professor Geraint John viii

The authors ix

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction 1

Part One
Sports and Facilities 3

  1 Sports halls 5

  2 Squash courts 15

  3 Gymnasiums 23

  4 Dance studios 31

  5 Swimming pools 39

  6 Ice rinks 49

  7 Integrated sports facilities 57

  8 Sports-led urban regeneration 69

  9 Stadiums 79

10 Indoor facilities for outdoor sports 93

Part Two
Facilities Development 99

11 Building regulations 101

12 Health and safety 107

13 Feasibility, site selection and investigation 111

14 Masterplanning, transportation and infrastructure 119

15 Building form, structure and facades 127

16 Indoor sports surfaces 137

17 Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning 147

18 Electrical installation 155

19 Facilities management 161

20 Continuous improvement 167

contents

Part Three
Technologies 175

21 Materials 177

22 Acoustics 187

23 Lighting 193

24 Communications 201

25 Safety and security 209

26 Accessibility 215

27 Controls and automation 221

28 Sustainability 227

29 Refurbishment 235

30 Recycling 239

Conclusion 243

Appendix I
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) MasterFormat 244

Appendix II
Indoor sports: space planning drawings 246

References 257
Index 267

Image credits 278

vi
P re f a c e

We’ve written this book for everyone who shares our enthusiasm
for the universal language of sport and its power to break down
barriers. We have also written it specifically for professionals,
researchers and students in the fields of sports development, sport
engineering and technology, sports management, sport history,
architecture, the built environment, construction and building
engineering design.
Sport is global, so we’ve written for a global audience. To
demonstrate points that we make we have, however, had to refer
to specific regulations, codes of practice, standards and specifica-
tions and to their implementation in specific projects. In such
cases we’ve quoted attribute units and values in local use, with
common equivalents in brackets, for example ‘1in (25.4mm)’.
Project examples which are valid for a particular application in
a specific time and place are not, of course, necessarily appropri-
ate or even legal in another time and place.
Each of the following chapters could be a book in its own
right. So we’ve compiled a chapter-by-chapter References list
(printed at the end of the book) to help readers pursue their further
interests in each chapter’s theme.
This is a big book which covers a wide range of subjects. We
have checked and cross-checked its content continuously. We
apologise in advance for any errors. If you should see an error
then please do let us know. We will be very grateful to you and
will make the correction for any future editions.
Finally, one of the advocates of publishing this book said,
‘Hopefully it will be readable’. This is what we want too, and
what we have striven to achieve. Whether or not we have suc-
ceeded is for you to judge.

Peter and John

April 2009

vii
F o re w o rd b y P ro f e s s o r G e r a i n t J o h n

I have been asked to write a foreword to this book, and I am

pleased to do so.
The range of the work is enormous, witnessed by the long list
of references at the end of the book. It is a kaleidoscope of simple
explanations, contrasted with detailed technical information,
early historical background leading to present and future trends,
and small facilities contrasting with large scale Olympic develop-
ments. It is clearly strong on engineering and material matters,
bearing in mind the background of the authors.
I asked myself which readership will find this book the most
valuable: I think the answer is that there is something to learn
here for all those interested in sports facilities. It is a book to both
be useful for reference and also to dip into.
Peter Culley and John Pascoe are to be commended on the
work they have produced.

Geraint John*

* professor geraint john

Senior Advisor to Populous (formerly HOK Sport Architecture)
Honorary Life President of the International Union of Architects
(UIA) Programme Sport and Leisure
Visiting Professor at the University of Hertfordshire
Visiting Professor to the Universidad Camilo Jose Cela, Madrid
Former Visiting Professor: Sport Building Design at the University
of Luton
Council Member of the RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects)
Former Chief Architect and Head of the Technical Unit for Sport
at the GB Sports Council
Member of the UKTI Global Sports Projects Sector Advisory
Group

viii
The authors Acknowledgements

Peter Culley is an independent engineer whose work ranges from
housing to closing-roof stadiums. His specialist experience in
sports facilities design dates back to 1990 when, as a structural
advisory engineer with British Steel, he was asked to take a lead-
ing role in marketing the steel industry’s products to developers
and designers of the new generation of all-seater stadiums. This
involved him in most of the stadium and sports ground redevelop-
ments in the UK during the 1990s. It also made him a valued
member of the international stadium design community. Before
joining British Steel in 1978, Peter worked with British Rail. Here,
he is best known for the reconstruction of London Bridge Station
in the 1970s, with its then innovative NODUS space frame roof
structures. Before London Bridge, Peter had, since 1958, designed,
detailed and supervised road and rail bridges in concrete and
steel, including major bridge and retaining wall works for the
new M25 motorway.
This book is the result of inputs from hundreds of people. Most
organisations and individuals involved are named in the text,
photo credits or copyright references. Additionally, the authors
and publisher would like to thank the following: Richard Hughes
(Archaeologist – Mohenjo-Daro Site), Daniel Imade, Pauline
Shirley (Arup), Cindy Carrasquilla (Charlotte Bobcats), Michelle
Wright (Corus Group), Kathryn Harvey (Dalhousie University),
John Martin (De Montfort University), Michael Burns, Mike Butt,
John Evans, Peter Hare (Electrocomponents), Peter Milburn
(Griffith University), Kerry Slatkoff (Ketchum Sports Network),
Julie Atkinson (Marl), Terry Paine (Monodraught), Judy Nokes
(Office of Public Sector Information), Mark Magner (Queensland
University of Technology and Griffith University), Sally Graham,
Marcus Kingwell (PMP Consult), Laura Whitton (RIBA), Craig
Braham, Carl Chambers, Shereen Roache (Serco), Josh Wheeler
(Wheeler Electric).

John Pascoe is a content editor with Electrocomponents plc, The following firms made substantial contributions to the book
responsible for thermal management, lighting, heatsinks, develop- content:
ment hardware, electrostatic, cleanroom and test and measurement
products. He previously worked with Arup (1979–2002), Constrado • Arup (www.arup.com)
(1978–79) and British Steel (1972–77). John is the former editor of • Corus Group (www.corusgroup.com)
the magazines Tubular Structures, Corus Group/British Steel 1977– • Electrocomponents plc (www.electrocomponents.com)
2002, Profils Creux en Acier – The Hollow Section – Stahlhohlprofile,
CIDECT 1979–86 and Building with Steel, Constrado – BCSA Commissioned photographs: Simon J Atkinson
1978–79. He worked with Frank Pyle, Trevor Slydel and other www.sjatkinson.com
members of the team which produced the CAD Good Practice
Guide (1994). His additional published works include papers and Original drawings: Peter Culley
publications on cladding systems, space frames and stainless steels.
John is a member of the Construction Writers Association, Illinois,
and the Council for British Archaeology. As a member of Hercules
Wimbledon AC, he qualified for and competed in the European
and Commonwealth Games Trials held at the Gateshead
International Stadium in June 1982.

Peter and John co-wrote more than 30 publications on stadiums

and sports facilities in the 1990s. In 2002 they assembled, from
friends and colleagues, some of the world’s leading specialists in
key aspects of stadium design to work together to produce the
first book on stadium engineering. That book, Stadium Engineering,
was published in 2005 and was the winner of a 2005 Construction
Specifications Institute (CSI) Award, 2005 Communicator Award
and 2005 Society for Technical Communication (STC) Trans-
European Award (sole UK winner).

ix
‘Sport is a universal language. At its best it can bring people
together, no matter what their origin, background, religious
beliefs or economic status. And when young people par-
ticipate in sports or have access to physical education, they
can experience real exhilaration even as they learn the
ideals of teamwork and tolerance.’

Kofi Annan,
New York City, 5 November 2004
I n t ro d u c t i o n
The book is divided into three parts. Part 1 covers different types
of sports facilities, sports provision within buildings, the signifi-
cance of sports facilities in urban developments and the exciting
possibilities of sports-led urban regeneration. Part 2 covers sports
facilities planning, design, construction, operation and mainte-
nance. Part 3 is about the technologies that are making such
facilities increasingly desirable places to be. While Part 1 is
sports-specific, the content of Parts 2 and 3 is of wider application
and implication.
The book is written against a background of major and rapid
changes – in the UK alone during the period 2006–08 new build-
ing regulations, wiring regulations and construction (design and
1
management) regulations were implemented. In addition to meet-
ing new requirements, sports facilities designers and managers
everywhere are taking advantage of emerging and developing
technologies to achieve comfort and delight for building users,
while at the same time working to achieve ever-more stringent
energy-efficiency targets.
This book is about sports facilities and their adaptation to the
needs and aspirations of modern societies. We have chosen to
use local examples from different parts of the world, to demon-
strate ways of addressing global issues, rather than incorporate
in our content sports facilities project case studies of a general
nature.
 Part ONE

Sports and Facilities

1.1
Western High School, Washington DC: girls’ basketball (circa 1899)
Chapter 1

Sports halls

Western High School and Springfield, and Dr Thomas Wood, Director of Women’s Physical
Education at Stanford. Female spectators were also discouraged
Warfield Gymnasium because doctors said they could be rendered hysterical by seeing
women exerting themselves playing a men’s sport.
Basketball was known as ‘basket ball’ – two words – until 1921. The earliest photograph of a women’s basket ball game that
It was designed to meet the need for an indoor sport that would we know of was taken by Frances Benjamin Johnston (1864–1952)
help male athletes keep fit through the winter months. Its inventor at Western High School, Washington DC, around 1899.
James Naismith, a Canadian by birth and a man of strong religious
convictions, devised the sport to ‘assist youth to discover moral
as well as physical strength through education’. The first game
was played between two nine-man teams using a soccer ball at
Springfield, Massachusetts, on 12 December 1891. Features of
basket ball included passing the ball (rather than dribbling), tar-
geting high-level goals (to prevent collisions) and using peach
baskets for the goals (which necessitated the use of ladders to
remove the ball from them). Containment baskets were replaced
by metal rings with drop-through netting and, when basketball
became an arena sport, the backboard was introduced to prevent
delays in play due to over-thrown balls landing in the first tiers
of spectator seating. Today’s rings are often powder-coated solid
steel and backboards may be in plywood or in newer materials,
such as reinforced polypropylene resin.
Soon after Naismith invented the game for men, Senda Berenson,
Director of Physical Training at Smith College, Massachusetts,
introduced it to women. The first women’s game was played at
Smith College on 22 March 1893. The nine-woman teams wore
heavy woollen uniforms covering all of their bodies except for the
face, neck and hands. On the day of the game, the armory (drill
hall) windows were guarded by women wielding sticks (to keep 1.2
men away). The only two men present were Walter E Magee, a Naval Base Ventura County, Port Hueneme, California:
physical education instructor who had seen basket ball played at Warfield Gymnasium (2005)

5
Table 1.1  Playing areas of popular indoor sports

Indoor sport Playing area (m) Playing area (ft) Ht min.: m (ft) Ht max.: m (ft)

Aikido 9×9 29’6” × 29’6” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)

Archery (six archers) 22 × 7.5 72’2” × 24’6” 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)
Athletics (200m track) 87.65 × 43.18 287’6” × 141’8” – –
Badminton 13.4 × 6.1 44’ × 20’ 7.6 (25’) 8.4 (27’5”)
Baseball 8.2 × 8.2 (11.6 across) 27’ × 27’ (38’ across) – –
Basketball 26 × 14 85’3” × 46’ 7 (23’) –
BMX (track Length) 300 to 400 984’ to 1312’ – –
Bocce 3–4 × 23–30.5 10–13’ × 76–100’ – –
Bowls: carpet 9.1–10.1 × 1.83–1.98 29’10”–33’1” × 6’–6’6” – –
Bowls: indoor level green 36.5 × 4.6 min. 119.7’ × 15’ min. – –
Bowls: short mat 12.2–13.75 × 1.83 40’–45’ × 6’ – –
Bowling: 10-pin 22.9 × 1 (lane) 77’10” × 3’3” (lane) – –
Boxing 6.1 × 6.1 20’ × 20’ 7 (23’9”) –
Cricket (six-a-side) 29.12–33.12 × 7.32–8 95’6”–109’ × 24’–26’2” 4.5 (14.8’) 5 (16’5”)
Curling 44 × 4.3–4.75 146’ × 14’2” –15’7” – –
Cycling (track length) 133 to 500 436’ to 1640’ – –
Fencing 14 × 2 46’ × 6’6” – –
Football (soccer) five-a-side 25–50 × 16.5–35 82–164’ × 54’1”–114’10” – –
Futsal 25–31 × 15–16 82’–101’7” × 49’–52’2” – –
Go-kart 30.5 × 30.5 min 100’ × 100’ min – –
Gymnastics 32–36 × 22.5–26 105’–118’1” × 73’8”–85’3” 6.7 (22’) 7.6 (25’)
Handball 40 × 20 131’2” × 65’6” 7.6 (24’9”) 9 (29’6”)
High jump (pit) 3 × 4.3 10’ × 14’ – –
Hockey 40 × 20 131’2” × 65’6” 7.6 (25’) –
Ice hockey/ice skating 61 × 26 200’ × 85’3” – –
Jai alai 54 × 15.24 176’ × 50’ 12.2 (40’) –
Judo 16 × 16 52’2” × 52’2” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)
Karate 8×8 26’1” × 26’1” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)
Kendo 11 × 10 36’ × 32’9” 7 (23’) 7.5 (25’)
Korfball 31–40 × 16–20 101’7”–131’2” × 52’4”–65’7” 7 (23’) 9 (29’6”)
Lacrosse (men’s) 46–48 × 18–24 150’11”–157’6” × 59’1”–78’9” – –
Lacrosse (women’s) 29–42 × 15–21 95’2”–137’10” × 49’3”–68’11” – –
Netball 30.5 × 15.2 100’ × 50’ 7 (23’) 7.6 (25’)
Pool 2.7 × 1.4 8’9” × 4’4” – –
Pole vault (pit) 3.7 × 4.3 12’ × 14’ (min) – –
Rackets 9.14 × 18.28 30’ × 60’ 9.14 (30’) –
Rowing (tank) 13–18 approx 42’8” × 59’1” 9 (29’6”) –
Small-bore pistol shooting 25 × 6.4 82’ × 21’ 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)
Small-bore rifle shooting 25 × 4.2 82’ × 13’ 8” 3.6 (11’8”) 4.6 (15’1”)
Snooker and billiards 3.7 × 1.9 12’ × 6’ – –
Squash: hardball 9.7 × 5.6 32’ × 18’5” 5.49 (18’) 5.49 (18’)
Squash: softball 9.7 × 6.4 32’ × 21’ 5.4 (17’7”) 5.7 (18’7”)
Squash: doubles 13.7 × 7.6 45’ × 25’ 5.49 (18’) 5.49 (18’)
Swingball and tetherball 6 diameter 20’ diameter 3 (pole) 10 (pole)
Table tennis 7–14 × 5–7 22’9”–45’9” × 16’4”–22’9” 2.7 (8’8”) 4 (13’1”)
Tchouk-ball 20–40 × 15–20 65’7”–131’2” × 49’–65’7” 15 (49’2”) 20 (65’7”)
Tennis 23.8 × 8.2 78’ × 27’ 9 (29’)* 10.67 (35’)*
Trampolining 5.2 × 3 17’ × 10’ 6.7 (22’) 9.1 (29’8”)
Triple jump (from take-off) 21 (min) × 2.75 68’10” (min) × 9’ – –
Volleyball 18 × 9 59’ × 29’6” 7 (23’) 9.1 (29’8”)
Volleyball: beach (indoor) 16 × 8 minimum 52’4” × 26’1” minimum 7 (23’) –
Weight training 4 × 3 or more 13’ × 10’ or more 3.5 (11’6”) –
Wrestling 12 × 12 39’4” × 39’4” 7 (23’9”) –

* Tennis court: height 9m (29’) at net (club) and 10.67m (35’) at net (championship); 5.75m (18’10”) at baseline; 4m (13’1”) minimum at back.
Note: the table is a simplification so there are inconsistencies and omissions, e.g. in some cases playing areas only are quoted and in some cases
playing areas plus mandatory run-off areas are quoted. For cue sports the critical issue of the height of the lighting over the table is not addressed.
The References section at the end of the book includes sources of detail on sports playing areas.

6

Interestingly, in the 1920s, Johnston would go on to photograph
architecture, driven by a passion to document buildings and
gardens which were falling into disrepair or were about to be
redeveloped and lost. (Johnston was made an honorary member
of the American Institute of Architects for her work in preserving
old and endangered buildings.)
What intrigues us about the Western High School photograph
is that the girls of 1899 are enjoying a virtually identical sport-
ing experience to that of the girls in the second photograph,
taken in 2005, where All-Marine Telita Huffman (left) goes up
high with Army’s Chelsea Bryant. Major developments in cloth-
ing and footwear have clearly taken place in the intervening
100 years and you may have spotted a significant difference in
the two venues – Western High is of conventional construction
and Warfield Gymnasium has an all-steel structure because it
is on board Naval Base Ventura County, Port Hueneme,
California.
These two photographs demonstrate the universality and
exhilaration of sport, which Kofi Annan articulates in the quota-
tion in the prelim pages (see p. x). They also give an inkling of
the importance of sports facilities and technologies to sports
development, which is the theme of our book.
Indoor sports facilities
The authors define a sports hall as an enclosure capable of con-
taining a designated indoor sport or permutation of indoor sports.
The size of a sports hall will be arrived at by balancing the aspira-
tion (for sports and users to be accommodated) with the budget.
Because sport is a fast-growing and fast-changing business,
designers of sports facilities have to consider flexibility in use and
potential for future extendibility. Table 1.1 gives the playing areas
of some popular indoor sports that the client may wish to accom-
modate. Heights quoted are clear heights. Although maximum
clear heights may be specified by sports governing bodies, in
practice they may usually be greater, determined by the need of
principal height-critical sports hall activities (such as badminton,
tennis and gymnastics).
7
sports halls
Towards enclosure
Most of the sports listed in Table 1.1 were conceived as outdoor
sports. Badminton is now one of the world’s most popular indoor
sports. The modern indoor game was launched in 1873 at
Badminton House in Gloucestershire, home of the Duke of
Beaufort, after having gained popularity as an upper-class, English
country house amusement in the 1860s. The 19th century game
derived from the 18th century games of poona (British India) and
battledore and shuttlecock (England), but similar games were
played in the ancient world in Greece, Egypt, India, China, Japan
and Siam.
The other principal indoor court sports are basketball and vol-
leyball and these sports, amazingly, were invented within 16km
(10 miles) of each other. Basketball, we have seen, was invented
in Springfield, Massachusetts, in 1891, and volleyball (then known
as Mintonette) was invented in Holyoke, Massachusetts, in 1895.
There is a saying in the UK that ‘things happen in threes’ and it is
interesting to note that, although squash in the USA is generally
accepted to date from 1891 in Philadelphia, America’s first squash
court was built by St Paul’s School at Concord, New Hampshire,
in 1883. It is also interesting to note that Mintonette (volleyball)
was so named because of its association with badminton, which
was designed to be a game involving less physical contact than
basketball and incorporated not only aspects of badminton and
basketball but also elements of baseball, tennis and handball.
(Mintonette became Volleyball when the ball was perceived to be
‘volleyed’ back and forth over the net.)
Enclosing volumes for individual court sports has a much
longer tradition than enclosing volumes for multifunctional sport-
ing use. The King George VI Sports Hall at Lilleshall was built in
1955 and acclaimed as the first indoor sports hall in the UK. The
first community sports hall in the UK was opened at Harlow,
Essex, in 1964. School sports halls were integral to the UK school
building programme of the 1960s and more than one-third of the
programme’s expenditure was on consortium-based, industria-
lised school-building systems. This placed a large proportion of
the new UK schools and their sports halls among the first non-
industrial buildings to express all the character and virtues of
structural steel; a fact which was recognised internationally. The
design of steel framed schools in the UK in the 1960s was on a
par with the beautiful but austere works of Mies van der Rohe
and his architectural school at the Illinois Institute of
Technology.

Many of the world’s finest sports halls are the focal points of
schools and colleges in North America. At Berkeley High School,
California, sliding glass walls open between the sports hall and the
student union to create a quality space capable of hosting com-
munity and school-wide events. At Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, the Ralph S O’Connor Recreation Center has a multi-use
sports hall for basketball, volleyball and badminton with a 165m
(541’4”), four-lane jogging track, 30ft (9.144m) climbing wall and
four racquetball courts (two of which are convertible to squash
courts) together with weight room, fitness centre and three multi-
purpose rooms. The National Intramural-Recreational Sports
Association (NIRSA) recognises outstanding sports facilities in the
USA through its annual awards scheme. Winners in recent years
have included Western Washington University, Wade King Student
Recreation Center, which has a three-court sports hall with elevated
running track, multi-purpose activity court, locker rooms and multi-
purpose rooms for aerobics, martial arts, yoga and fencing.
Today a typical ‘standard’ sized sports hall is approximately
33m (108’3”) long × 18m (59’) wide × 7.6m (24’11”) high
(594m2/6387ft2) and can accommodate four badminton courts in
parallel. Badminton courts have traditionally been used as a
modular yardstick because of the popularity of the sport and its
demanding functional requirements, which include lighting, roof
8
1.3
Hillsborough Leisure Centre (1991)
structure and height, background wall and roof colours (to aid
shuttle visibility) and air velocity. A large sports hall would be
considered to be in the order of 36.5m (119’9”) × 32m (105’) ×
9.1m (29’10”) high (1168m2/12,574ft2).
Roof structure
Sports halls are built in a wide variety of materials and configura-
tions. Materials include structural steel, concrete, prestressed
concrete, timber and membranes and cables (in lightweight
structure solutions). Configurations include beams and trusses,
space frames, stressed skins, rigid frames, folded plates, shells,
arches, vaults and domes, cable-stayed structures and other types
of lightweight structure.
While arches and domes are appropriate for the hosting of
stadium and arena-type events, a rectangular or square plan sports
hall is likely to be more efficient for accommodating permutations
of the rectangular and square plan playing areas listed in Table
1.1. A constant height, capable of accommodating planned activi-
ties with the greatest clearance requirements, will also optimise
flexibility in use. The box-like, repetitious solution has led to the

1.4
Clydebank Leisure Centre (1994)
widespread use of structural steel for sports hall roof structures
over the past 40 years. Such structures are workshop-prefabricated
for bolting or welding together quickly on site. They offer not only
the means of creating the requisite flexibility in use, but also
inherent extendibility.
The main factors affecting sports hall cost are shape, size and
standard of finishes. Large halls cost more because they have
greater height and wider spans, and use more construction mate-
rial. Sometimes, the seemingly prohibitive costs of larger struc-
tures merit closer scrutiny. For example, high strength steels can
be used to create wider spans. These steels derive from the devel-
opment of micro-alloy theories in modern metallurgy, combined
with advanced controlled-rolling practices in the steel industry.
The benefits of using such steels can be dramatic. Let us take, as
an example, an increase in yield strength from 355MPa to 460MPa
(steel grades S355M and S460M as defined in European Structural
Steel Standard EN10025:2004), see Table 1.2.
In the above example, a weight saving of 30% and an overall
cost saving of 14% are achieved by choosing the higher grade
steel over the lower grade steel to perform the same function
(current calculations suggest that material savings in the range
23.3–40% are achieved by specifying high strength steels as
opposed to low alloy steels and carbon steels). Higher grade steels
9
sports halls
Table 1.2  Steel grade cost and strength comparisons
Steel grade S355M S460M
Quantity 1000 tonnes 700 tonnes
Materials cost, US$ 660,000 610,000
Fabrication cost, US$ 1,100,000 875,000
Anti-corrosion treatment, US$ 260,000 260,000
Construction cost, US$ 175,000 175,000
Total cost, US$ 219,500,000 192,000,000
Saving in materials quantity 30%
Saving in total cost 14%
are widely used in the constructional steelwork industry. Their
use reduces energy inputs and increases the value in service of
each unit of output, placing these steel products at the forefront
of global initiatives in sustainable building development.
Unprecedented demand for sports and leisure centres coincided
with the development of computerised analytical techniques in
structural engineering design and the introduction by steel manu-
facturers of high yield strength structural steel sections. The
conjunction of these three factors promoted a rapid growth of
interest in the development of two-layer grid space frame systems
for sports hall developments. These systems can transmit the
forces resulting from roof dead weight and superimposed loading
out of the roof structure, not in the usual single direction (normally
along the shortest span) but in two directions. Because of this
ability, such space frames can be used to create efficiently the
types of wide-span roofs necessary to produce large column-free
floor areas. Reducing or eliminating the need for intermediate
building columns increases the flexibility and utility value of
space within leisure centres. From the 1960s steel space frame
roofs have been used to cover many physical activities requiring
large areas (and often large associated volumes) of uninterrupted
space.
Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922), the inventor of the
telephone, experimented with space truss structures made of
octahedral and tetrahedral units in the early years of the 20th
century. The first commercially available space frame system was
MERO, introduced in Germany in the 1940s. Subsequent systems
included TM Truss (Japan), Abba Space (South Africa), Octetruss
sports and facilities

1.5
Sports Hall for Acrobats, Berlin (2007)

(USA), Triodetic (Canada), Tridirectionelle SDC, Tridimatic, project, the redevelopment of London Bridge station. Because
Pyramitic, Unibat (France) and Space Deck (UK). More recently space frames have two-layer grids, lighting, heating and ventila-
developed systems have included the Conder Harley System 80 tion systems can readily and accessibly be supported within the
and Space Deck ‘Multiframe’. These systems comprise specially roof depth. They have also been used very successfully with space
developed joints used in combination with metal connectors. The partitioning systems to isolate different playing areas under the
NODUS system, using cast joints and structural hollow section common ‘umbrella’.
connectors, was introduced in the UK in the 1970s. It was used
to roof many sports and leisure facilities. The authors have chosen
the NODUS joint as their demonstration space frame joint
(Chapter 7) because one (JP) was once the NODUS Marketing
Planner and the other (PC) used NODUS in his best-known

10

Walls
External wall claddings for sports halls may include colour-coated
steel. Where profiled metal is used, it looks better when run hori-
zontally. Cedarboard cladding is cheaper than metal cladding
and requires no maintenance. External windows and door frames
should be in powder-coated aluminium, galvanised steel, UPVC
or hardwood.
Internal wall surfaces should be flush and without projections
or sharp corners. They must be capable of withstanding impact
from building users’ bodies, sports equipment and projectiles.
They must be able to support any sports hall equipment that
may be installed at the outset or that could be introduced in the
future (sports hall fittings include wall-mounted or ceiling-
mounted hinged basketball goals, roof-mounted spotting rig for
gymnasts, tracked division netting, sockets with flush-fitted
cover plates, pulley-mounted net bags and spotting rig ducts).
Wall finishes should be matt, easily cleaned and non-abrasive
to a height of at least 3m above the floor (above 3m a sound
absorptive material capable of withstanding ball impact may be
used). Higher standards of material and acoustic quality may be
necessary if the facility is to perform wider amenity or assembly
functions.
Floors
Commonly used flooring materials for sports halls include semi-
sprung hardwood, PVC carpet with chipboard or plywood underlay,
PVC with foam backing and rubbers or plastics in sheet form or laid
in situ. Semi-sprung beech, beech veneer and various composition
and synthetic surfaces meet impact and energy absorbing criteria
defined in British Standard 7044 (Part 4). The choice will depend
principally on the nature of the activities involved. For example,
the surface must offer true and predictable bounce (joints will not
be permissible if they affect playing performance – hardwood sur-
faces must be laid with support under all board joints). Surfaces
should generally be non-slip, but the designer should beware
because some sports, such as football and tennis, require a degree
of ‘slide’. All floors should be wear-resistant and easy to maintain.
Some will have to cater for localised heavy loading and the move-
ment of heavy equipment across them. Floor colour should contrast
with the walls and be of 40–50% reflectance value.
11
sports halls
No official sports flooring standards currently exist in North
America. The German DIN series is the most widely used sports
flooring standard in the USA (DIN V 18032-2, now superseded
by EN 14904: 2006), see Chapter 16.
Heating and ventilating
Heating and ventilating requirements vary according to activity
and season. Winter temperatures of 13–22°C are suitable for most
activities. Air renewal should be four times per hour with a per-
formance of at least 50m3 per hour (comparatives are three changes
per hour for a storeroom and 10–12 changes for changing and
shower rooms). Sports halls may use warm air or radiant heating,
or a combination of both. Warm air heaters are well-suited to low
air change rates. Radiant heaters provide instant heat at the point
of need, without having to raise the ambient temperature. This
makes them suitable for localised heating or for overall heating
in those parts of a sports centre with high ceilings or high ventila-
tion rates. Ventilation openings such as windows, louvres, fans
and mechanical inlets/outlets must be located in order to avoid
draughts on sports participants and other building users.
Lighting
The New Buildings Institute has established some excellent fun-
damental approaches to achieving energy-effective sports hall
design:
• ‘Use daylight as a primary light source. There is ample evidence
that daylight makes people happier, healthier and more produc-
tive. It’s also free and environmentally friendly. Diffuse skylights,
monitors and north-facing clerestories are good choices.
• Use light-reflective surfaces to maximize brightness perception
while minimizing glare and energy use. In a good design, the
building should generally be the light fixture. In other words,
paint the ceiling and walls white. Use colour bands for school
colours.
• Select appropriate target light levels. High school facilities
require higher light levels during competitive events than those
of elementary or middle schools.
sports and facilities

1.6
Indoor triple jump

• Use luminaires with some uplight to provide some brightness
on the ceiling.
• Light the competition area to a higher level than the spectator
areas.
• Use occupancy sensors to ensure that lighting is not energized
except when needed.
• Provide manual bi-level switching capacity, at a minimum, in
all areas. This is a requisite criterion in the USA to qualify for
energy-efficiency (Energy Policy Act 2005) tax deductions. This
will also facilitate multiple uses within the space, ranging from
basketball tournaments to the school sock hop.
• Use automatic daylight harvesting controls that either switch
some lighting off or continuously dim as daylight becomes
available.’
(New Buildings Institute 2006)

12
 sports halls

Equipment storage Back to square one

Planners and designers of sports halls should allow a minimum On 25 June 2008 we were chatting with our publisher, Fran Ford,
of 12.5% of the floor area for sports equipment storage. If the hall about sporting derivations of phrases like ‘for love or money’.
has to double up as a community resource, then the additional Fran said that the phrase ‘back to square one’ had a sporting
need to store furniture will significantly increase the proportion derivation too. As we had thought it derived from board games
of the building that must be allocated to storage. Mats require a like ‘snakes and ladders’ we were intrigued, especially as this is
separate one-hour fire-rated storage enclosure, vented to the a phrase in common use in the construction industry. ‘Back to
external air and equipped with a smoke detection system. square one’ pre-dates the TV era, going back to early BBC radio
commentaries. It refers to the division of a sports pitch into eight
notional squares, which enabled radio commentators to convey
more clearly to listeners the progress of the ball around the field
Upgrading existing sports halls of play. The Radio Times referred to the practice in an issue dated
January 1927 and prints of the pitch diagram still exist. Sound
The success of sports halls depends on their ability to successfully recordings also survive, in which a second commentator calls out
accommodate specific sports or permutations of sports. Where square numbers as the ball moves from square to square. There
the current need is for a multifunctional facility, an existing sports is, however, no surviving recording in which the phrase ‘back to
hall may be considered inadequate. It may be possible to extend square one’ is actually spoken, but we like to believe it was.
the length of an existing facility to increase its capacity, but it is
not often possible to increase building width or height economi-
cally. Adding ancillary buildings to an inadequate principal
building simply multiplies the number of inadequate buildings
on site.
Essentially, if existing facilities are too small, then they need
to be replaced. In 2006 sportscotland published The National
Audit of Scotland’s Sports Facilities, a review of 6000 facilities,
which concluded that changing patterns of demand suggested
facilities should be replaced rather than refurbished. Maintenance
of the country’s stock of indoor sports facilities was calculated to
be costing £78 million per annum.

1.7
Listeners’ plan for first live radio commentary on a football match

13
2.1
Jai Alai Hall, Havanna, Cuba (circa 1904)
Chapter 2

Squash courts
This chapter is dedicated to Raju Chainani, the leading
and irreplaceable squash journalist, who died suddenly
in Mumbai on 31 August 2001, aged 49

Introduction law court when he was, in fact, building a local squash court. A
new squash court at Sumbawanga, Tanzania, lay unfinished until
The ancient and universal practice of hitting a ball with a closed the colonial administration arrested a known criminal, who was
fist, as in Fives, was developed by the Aztecs into the sport intro- also a mason, and set him to work on the plastering. The birth of
duced by Hernan Cortés into Andalucía as pelota (ball), which squash in the USA is normally dated at 1891, when the Philadelphia
became known by the Basques as jai alai (pronounced ‘high lie’). Racquet Club built a court and instituted a championship.
Jai alai spread subsequently to Mexico, Cuba and the USA, gain- However, in the USA a harder rubber ball had been developed
ing a reputation as the fastest game in the world. Other variations to cope with local low or rapidly dropping temperatures, and this
of ‘handball’ had evolved by the mid-12th century in France into was found to be better suited for use on a narrower 18½ft (5.6m)
‘le paume’ (the palm of the hand), which developed into jeu de court. Squash played on the 18½ft wide court with a hard ball
paume, real tennis, royal tennis and – well – tennis. In the early was the only form of squash played in the USA until the mid-
19th century a variation of racket sport was invented in the Fleet 1980s, when growth of the sport internationally led to some 21ft
Prison, London, when the inmates – mainly debtors – began using courts being built in the USA and to the ‘international’ soft ball
their limited space to hit balls against the prison’s walls, of which being used on both types of court.
there were many. This new game, rackets, found its way into the
English public school system. Pupils at Harrow discovered that a
punctured rackets ball ‘squashed’ on impact with the wall. The
resulting ‘slow ball’ meant that the players had to run faster and
harder to return the bouncing ball to the front wall, producing a
more energetic game with a greater variety of shot-making oppor-
tunities. It is this further variation on rackets that led to the world’s
first four ‘squash’ courts being built at Harrow School in 1864.
The standard size of squash court was adopted from the dimen-
sions of a beautiful 32ft (9.75m) × 21ft (6.4m) court built at the
Bath Club, London, for Lord Desborough in the 1920s.
England was, at that time, a perfect launching pad for squash
since the British Empire provided the means for the new sport to
spread around the globe, often in rather mysterious ways. In
British East Africa in the 1930s, at Handeni in Tanzania, a colonial
administrator gained authorisation to commission a new ‘court’, 2.2
knowing that it would be assumed that the application was for a San Diego Squash, Sorrento Mesa, California: Junior Squash Clinic (2007)

15
2.3
Yale University, New Haven: Payne Whitney Gymnasium –
Brady Squash Center (2005)
Squash is an exceptional promoter of cardio-respiratory fitness,
muscle endurance, strength and speed, flexibility and a low per-
centage of body fat. Heart rate rises in the first few minutes of play
to 80–85% of maximum. The sport is today played in 140 countries
by more than fifteen million people on more than 50,000 courts.
The sport’s governing body, the World Squash Federation (WSF),
has 118 national associations in membership.
The court
The WSF publishes a specification which ‘defines recommended
standards for Singles & Doubles Squash courts for the International
Game of Squash; referred to in North America as “Softball”
Squash’. The aims of the specification are:
• to ensure compatibility of recommended standards for courts
from one country to another, and
• to guide manufacturers, builders and designers as to suitable
standards of squash court construction and design.
The specification defines the basic characteristics of squash courts
without reference to materials or methods of construction.
16
Heating, ventilating and
air-conditioning (HVAC)
Air-conditioning provides air circulation, cooling and dehumidi-
fication appropriate to playing squash, but whether air-condition-
ing or mechanical ventilation is used, HVAC equipment should
be fitted flush so that there are no intrusions of fans, thermostats
or ducts into the playing volume.
Court ceiling and lighting
The court ceiling should be made of an impact-resistant and sound-
absorbent material to take the force of stray balls and to reduce
reverberation. It should have a plain matt finish and be white or a
light colour against which the players can sight the ball easily.
All lighting should be flush with the ceiling and no part of any
lighting fixture can be lower than 5.64m (18ft 6in) above court
floor level. Shadows are unacceptable, so lights should be dis-
persed throughout the ceiling in order to illuminate all parts of
the court equally. Many squash courts are lit by fluorescent tubes,
which have a tendency to flicker. Other options include incan-
descent bulbs and metal halide lights.

The court floors
Floors must be hard, smooth, true, non-slip and able to absorb
moisture. A lightly sprung timber floor is appropriate. It should
be constructed of light-coloured wood of, or similar in hue to,
English beech or Canadian rock maple. Boards should be tongue-
and-groove, in the maximum possible lengths, and laid parallel
to the side walls (not transversely). Floors should be sanded but,
ideally, not painted, varnished, oiled or polished (which can cause
players to slip). They should be swept regularly using a V-mop,
which has an impregnated cotton head that attracts dust and
rubber particles from the squash balls. Rubber or other flexible
material is used under the timber to give the floor the ‘spring’ or
‘give’. The playboard or ‘tin’, which extends across the bottom of
the front wall, may be of metal or metal-faced plywood.
The court walls
In squash, the court wall surface is crucial. It must be true, hard,
smooth and plumb. It must be able to withstand impact and to
absorb some condensation. Walls can be constructed in brick or
concrete block, or in other solid and non-yielding material such
as plastic or reinforced panels. The most common construction
is brickwork, carefully bonded to white plaster that is finished
with special squash court paint. The wall has to be able to cope
with both ball and racket impacts. A squash ball may weigh only
around 24g but it can reach speeds of up to 160km/h (99.4mph),
imposing considerable force on the wall construction.
The court back wall is preferably made of glass, with a door
in the centre of the wall. Such glass is a special product and
should be sourced from a recognised supplier. The back wall
does not have to be in glass but this is preferred in order to
enable spectators to watch the game. If the back wall is in plas-
ter, then the door should be set flush with the plaster. Door
handles and hinges should be recessed to eliminate protrusions.
For match play there should be provision for a referee to stand
above the centre of the back wall, with an unimpeded view of
the court. (It is interesting to note that many early squash courts
had no door – they were accessed, usually at the rear left hand
corner, by a counter-weighted ladder pivoted at the top. Once
on court, players pushed the ladder up, where it stayed because
of the counterweight. After the match, the ladder was lowered
17
squash courts
by pulling on a rope hanging down just below the top of the
rear wall.)
The critical nature of squash wall construction was demon-
strated in the refurbishment of the Royal Automobile Club in Pall
Mall, London, which was completed between 2003 and 2004. The
RAC Club had been designed by Mewès & Davies, following their
design of the Ritz Hotel in Piccadilly. It was built in 1911 and is
one of London’s first steel-framed buildings. The consulting engi-
neers for the 2003–04 refurbishment, Faber Maunsell, were told
that the squash court walls had been in need of constant repair
due to cracking. They assumed that there was a problem with
plaster and backing brickwork. What they found was that the build-
ing’s original engineer, Sven Bylander, whose firm would become
Bylander Waddell, had designed the courts for fives, with brick
walls faced in voided concrete and lined with teak. This wall design
eliminated noise from the adjacent shooting gallery. At some point
in the building’s history, the teak linings were removed to facilitate
change in use of the courts from fives to squash. As a result the
courts were being used for a purpose for which they had not been
designed and, consequently, they were taken down and rebuilt
(with the exception of one wall which English Heritage wished to
retain in the reconstruction). It is interesting to note that teak court
linings of the RAC Club’s original type probably derive from the
use of teak-lined courts by British expatriate rackets and squash
enthusiasts working in the timber trade in northern Thailand.
Glass walls
The problem with squash as a sport was that, despite its player
appeal, it had very limited spectator appeal. A reasonable crowd
for a squash match was around 25–30 people. That changed
completely and forever when, in 1977, the UK firm Prospec of
Sheffield (now based in Rotherham) developed the world’s first
squash court glass wall and installed it – under the name Ellis
Pearson – at Sheffield’s Abbeydale Club. This innovation opened
up the sport to spectators while retaining the existing levels of
playability and safety. Prospec has since installed more than
30,000 Ellis Pearson glass walls around the world for squash,
racketball and pelota (which in Europe is another ball and wall
sport deriving from jeu de paume).
Prospec went on to develop the world’s first all-glass tourna-
ment squash court, which had its inaugural use at the French

Open in 1984. The design and construction materials of this court
facilitate its erection almost anywhere. One of the most spectacu-
lar backdrops has been the pyramids at Giza, near Cairo, where
a court was erected for the World Open in 1999. The first English
Open squash tournament was held at the Crucible Theatre,
Sheffield, from 13–17 August 2003. For this event the Prospec
all-glass court provided an unimpeded view of the court, from
all around the Crucible auditorium, while at the same time using
colour-surface-treated glass and a coloured floor to create opti-
mum playing conditions.
Convertible courts
In 2004 McWil Courtwall announced the availability of a new
type of glass-walled court with a movable side wall to allow both
singles and doubles to be played on the same structure. This
development was stimulated by demand from events such as the
Commonwealth Games and Asian Games, which wanted to stage
singles and doubles on the feature court on the same day. The
participation of glass fabricator Glaverbel Hardmaas in this initia-
tive helped to reduce development time to just six months.
Glass courts
In 2006 Horst Balinsky, founder of the squash court construction
company ASB, designed and developed an all-glass squash court
floor. Its inaugural use was in an all-glass ASB court erected in
18
2.4
Grand Central Station, New York:
Bear Stearns Tournament of
Champions (2008)
front of the Falaknuma Palace, Hyderabad, for the final rounds
of the Qatar Airways Challenge (4–9 July 2006) on the Women’s
International Squash Players Association (WISPA) World Tour.
Some of the world’s top players were involved in testing the new
floor at the ASB headquarters in Germany. The colour of the floor
is determined by the colour of the surface under the glass, which
creates an advertising opportunity for sponsors.
In 2007 ASB launched – literally – the first all-glass court
designed for use on modern cruise ships. This was installed on the
uppermost deck of the cruise liner AIDAdiva belonging to AIDA
Cruises of Germany, which operates passenger voyages in northern
Europe, the Mediterranean and beyond. The court’s glass walls and
double-layer, anti-skid, safety-glass floor are mounted on a sprung
aluminium base using rubber bearing connections. This solution
reduces stress on the players’ joints, while further demonstrating
the ‘anytime, anywhere’ advantage that squash can have over other
sports. In this case, the transparent enclosure enables passengers to
exercise safely while still being part of the ocean-going sightseeing
experience. The AIDAbella subsequently became the second of four
AIDA line cruise ships to be fitted with an ASB All-Glass-Court.
Squash at sea has, in itself, an intriguing history worthy of
greater study. In 1912 the ill-fated Titanic had a squash court
located below the bridge at G Deck (court floor) and F Deck
(upper court/viewing gallery). The Queen Mary, as originally
constructed in 1936, had a gymnasium and squash court on her
Sun Deck, to the rear of the vessel. The Queen Mary ’s full-size
court was sound-proofed from adjacent areas and designed to
prevent vibration affecting the deck below. A skylight with dif-
fused glass beneath was designed to eliminate the possibility of
shadows on court. The spectators’ balcony had a bronze balus-
trade, sycamore wall panelling and walnut mouldings.

Safe-screen
In 1977 BBC TV’s Tomorrow’s World programme featured in
model form a transparent-walled squash court developed by the
British consulting engineers Campbell, Reith Hill (CRH). In 1982
the partners of CRH decided to design, develop and own a
prototype ‘Safe-Screen’ squash court, constructed using Perspex
(ICI’s acrylic sheeting) which they believed would provide a
preferable material to glass for demountable courts. This innova-
tion paved the way for squash to become a ‘fishbowl’ event,
with unique one-way viewing. Its use attracted record crowds
for the British Open and World Masters tournaments in 1983.
Continuous improvements in the Safe-Screen court included a
transparent ‘tin’ and transparent ‘cutline’, introduced for the
Patrick International Squash Festival in 1983, and the introduc-
tion of a yellow ball and blue floor for the Davies & Tate British
Open in 1984.
Essentially, the Safe-Screen court has four walls of transparent
material unobstructed by the steelwork frames along each wall.
At some venues, slender corner columns are required but at others
it is possible to suspend the ceiling structure from the roof of the
spectator hall, allowing all-round clear vision into the court. The
opaque pattern of dots on the Perspex wall material (white dots
inside and black dots outside) creates one-way vision, whereby
the inside of the court is illuminated and the outside is relatively
dark – spectators and TV cameras can see in, but players cannot
see out. This combination, together with a uniformly illuminated
ceiling and 2000 lux (186 foot-candles) lighting to the court,
optimises playing conditions and television coverage. Court ven-
tilation is via a perforated membrane located between the top of
the court walls and the illuminated ceiling.
19
2.5
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth
Games: Scotstoun Stadium
A panel floor system was developed for speed of erection.
Floor panels run the length of the court, to avoid unacceptable
lateral joints, and are fully sprung. The floor appears to be and
performs as a conventional first-grade maple spanning floor (that
can be supplied in a colour such as blue if required). A clear
volume of 12.53m × 9.8m × 7.2m (41’ × 32.1’ × 23.6’) is required
in which to erect a court measuring 10.73m × 7.38m × 6.9m
(35.2’ × 24.2’ × 22.6’).
Mini squash
Mini squash was introduced at the International Squash Rackets
Federation (now World Squash Federation) Annual General
Meeting in Helsinki in November 1991. It was developed in
Australia and New Zealand to introduce the game to youngsters
aged from four upwards. It is played with a coated foam ball
one-and-a-half times the size of a standard squash ball. The racket
is lighter and shorter than standard, with a large face and smaller-
diameter grip. Mini squash can be played on a squash court and
against any suitable indoor or outdoor wall. Demountable mini
courts with clear plastic walls have also been developed for quick
erection on flat surfaces.
Beach squash
Beach squash is another variation on the ‘anytime, anywhere’
theme. A beach squash court can be erected on an area 10m ×
sports and facilities

7m, with the requisite 6.5m available height. This type of court
is designed to enable it to be easily set up, dismantled and driven
to new locations.

Brady Squash Center, Yale University,

New Haven, Connecticut

In the early 1990s the leaders of amateur squash in the USA

adopted international standards of play. US colleges and universi-
ties started building international courts for their intercollegiate
programmes. The international game necessitated playing to new
rules, with a softer ball, on a court wider by 2.5ft (0.762m) and
with a tin higher by 2in (50.8mm). At Yale, the main squash facility
at Payne Whitney, in the east wing of the fourth floor, had been
2.6
built to US specifications and lacked space and amenities for
Royal Tennis Court, Falkland Palace, Fife
spectators of the increasingly popular sport.
Yale alumnus Theodore P Shen ’66 made a donation that
enabled a Phase 1 renovation of six new international-standard
courts, including one court with three glass walls. In 1997
President Richard C Levin called upon the Skillman Associates,
a volunteer organisation of Yale squash, to help raise funds for facilities. It is one of the best squash court centres in the world.
Phase 2. Fundraising was led by Henry (Sam) Chauncey ’57 and The refurbished facility was officially inaugurated at dedication
Skillman Associates’ president, William T Ketcham Jr ’41, ’48 ceremonies on 22 January 2000. On 18 March 2006, Brady
LL.B. Their fundraising efforts were completed when alumnus Squash Center also became the permanent home of the newly
Nicholas F Brady ’52 announced a landmark $3million gift. launched US Squash Hall of Fame.
Nicholas Brady had lettered in both tennis and squash during his
undergraduate years and, as captain of the 1952 varsity squash
team, had led Yale to a national championship. Mr Brady went
on to receive an MBA from Harvard in 1954 and became Secretary Squash Tournament of Champions,
of the US Treasury during both the Reagan and Bush Snr Grand Central Terminal, New York
presidencies.
The Brady Squash Center was designed by Ellerbe Becket of
Washington DC, working with engineers Flack & Kurtz. Contractor The Squash Tournament of Champions at Vanderbilt Hall, Grand
Whiting Turner completed court demolition and reconstruction Central Terminal, New York City, is an annual event that has been
works by the autumn of 1999. The new squash centre has 15 held for 14 years (interrupted only by the terminal’s renovation,
international singles courts, all with glass back walls and viewing 1996–98). The tournament was sponsored for five consecutive
galleries. Three of the courts are exhibition courts. Two of these years, 2004–08, by Bear Stearns (which was sold to JP Morgan
have three glass walls and the centrepiece of the development Chase in March 2008). In 2008 the Professional Squash Association
– Brady Court – has four glass walls. The first six of the new courts Tour Super Series Silver event took place 10–16 January. This is
make up the Theodore Shen Wing. The development now includes the biggest squash spectator event in the world by virtue of its
new coaches’ offices and a team room with video viewing combination of reserved seating (for 500) and free public viewing

20

2.7
Real tennis: 19th century print
(by around 150,000 Grand Central commuters during terminal
week). John Nimick, president of tournament promoter Event
Engine, said, ‘Vanderbilt Hall is a spectacular physical setting
and, equally importantly, provides the players with the rare
opportunity to showcase their sport to the public spectators who
pass through Grand Central Terminal’.
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games
Squash is one of 17 sports chosen for the Games, to be held between
23 July and 3 August 2014. Scotstoun Stadium, which regularly
hosts athletics events, will be significantly modernised to host the
squash and table tennis events. Scottish Squash, established in 1936,
was a strong supporter of Glasgow’s Games bid, seeing success as
the opportunity to create a planned and funded legacy which
ensures increased and sustained participation in sport.
21
squash courts
2.8
Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club
Historical note: real tennis
The world’s oldest real tennis court still in use is the Falkland
Palace Royal Tennis Court, Kingdom of Fife, which was built for
King James of Scotland between 1539 and 1541. Masons W & A
Allerdice were paid £70 for their construction work. Carpenters
under Richard Stewart built the penthouses. James V had limited
opportunity to use the new facility because he died, at Falkland
Palace, in December 1542.
The oldest enclosed real tennis court still in use is in Manchester.
The Manchester Racquet Club opened in May 1876 in Miller
Street, on the corner of Blackfriars Road. In the following year
the London and North West Railway Company obtained a com-
pulsory purchase order on the new club so that they could build
the approach road to Exchange Station. The club formed a limited
company, the Manchester Racquet and Tennis Courts Ltd, which
built the present club in Blackfriars Road with a real tennis court,
racquets court and skittle alley. The new club opened in 1880
and was let to the Manchester Tennis & Racquet Club in return
for the net income of the club. In 1914 the shareholders sold the
premises to the club for £3000 and the ownership was vested in
trustees acting on behalf of the club (an arrangement which con-
tinues in 2009). A squash court was added to the facilities in
1926. The 1880 redbrick building, by George T Redmayne, has
many original features, including its wooden skittles alley, wine
cellar and workshop for the resident professional to make real
tennis balls (a skill which originated in 16th-century France).
3.1
Western High School, Washington DC: boys’ physical education
(circa 1899)

22
Chapter 3

Gymnasiums

Introduction membership while retaining a high proportion of existing mem-

bers. So the question is, ‘What can gyms do with their facilities
The Latin and English word ‘gymnasium’ is a form of the Greek to maintain public appeal?’. The answer may be that the industry
noun γυμναστήριο ‘gymnasion’, which derives from the Greek needs to take on some of the ‘wider mantle’ of health and educa-
adjective γυμνόσ ‘gymnos’ (naked) and the related verb γυμνάζω tion adopted by the ancient Greeks.
‘gymnazein’ (to do physical exercise). The ancient Greeks exer-
cised and competed in athletics events naked. This is why ‘gym-
nasion’, which would logically have meant ‘place to be naked’,
actually meant ‘place for physical exercise’. Because the Greeks
appreciated the links between exercise, education and health,
their gymnasiums developed into more than places for physical
exercise. They became places where boys would do physical
education and take instruction in morals and ethics. As the pupils
completed their education, they used the gymnasium not only to
maintain fitness but also to assemble for less structured intellec-
tual and social pursuits. Philosophers would come to speak to
the ready-made audiences – Plato lectured at the Academy in
Athens and Aristotle spoke at the Lyceum. These world-famous
centres of culture were actually gymnasiums.
In the modern world, the gymnasium reverted to its principal
role of fitness venue. Fitness is big business. It is a $14.8 billion
industry in the USA, where 39.4 million people are health club
members. However, the club membership drop-out rate is big
too. If, like the authors, you’re a member of a UK gym, then you’ll
know that club membership peaks and facilities are used most
during January, coinciding with New Year resolutions to ‘get fit’
or ‘lose weight’. As the daylight hours increase, outdoor activities
begin to compete and gym usage tapers off. In the USA the drop-
out rate at fitness venues is around 30%. Club membership drop- 3.2
out is not a critical issue because the industry is growing, but it Western High School, Washington DC: girls’ physical education
would be better still if the industry could continue growing gym (circa 1899)

23
3.3
Lodge Park Sports Centre, Corby:
multigym (l–r) Rob Purdie, Helen Dibble, John Pascoe (1977)
Gymnasium enclosure
The modern gymnasium is a building enclosure designed to
protect exercisers and equipment against the weather. Whatever
happens in any building, whether due to static or dynamic force
actions (including an estimate for furniture and equipment), a
static, uniformly distributed load is taken over the whole floor
area within the perimeter walls. Gymnasiums have a higher uni-
formly distributed load (UDL) than many other types of building,
typically 5kN/m2 (0.1kip/ft2) compared with 3kN/m2 (0.06kip/ft2)
for a classroom and 1.5kN/m2 (0.03kip/ft2) for a house.
Structural steel is widely used for creating the common form
of gymnasium building frame. Such structures are ‘braced’ or
‘framed’ boxes, with the columns designed for wind loading. The
cladding or walling may span either horizontally, giving a uniform
loading, or vertically onto a purlin or beam, which gives point
loading to the column. The leaves of a brick wall can easily be
built around the steel frame in a variety of positions.
Brick walls may also determine the column spacing because
the slenderness ratio (SR) of a wall is limited to 40, where wind
24
loads only are resisted. For example, with a single leaf of 100mm
(4in) the column spacing cannot be greater than 40 × 0.10m =
4m (40 × 4in = 160in = 13.3ft). The wall leaves must be securely
tied to the columns. For further information see BS 5628-1,
DD140, BS EN 845-1 and authors such as Kicklighter on modern
masonry.
Sports building roofs and floors are incorporated in the content
of Chapters 15 and 16. The gymnasium designer will be particu-
larly interested in using daylight as a primary light source because
daylight is natural, preferred by people, cost-free and environ-
mentally friendly. These positive aspects promote the use of
gymnasium roof designs which incorporate – if feasible – sky-
lights, monitors or north-facing clerestories. Regarding floors,
designers have a vast selection of specific ‘gymnasium floor cov-
ers’ (recommended search engine keywords) to choose from for
new-build and refurbishment projects, which come in different
materials, textures, shapes and edge types (e.g. butting or
interlocking).
3.4
Harborough Leisure Centre (2008)
Gymnasium space
In a gymnasium people of different genders, ages and levels of
fitness are working out on different types of equipment at different
intensities over different durations of time. These variables alone
would make the gymnasium a challenge in terms of environmen-
tal control. But the situation is even more complex than it at first
appears. For example, sweating is an essential part of the tem-
perature regulatory system in humans and sweat glands are
everywhere on the body except on moist surfaces such as the
lips. Older people sweat less than younger people, partly because
changes to the central nervous system reduce its sensitivity to
temperature fluctuations and partly because sweat glands dimin-
ish in number as the circulation to the skin deteriorates and the
skin loses elasticity. There are also racial variations in how much
people sweat and the number of sweat glands they have. Those
who have evolved from a northern European climate have about
550 sweat glands per square centimetre of finger skin; Indians
have about 740 and Africans 950. The amount of sweating is
determined by external influences such as temperature and
25
humidity, by physiological influences such as disease and debility,
and by psychological influences such as anxiety. The more people
exercise, the better their bodies cope with the heat, but it is clear
that what will be a comfortable environment for one gym user
will be uncomfortable for another.
Some new commercial office buildings offer individual mem-
bers of staff the facility to control their own microclimates from
their workstations. Achieving this is a much greater challenge in
the gymnasium, where building users make multiple location
changes between very different machines operating in very dif-
ferent ways. Air within buildings is generally at least seven times
more polluted than air outside buildings, so there is plenty of
scope for getting the basics right in the gymnasium environment.
Airflow velocities and patterns, air quality, humidity control,
thermal comfort, ventilation and energy-efficiency are covered
in Chapter 17
3.5
Harborough Leisure Centre (2008)
Gymnasium layout
In the 1960s in the UK the school sports hall usually doubled as
the school gym. Timber wall bars could be swung out at 90° and
fixed to concealed, predetermined boltholes in the floor, and
could also be used to help create obstacle courses. Portable
timber gym equipment such as horses and balance rails could be
brought out from an adjacent store room as required. This dou-
bling up in use created confusion in the meaning of the terms
‘sports hall’ and ‘gymnasium’ which is still apparent in sports
literature today. The authors apply the distinction, admittedly not
a mutually exclusive distinction, that a gymnasium accommo-
dates gym equipment but does not require the height or column-
free area that a sports hall needs to accommodate court sports
such as basketball and badminton.
Stand-alone gymnasium buildings have conventionally been
designed using short-span beams and columns, but there is every
reason to pursue a building design solution free of internal col-
umns. The Calipatria Unified School District, California, wanted
a 104ft (31.7m) × 96ft (29.3m) gymnasium. Simon Wong
Engineering of San Diego created a column-free facility by span-
ning the building width using open-web, long-span steel trusses
26
supported by masonry pilasters. The gymnasium roof consists of
a 3in (76.1mm) exposed metal deck, which adds to the open
ambience of this building. The gymnasium designer has created
a gymnasium with the flexibility to accommodate court sports,
thus making it even harder to distinguish between a gymnasium
and a sports hall.
Clear floor areas maximise the flexibility in use of a facility,
but the gymnasium in a leisure centre can function around inter-
mediate columns in ways that competition pools, basketball courts
and squash courts cannot. This, of course, increases the chances
that the gym will be planned into an area of the building where
intermediate columns are located. When this happens, it should
be seen as an opportunity rather than a constraint. Electrical con-
duit can be fixed to the intermediate column, a simple way of
keeping wiring away from the thoroughfares that people use to
move from machine to machine. The faces of the intermediate
column can also be used for health and safety purposes (such as
displaying signage or siting fire extinguishers), in-gym entertain-
ment (via wiring and fixings for LCD or plasma screens) and gym-
user facilities (such as fixed paper towel dispensers).
Before computers, a gym layout was produced by drawing
the gymnasium floor area to scale on graph paper.
Scale drawings of the base dimensions of each piece of gym
equipment to be accommodated could then be positioned and
re-positioned to arrive at the optimum equipment layout. This
system still works in the same that it always did, but graphic
representations of plan areas taken up by the different types of
gym equipment can now be input into CAD and stored on
CD-ROM to facilitate space planning. A wide variety of propri-
etary software is now available to create a scaled version of how
a gym space will look. Some software allows the gym operator
or supervisor to click onto a scaled graphic of a piece of gym
equipment and drag it into the desired position on the repre-
sentation of the gym floor, enabling the different categories of
equipment such as cardio (cross trainer, exercise bike, rowing
machine, stepping machine, treadmill), strength (bench, multi-
gym) and accessories (dumbbell station, exercise ball pick-up
point, mat) to be grouped most effectively. Such software can
be used to locate or relocate existing equipment in a new,
refurbished or existing facility, or to populate an empty or virtual 3.6
gym as a basis for procurement (the electronic layout can be Power Plate (2007)
emailed to equipment suppliers as a basis for quotation).

Brunswick Corporation, founded in 1845, is a company famous

Equipment
By the 1970s gym equipment had evolved out of its timber era
and into a bright new world of steel and chrome. The Nissen
Poly-Gymn Conditioner had a robust frame, built-in transporter
and 12 stations, including leg press, leg curl and thigh machine,
abdominal conditioner, chest press and shoulder press. At that
time there was no interactive communication between gym user
and machine, so it was very difficult to determine whether
routines were being carried out too fast or too slowly, and
whether too much or too little weight was being pushed or
pulled. It was crucial to know what you were doing with equip-
ment like the Poly-Gymn, but too few people had sufficient
knowledge at the time. Gym users would try to push or pull a
bit more weight than their mates, regardless of their relative
size, strength and fitness. Much of today’s equipment has preset
and pulse-driven programs, and is capable of transmitting digi-
tal cues to regulate workouts according to professionally
designed schedules. It may feature LED display feedback on,
say, calorie count, speed, distance, time, calories burned and
pulse.
for many leisure industry products (including the large, ornate,
neo-classical saloon bars of the type seen in Western films). In
the late 1970s, Life Fitness, a division of Brunswick, brought out
as its first product the Lifecycle® exercise bike, the first-ever piece
of electronic fitness equipment. More than 30 years later, the Life
Fitness gym innovation is an application and user interface named
VIVO. Gym users are given a personal identification number that
they tap into the touch screen on the fitness equipment console.
A customised workout, based on the user profile, is then wire-
lessly downloaded to the equipment. The VIVO Virtual Coaching
System on each piece of resistance equipment displays the user’s
workout schedule, real-time repetitions and weight-lift statistics,
together with on-screen guidance on range and speed of motion.
If required, a video training clip can be viewed. On completion
of a workout, the results are displayed so that the exerciser can
review progress. VIVO self-service kiosks are located within the
gym to enable users to access information, update programmes
and manage the fitness experience. Users can also log on to their
personal VIVO web page from home or the workplace to review
schedules, view progress against targets and make changes.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) functionality and wireless con-
nectivity enable gym staff, trainers, coaches and instructors to

27
3.7
Harborough Leisure Centre: firing up the Wii (2008)
add, edit or review the content of a workout programme with the
user. VIVO can convey the news that a user arriving at a facility
needs attention by triggering the instructor’s handheld PDA. The
VIVO system can be retrofitted to Life Fitness weight resistance
equipment that has already been installed. The retrofit, including
networking, takes about 48 hours.
Another success story in the use of gymnasium equipment is
Curves. Gary and Diane Heavin introduced this fitness concept
for women into USA in 1992. The idea was to use hydraulic
resistance techniques to create a safe and effective 30-minute
workout combining strength training and sustained cardiovascular
activity. Importantly, this exercise training would take place in a
comfortable and supportive environment. The Heavins developed
plans for franchising the concept. The first Curves club opened
in Paris, Texas, in 1995. There were 1000 clubs in the year 2000
and 9000 in 2005. By 2008 Curves had encouraged more than
four million women to take up exercise at more than 10,000
locations in 44 countries. It had become the world’s biggest fitness
franchise and the world’s tenth largest franchise company.
My Gym similarly features fun and fitness in a controlled and
safe gymnasium environment, but for a client base ranging in age
from a few months up to 13. The physical early-learning and pre-
gymnastics classes are associated with other activities such as
birthday parties and camps. The aim is to inspire children to learn
about health early in life and to use and build on that knowledge
throughout their lives. By 2008, My Gym had more than 140
centres in 30 American states and in Asia.
28
These initiatives did not address the fitness needs of a teenage
America that was becoming more inactive due to cuts in physical
education programmes and the attractions of sedentary pursuits,
such as playing video games and surfing the net. On Saturday 23
September 2006, the USA’s first teenagers-only Overtime gym
opened at Mountain View, California. This gym appeals to teenag-
ers’ interest in technology to encourage workouts on high-tech
equipment such as virtual reality bikes that simulate the experi-
ence of racing around an apple orchard. To enter the gym, teenag-
ers are identified by thumbprint using a biometric reader, which
calls up an image of the member on a PC screen, then unlocks
the door. Overtime was initially restricted to 13–18-year-olds but
parents, who were formerly restricted to the lobby, can now work
out with their teenaged sons and daughters.
The above examples show how converts to the pursuit of fit-
ness and well-being have been won from all sectors of society.
To meet the new demands, and thereby aid the fitness processes,
equipment manufacturers have extended their ranges of specialist
machines, introducing new machines of both specialist and uni-
versal appeal. An example of the latter is the Power Plate®, a
gentle-exercise machine that nevertheless gives a high-speed
workout by using vibrations to contract and relax the body’s
muscles from their normal state at a rate between once or twice
a second to 30–50 times a second. The manufacturer claims that
a 15-minute session on the vibrating platform offers the same
benefits as an hour-long gym workout. In 2003 the Official Journal
of the American College of Sports Medicine published the results

of a study at Leuven University, Belgium, which concluded that
Power Plate ‘elicits involuntary muscle contraction and induces
strength gain within a short period of time without much effort’.
The study suggested that Power Plate has ‘great potential in a
therapeutic context where it may enhance muscular performance
in patients and the elderly, who are not attracted to, or who are
not able to perform, standard exercise programs’. Dutch Olympic
trainer, Guus van der Meer, developed the machine for the health
and fitness sector in 1999. He drew on the invention of Russian
scientists working with Russia’s highly successful Olympic ath-
letes of the 1970s, the work of Vladimir Nazarov, whose vibration
training prevented astronauts’ muscles and bones wasting while
in space, and the experience of Russian ballet dancers who dis-
covered that vibration could help to heal injuries by increasing
muscle strength. What the machine does is to boost muscle power,
improve circulation, strengthen bones (giving it special appeal to
post-menopausal women), improve flexibility (giving it special
appeal to injury-prone sports professionals) and break down fatty
cells (reducing cellulite and improving mobility of tissue layers).
What it does not do is confer any significant cardiovascular heart–
lung benefits, which means that it is not, and never can be, the
complete fitness solution. Power Plate is, however, said to be
responsible for the finely-honed bodies of Madonna, Claudia
Schiffer and Natalie Imbruglia. It was used by host nation Germany
in its preparation for the 2006 Football World Cup and is used
by English football league clubs, including Manchester United
FC. The University of Houston, Clear Lake, is a primary research
hub for NASA and has been testing the Power Plate to identify its
potential applications within the US space programme.
29
gymnasiums
The gymnasium in outer space
Market research carried out in the USA and Japan showed that
demand for space tourism renders it financially viable and that
space tourists want to stay in orbit for several days or longer.
Consequently, the need for ‘space hotels’ was established. The
first building in space to be associated with the space hotel is
likely to be the space gymnasium, where hotel guests can enjoy
zero-gravity activities. Such a gymnasium might take the form of
a spherical aluminium alloy shell receiving electric power, HVAC
and ‘station-keeping’ services from the hotel via a flexible con-
nection which isolates vibrations. The gymnasium thermal control
system could incorporate passive design, using multi-layer insula-
tion and heaters attached to the external surface, and active
systems using cooling water, cold-plates, air-conditioning equip-
ment and temperature sensors. The atmosphere in the gymnasium
would be monitored and maintained primarily through atmo-
spheric exchange with the central hotel system. Electric power
for lighting, environmental sensors and control, emergency sys-
tems and miscellaneous equipment would be supplied from the
hotel’s power system, generated from solar panels. If it were to
be designed to operate autonomously in the event of an emer-
gency, then solar panels would also be mounted on the outer
surface of the gymnasium and interconnected to the power
system.
4.1
Western High School, Washington DC (circa 1899)
Chapter 4
Dance studios
Introduction
Dance outperforms every other activity in this book in terms of
diversification and change. It is at once joined up by its universal-
ity and fragmented by its geographies, cultures and histories. Its
records go back further than anything else in the book – beyond
the Tombs of the Pharaohs circa 3000bc to the Rock Shelters of
Bhimbetka, Central India, circa 9000 bc (where dance is portrayed
in Stone Age cave paintings).
The different genres of dancing require different amounts of
space. South Asian and African genres tend to be centred on one
spot while ballet makes frequent use of travelling on the diagonal.
Dance technique classes may be largely single spot, but with
significant needs for unimpeded travel. Choreographic work has
very diverse needs – there may be requirements to split into
groups, so that more than one activity can go on simultaneously,
so that individuals are able to stand back and have an outside
view, or so one group can watch another. The reason for pointing
out some of the different genres of dancing is that the space in
which they take place must be capable of accommodating the
possible permutations.
Dance studio space
In terms of calculating dance studio capacity, a useful rule of
thumb is that a minimum of 3m2 (30ft2) per participant is neces-
sary for participants of primary school age and 5m2 (50ft2) for
participants in the secondary and tertiary age range. But, to
achieve flexibility and efficiency in use, the dance area needs to
31
be column-free. Dance studios have been built in a variety of
shapes – including oval or circular on plan with curving walls.
Such shapes are limiting. Also, for many dance activities, it is
necessary to locate front. For these reasons a rectangular space
is the most appropriate.
Suitable dimensions for a dance studio are 15–17m long ×
12–17m wide (approximately 50–56ft × 40–56ft). These figures
put the optimum plan area at 180m2 (1937.5ft2) to 289m2
(3110.77ft2). The dimensions quoted are for a stand-alone dance
studio or a dance studio incorporated within a sports and leisure
building. A specialist dance centre will have more studios, usually
of smaller plan area. The well-known San Francisco Dance Center,
located on Market and Seventh Streets in the heart of San
Francisco, has six studios with dimensions of:
• 52ft (15.8m) × 36ft (11m) = 1872ft2 (173.8m²) for each of
Studios 1, 2 and 5;
• 46ft (14m) × 36ft (11m) = 1656ft2 (154m²) for each of Studios
3 and 6;
• 46ft (14m) × 27ft (8.2m) = 1242ft2 (114.8m²) for Studio 4.
A dance area of 9m × 9m (29½ft × 29½ft) is adequate for small
practice groups. This smaller space has a plan area of 81m2
(871.88ft2). David Henshaw refers to an area of 10m × 9m (32.8ft
× 29.5ft) as being sufficient for 18 adults to take part in a modern
dance technique class and as providing appropriate dimensions
for choreographic work, without a feeling of being cramped. It
should also be noted that in the UK ‘A’ Level Dance Examinations
require an area 10m (32.8ft) × 10m (a dance space 10m × 7.5m
(24.6ft) with 2.5m (8.2ft) additional depth for the examiner to sit
back and take a wide view).

Rambert Dance Company
Polish dance teacher Marie Rambert established the Rambert
Dance Company in 1926. It was for many years an itinerant
organisation, performing at halls and studios throughout the
Greater London area. At the beginning of the 1970s a grant from
32
4.2
Ballet Rambert, Chiswick,
London (circa 1970)
the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation enabled the company to
acquire its own headquarters and studio by converting the top
floor of a reconstructed furniture warehouse at 94 Chiswick High
Road. The dancers needed a greater storey height than the existing
2.7m (8ft 10in). This problem was overcome by replacing the two
low-pitched warehouse roofs. Structural steelwork was craned

into the top floor, using the fully extended jib (21.3m/70ft) and
fly jib of a hydraulic mobile crane parked on the busy main road.
Sixteen 4in × 4in (101.6 × 101.6) rolled hollow section (RHS)
stanchions were installed and a new roof structure of three 11m
(36ft) span RHS plane girders was lifted into position on them. In
this way the roof height was increased to the 3.9m (12ft 9½in)
required by the dancers.
The Rambert Dance Company is today Britain’s flagship con-
temporary dance company. By 2008 it had 22 dancers, considered
to be among the finest and most versatile in the world. But the
floors of the Chiswick studio, which had not been purpose-built,
had become unsafe for the dancers to work on and the rehearsal
spaces were no longer large enough to replicate the stage areas
on which the company had become used to performing. So the
company is moving to new, purpose-built premises to meet its
current needs and enable it to realise its future potential.
The purpose of this anecdote is to demonstrate an activity in
transition. Dance has developed from its roots in rented, makeshift
premises through to reconstructed or remodelled venues and –
finally – to the specialised facilities necessary to enable it to move
forward.
One of the photographs in this chapter was taken by Crispin
Eurich (1935–1976) for Tubular Structures 19 (October 1971
issue). Crispin Eurich was an artist before he became a photog-
rapher. This rare image is a fitting tribute to both the photographer
and to the late Marion Giordan, who was the first editor of Tubular
Structures before becoming Consumer Affairs Advisor to the then
European Economic Community. Marion was a great researcher
and ‘seeker of the truth’ who knew all the best architectural
photographers, commissioned some terrific images and changed
people’s thinking about building for sports and leisure.
National Dance Association, USA, 1985
In North America in the early 1980s the National Dance
Association drew up guidelines to assist in the development of
modern dance and ballet facilities. The NDA recommended a
minimum area of 100ft2/approx 10m2 per participant and a ceiling
height of 16ft/4.88m (minimum) to 24ft/7.32m (for dance areas
of more than 2400ft2/ approx. 240m2). It identified the need for
air space between floor and foundation and the use of ‘floating’
and/or spring floors for resiliency. It noted that such floors should
33
dance studios
be in hardwood, tongue-and-groove, laid with the grain running
in one direction, non-slip, with a smooth finish and constructed
for ease of maintenance (and that portable floors might be laid
where both ballet and modern dance have to be accommodated).
Tung-oil or linseed oil was considered to be an appropriate finish
or, alternatively, several coats of wood sealer. The recommended
method of cleaning was by damp mop only.
Wide double doors were recommended, to accommodate
people surging into and out of the room, and door sills had to be
level with the floor to allow the movement of large equipment
and accessories (such as a piano). Walls were to be thick (ideally
soundproofed), smooth, easily maintained and capable of sup-
porting ballet barres and mirrors. Incandescent light was preferred
to fluorescent light and it was noted that rheostat lights serving
as houselights during performances should be controlled from
wall switches as well as from the light control board. The use of
natural lighting was advocated, if practical, with a preference for
north lighting to avoid direct sunlight. Commonsense but crucial
advice on space planning included the need to locate sound
equipment for performance and security, and to enable all par-
ticipants to hear both music and instruction. The facility optimum
temperature range was identified as being 65– 72°F (22– 26°C),
with the thermostat located in the studio areas. Requirements
were flagged up for adequate air circulation, consideration of the
use of natural air, humidity kept at or below 95% and silent or
close-to-silent heating and air circulation systems.
National Dance Teachers Association,
UK, 2005
In the UK, the National Dance Teachers Association (NDTA) has
been drafting guidelines for a dance tuition studio specification.
The NDTA makes the correlation between floor requirement and
number of participants and points out that: 10m × 9m (32.8ft ×
29.5ft) is a typical size providing space for 18 pupils to take part
in a dance class and allowing appropriate dimensions for cho-
reographic work based on 5m2 (54ft2) per pupil; the recom-
mended size in the Education School Premises Regulations is a
surface area of 145m2 (1560ft2) for 30 pupils; the most effective
teaching space is rectangular in shape, with a designated front.
The floor surface is considered the most important aspect of dance
sports and facilities
provision with a fully sprung (ideally) or semi-sprung floor being
laid to enable pupils to step, jump and land safely. Studio height
must be sufficient to provide a circulation of fresh air and the
opportunity to jump and lift.
A vestibule/storage space is considered necessary to:
• prevent pupils stepping onto the dance floor wearing inap-
propriate footwear;
• offer a space for storing personal belongings and making
footwear changes;
• accommodate learning resources and props for dance; and
• secure the information and communication technology (ICT)
and music system.
Accessible and quickly responsive control of ventilation and
heating is considered essential:
• the heating system should provide an even temperature
throughout;
• it is recommended that the studio temperature should not fall
below 18.3°C (64.9°F);
• operating temperature should be maintained around 21– 24°C
(69.8–75.2°F);
• extractor fans should be fitted to ensure adequate circulation
of fresh air.
Regarding interior decoration and lighting:
• use light colours to create a feeling of space;
• place the studio wall mirrors and wall-mounted ballet barres
(normal height 36–38in/91.4–96.5cm) opposite the main
teaching front;
• use curtains to cover mirrored walls when mirrors are not in
use;
• fluorescent tubes will be adequate for general lighting;
• place the whiteboard on the wall behind the normal teaching
front, opposite the mirror wall;
• place display boards around the studio but not behind the
main teaching front;
• ensure that adequate electrical points are available for audio-
visual equipment (cassette, CD and minidisc players, large
screen TV monitor, video recorder, digital camera, camcorder/
digital camcorder, CDi player).
34
Dance studio mirrors
Mirrors at least 6ft 6in (2m) high and as wide as reasonably pos-
sible should be mounted flush to the wall, approximately 1ft–1½ft
(300–450mm) above the floor. Portable vertical mirrors of approx-
imately 4ft (1.2m) × 6ft (1.8m) are also commercially available.
Leaf-folded mirrors, which can be folded for protection or cur-
tained off during performances, may be installed along two
adjoining walls so that dance movement can be analysed from
two directions.
Modern alternatives to glass as the mirror material include
boPET. Biaxially-oriented polyethylene terephthalate (boPET) is
the super-reflective material used in the Hubble Space Telescope.
It is better known in the USA and UK by the trade names Mylar
and Melinex. The polyester film has high tensile strength, chemi-
cal and dimensional stability, transparency, gas and aroma barrier
and electrical insulation properties. Metallised boPET plastic film
gives a brighter, sharper reflection than plate glass and is a safer
material because it cannot shatter.
Ballet barres
Ballet barres should be made of wood, typically oak, and be
smooth in texture. If feasible, double barres should be considered:
one at a height of 36in (0.914m) and one at 42in (1.067m),
extending 6in (152.4mm) to 8in (203.2mm) from the wall. If pos-
sible, recessed floor sockets should be incorporated in the floor
design so that barre supports can be screwed in and out to facili-
tate their relocation (e.g. towards and away from the mirror).
Free-standing barres are available. These include models which
have independent adjustment to allow dancers on opposite sides
to set the equipment to their own preferred height between 31in
(787.4mm) and 45in (1143mm). The minimum length of barre to
accommodate one dancer is 5ft (1.524m).
Music
The piano is still a popular and versatile instrument for accompany-
ing dance, especially ballet and tap dance. Moving affects the tuning

of a piano so it should be placed in a permanent position, ideally
alongside an internal wall to reduce temperature variations. It needs,
of course, to be covered and locked. If it does have to be moved
frequently then it should be located on a heavy-duty dolly.
The studio must be able to accommodate professional sound
systems. The San Francisco Dance Center has upright pianos
together with sound systems incorporating playback equipment
with pitch as well as volume control for cassettes and CDs, cable
to connect to either MP3 players or computers, and cable con-
nections for microphone or mini-mixers in Studios 3, 5 and 6.
Laban Centre, New Cross, London, 2002
Laban is one of Europe’s leading conservatoires for contemporary
dance artist training. The school opened in 1953 and was named
after the Hungarian dancer, choreographer and teacher Rudolph
Laban (1879–1958). By 1995 its existing building, an extended
church in New Cross, had become inadequate. Laban believed
that the pre-eminence of its facilities could only be assured by
relocating to a high-quality, purpose-built space. It worked with
Swiss architects Herzog & de Meuron and UK engineer Whitbybird
(now Ramboll Whitbybird) to create an exceptional building design
that would help to attract funding assistance. The proposal was
awarded £12.5 million of National Lottery funding by Arts Council
35
dance studios
4.3
Portable small stage audio amplifier
entertainment system
England in 1999, the successful bid being one of only five to attract
funding awards of more than £10 million in that year.
The new building was completed in 2002 and is the world’s
largest purpose-built centre for contemporary dance. It received
immediate recognition in the RIBA Awards 2003 when it was
named Building of the Year, winner of the Stirling Prize. Also, in
2003, it was named Royal Fine Art Commission/BSkyB Building
of the Year – Dance Centre, and was Highly Commended in the
British Construction Industry Awards. In 2004 it was the winner
of a Civic Trust Award.
Laban has 13 dance studios, a 300-seat theatre, purpose-built
for contemporary dance, a video recording and editing suite,
offices, study rooms and a dance health centre incorporating
therapy and sports injury clinics, together with Pilates facilities
to support the organisation’s work in dance science. There are
also public spaces including a library and cafeteria.
These diverse spaces are all treated as free-floating volumes
encased in translucent skins within a single enclosing structure.
The building features two glass-walled courtyards that drop from
roof level to different depths. Circulation uses both ramps and
spiral stairs. The in-situ concrete frame is complex, incorporating
curved walls and ramps.
Activities are based on two main levels: the dance theatre is
in the centre of the building, on the first (ground) floor, while the
dance studios are dispersed along corridors on the upper floor.
Laban’s original church building at Laurie Grove, New Cross, had
4.4–4.5
Laban, Deptford, London (2002)
housed the studio spaces, which were restricted in dance area,
very reverberant, lacking in sound separation from adjacent areas
and subject to noisy ventilation. On the plus side, the building
was an exciting place to be. The designers wanted sound from
the new studios to spill out into the circulation spaces, to carry
across the feeling of vibrancy and community in the building, but
they wanted to eliminate music or dance impacts on some new
areas, such as the lecture theatre and library.
The 300-seat theatre is used for dance performances accom-
panied by recorded music or musicians. Its acoustic design was
driven by considerations of control and intimacy. The minimisa-
tion of intrusive noise during performances was considered
essential to promote dramatic effect. This was achieved by use of
a heavy concrete structure for the auditorium shell and a low-
noise, underseat displacement ventilation system.
Each of the 13 new studios was designed to have a different
form, size, shape, light and music response. The studios all have
irregular shapes, with one wall convex, curved or angled in plan
(all therefore creating exceptions to this chapter’s guidelines on
form and dimensions!). The new ceilings are exposed concrete
slabs with a deeply-ribbed profile that, on the first floor, slopes
to follow the roof profile. While these features scatter the sound
36
in the space, the non-parallel walls prevent the ‘flutter echoes’
that dance studios often suffer from. Design of the studio walls
and floors was driven by considerations of cost-effectiveness and
the fulfilment of as many functions as possible. The walls are
deep, twin-walled plasterboard constructions, like those used to
divide multi-screen cinemas, but also incorporating ventilation,
storage and loads from mirrors and barres. Instead of using high-
load, high-cost floating concrete slabs for the floors, only the
screeds were floated, to isolate the impacts from the dancers.
A key intent of the building design was that all the dance
studios should be naturally lit (for visual interest, quality of the
lit environment and economy). Lighting studies on the building
facade included computer analysis, scale model tests and a half-
scale mock-up of a typical dance studio on site. The resultant
lighting solution gives sufficient, but not excessive, daylight in
the dance studios and eliminates glare from the incoming day-
light. The selection of light-admitting materials took into consid-
eration their relationship with the internal spaces, with the aim
of achieving good balances of daylight and electric light, without
the need for active shading elements. The building facade consists
of transparent or translucent glass, with innovative, coloured
polycarbonate cladding panels mounted in front of the glass to
protect against sun, glare and heat radiation. The shadows of the
dancers inside the studios fall onto the matt glass surfaces of the
interior walls to fascinating visual effect.
Laban now trains some 400 professional dancers and chore-
ographers from more than 30 countries. It developed the UK’s
first BA (Hons) and MA dance degrees, and has more recently
pioneered an MSc in dance science. The organisation’s increased
presence in New Cross gives this deprived part of London a grow-
ing international profile and outlook. It has also begun an exciting
process of local social and cultural regeneration. These benefits
are the outcomes of an ambitious urban regeneration project,
which created a building of great beauty on the toxic site of a
disused waste-transfer station (for which extensive ground decon-
tamination measures were carried out prior to construction
commencing).

37
5.1
Great Bath, Mohenjo-daro
Chapter 5
Swimming pools
The ‘Great Bath’, Mohenjo-daro
The earliest known built pool is the ‘Great Bath’ structure at
Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead), discovered in 1925 in the
south of what is now Pakistan. The city, part of the Indus civilisa-
tion, was founded between four and five thousand years ago on
the flood plain of the mighty River Indus and had at least 35,000
residents. Mohenjo-daro was a planned city, built of fired brick
and set on top of a vast mud-brick platform some 1km (approxi-
mately 1100 yards) square and 7m (23ft) high. The buildings and
streets were laid out on a regular grid and built with walls often
1–2m (3.25–6.5ft) thick for thermal performance, given summer
temperatures reaching 55°C (131°F). Each property consisted of
one- and two-storey buildings with courtyards containing washing
and lavatory facilities. When the Indus River changed its course
around 3700 years ago, the civilisation declined and the city was
abandoned. The fired brick was so good that the walls were looted
to create the nearby railway embankment, which was constructed
in the late 19th century.
The Great Bath measures approximately 12m (39ft) × 7m (23ft)
and has a maximum depth of 2.4m (7ft 10½in). It is thought that the
pool was for washing, perhaps associated with ritual cleansing for
a priest class, rather than being for general recreational swimming;
after all, the river was nearby for fishing, normal washing activities
and even swimming. The water for the bath, very salty because of
the flood plain location, came from wells set in several nearby loca-
tions and formed from wedged-shaped fired bricks to distribute the
surrounding earth forces. It is also possible that rainwater was har-
vested from roofs during the monsoon but there is no archaeological
evidence for this. The Bath was emptied through a special under-
ground culvert, and was famed for its arched stone roof.
39
Two wide staircases led down into the tank from the north and
south, and small sockets at the edges of the stairs suggest that
wooden planks or treads were installed. At the front of the stairs
is a small ledge with brick edging that extends the full width of
the pool (when the water was shallow, people descending the
stairs could move along this ledge without stepping into the
pool).
The floor and walls of the tank were made watertight by means
of their finely fitted bricks with sand-rubbed surfaces allowing for
narrow and highly precise jointing, only 1–3mm (0.04–0.12in)
wide. The floor bricks are laid on edge, and those of the walls
have well-staggered joints. All of the brickwork appears to be laid
in a gypsum mortar, in contrast to mud mortars used in house
walls. The Bath walls have an incredibly flat and smooth surface,
illustrative of a fine construction art and intended, one assumes,
to help limit skin abrasions to frolicking bathers!
To increase the integrity of the tank further, a thick layer of
natural black bitumen was imported from open tar pits in what
is now Baluchistan. This was placed or cast as a 10–30mm
(0.4–1.2in) thick vertical membrane, set within the thickness of
the walls and laid beneath the floor. Surrounding the walls of the
Bath are soil-filled cellular brick structures which, presumably,
helped to resist lateral forces when the tank was empty.
Brick colonnades were discovered on the eastern, northern
and southern edges of the tank. The preserved columns have
stepped edges that may have held wooden screens or window
frames. Two large doors led into the complex from the south and
there is additional access from the north and east. A series of
rooms is located along the eastern edge of the building.
5.2
Santa Cruz Natatorium, California (1908)
Indoor pools development
The Romans were masters of water engineering who built some
640km (approximately 400 miles) of aqueducts to supply water
to their cities and towns. Because the lead supply pipes into each
dwelling were taxed according to size, most households had only
a basic supply. For washing, citizens used local baths, which
became places of social interaction. Roman baths were based on
the use of a furnace to heat the wter and a hypocaust (space under
the floor) for carrying heat around the complex.
Following their invasion of Britain in ad 43, the Romans
advanced into the west of England. Near to the point at which
they crossed the River Avon, they discovered a spring that brought
more than a million litres (220,000 gallons) of hot water, at around
48°C (118.4°F), to the surface each day. Around this spring the
Romans built the city of Bath, the site of one of the finest examples
of a Roman baths complex in Europe. Although some Roman
baths complexes were extensive – the emperor Diocletian built
one the size of a soccer pitch – they were intended essentially
for bathers who might want to swim rather than for swimmers
who might want to bathe.
The first indoor swimming pool in the UK was opened in
London on 28 May 1742 as the ‘Bagnio’ at Lemon Street,
Goodman’s Fields, Whitechapel. For a subscription of one guinea,
a gentleman (no ladies allowed) could use a 43ft (13.1m) long,
heated pool and could call on the services of ‘waiters’ for swim-
ming instruction. The word ‘bagnio’, pronounced ‘ban’yō’ comes
from the Italian ‘bagno’ (bath) which derives from ‘balneum’
(Latin) and ‘balaneion’ (Greek). Because ‘bagnio’ also once meant
‘bordello’, there has been speculation that additional services
may have been on offer at Lemon Street – but the authors know
of no hard evidence of this.
One of the earliest indoor (municipal) swimming pools in
North America opened on 21 June 1884 at the intersection of
Twelfth Street and Wharton Street, Philadelphia. On the West
Coast a very large pool – The Plunge at Santa Cruz – was built in
1907. This offered heated seawater as a welcome alternative to
the chilly waters of Monterey Bay, and continued in service until
1963 (when it was converted into a miniature golf course).
40
The sport of swimming received a massive fillip from its inclu-
sion in the 1896 Olympics in Athens (100m, 500m and 1200m
freestyle swimming events and a 100m competition for sailors).
Women were first allowed to swim in the Olympics in 1912
(Stockholm). The cause of competitive swimming had been
advanced by the establishment of the Amateur Swimming
Association of Great Britain in 1880, with more than 300 mem-
bers. The world swimming association ‘Fédération Internationale
de Natation’ (FINA) was formed in 1908.
Pool dimensions
Swimming competition is based on races of multiples of 100m.
Swimmers compete in lanes 2–2.5m wide and competition pools
are usually of six, eight or ten lanes, with 500mm added to the
side of the outside lanes. International standard competition
pools are 50m × 21m (25m preferred), national and regional
pools are 50m × 13m or 17m and county and club level com-
petition pools can be 25m × 13m or 17m (an exception is a
33⅓m long variation in the UK). An Olympic swimming pool is
a pool that meets FINA standards for Olympic Games and World
Championship events. It must be 50m (164ft) in length by 25m
(82ft) wide, divided into eight lanes of 2.5m (8.2ft) each, plus
two areas of 2.5m (8.2ft) at each side of the pool. The water must
be kept at 25–28°C (77–82.4°F). Depth must be at least 2m (6.5ft)
and other regulations must be met, such as colour of lane rope
and positioning of backstroke flags. For international and national
competition, the pool must be of minimum depth 1.8m through-
out. World records are only recognised when swum in 50m pools
(because the shorter the pool, the faster the time for the same
distance due to speed gains from pushing off the wall after each
turn). Pools for regional or local competition usually slope from
0.9m to 1.8m or 2m. Water polo requires an area 30m × 20m
for international and national competition, with 1.8m minimum
water depth. For club competition a volume 20m × 8m × 1.2m
deep is acceptable. Movable bulkheads have been used since
the 1970s to create different course lengths (e.g. to convert a

5.3
National Recreation Centre, Crystal Palace: swimming pool (1990)
50m pool into a 25m or 25 yard race course). Such bulkheads
are usually of fibreglass box girder or stainless steel truss con-
struction, with PVC or fibreglass grating. A mechanically or
hydraulically driven pool floor can be used to adjust the water
depth to meet the needs of different sports and leisure functions.
These types of movable floor have been popular in western
Europe since the early 1970s. If diving facilities are required,
then a separate diving pool should be provided: 10.5m × 10.0m
× 3.5m deep for 1m and 3m springboards; 12.0m × 12.5m ×
3.8m deep for springboards up to 5m; 12.5m × 15.0m × 4.5m
deep for springboards up to 10m. Synchronised swimming events
can be accommodated in the main pool, but are well suited to
the diving pool, requiring a minimum volume of 12m × 12m ×
3m deep (250m2 pool area preferred). Pool surrounds should be
a minimum of 2m wide, non-slip and sloping away from the tank
to drainage channels.
41
swimming pools
Approach to swimming pool design
Pools can be sunk into the ground or built above ground, either
partially or completely. The ground conditions will help to deter-
mine the most appropriate type of pool for the site and will influ-
ence choice of materials and construction method.
Tanks can be built using in-situ reinforced concrete, reinforced
gunite, precast concrete units, glass-reinforced plastic (GRP), steel
or aluminium. Reinforced concrete is normally used for the bigger
types of pool, which are the subject of this chapter. Permanent
shuttering usually consists of hollow concrete blocks into which
reinforcement and in-situ concrete are placed. Continuity between
the base and walls of the pool has to be maintained by reinforce-
ment. Concrete pools without shuttering can be formed by spray-
ing concrete onto a reinforcing mesh, permitting greater flexibility
in pool shape, although this technique is less suitable for large
pools.
Waterproofing from within and without the pool has to be
considered, and concrete blockwork should be back-rendered to
prevent damage from sulphate- or acid-bearing soils. Where the
water-table is high then, unless the pressure is relieved, ground-
water can cause an empty pool to lift. Land drainage measures
should be implemented under the pool. In some cases it may be
necessary to set hydrostatic relief valves in the floor of the
pool.
Pool tanks should be insulated using rigid polystyrene foams,
expanded cellular glass or other suitable proprietary materials.
Internal finishes available include rendering and paint, Marbelite
plaster, flexible heavy-duty plastic vinyl liners, rigid GRP mem-
branes and traditional glazed ceramic tiles or ceramic and glass
mosaic.
It is important that all inlets, outlets, skimmers, underwater
lights and other pool features are considered at project outset, so
that they can be incorporated as the pool is constructed. It may
be difficult or impossible to accommodate them late in the
schedule.
Pool finishes include plastic liners, paints (chlorinated rubber
or epoxy-resin based for durability), terrazzo or marble chip,
fibreglass reinforced plastics and mosaics. Tiles are among the
most durable finishes. Those used for lining pools are of a higher
quality than the familiar decorative tile. Tiles should be bedded
on a two-coat waterproof rendering, using only adhesives recom-
mended by the manufacturer. Special adhesives are necessary for
fixing tiles that have been frost-proofed by wax-based
5.4
Colne Leisure Centre (1992)
impregnation. Manufacturers of tiles for swimming pool linings
also produce special tiles to give non-slip surfaces, recessed steps
and skimmer channels (together with accessories such as hand
grips and freestanding steps, which must be resistant to corrosion
and are often manufactured in stainless steel). If steps are not
recessed as part of the tank design then they must be removable
for competition.
The pool hall
Roofs over competition-standard swimming pools are usually
designed in steel trusses, with the steelwork suitably finished to
protect against corrosion due to condensation. Timber roofs are
effective, provided that humidity is controlled and air circulation
is well-engineered. Concrete roof structures are non-corrosive
and durable but cost more than the steel and timber
alternatives.
42
Pool hall lighting
The lighting requirement depends on the standard of pool. It
ranges from 300 lux at water level for local and regional recre-
ation, training and competition to 500 lux for national competi-
tion and diving. The international (World and Olympic standard)
requirement is greater than 1500 lux.
Mechanical equipment
Well-managed pool water is odourless, tasteless, clean and clear.
Public perception is an important consideration because most
people would not want to swim in a pool that looks dirty, even
if it were actually hygienic.
Swimming pool water must be maintained with very low
levels of bacteria and viruses to prevent the spread of diseases
and pathogens between users. Strong oxidising agents are often
used, especially simple chlorine compounds such as sodium

hypochlorite, calcium hypochlorite (‘cal hypo’), cyanurated chlo-
rine compounds (‘stabilised’ chlorine) or chlorine gas is dissolved
directly in water. Other disinfectants used include bromine
compounds and ozone, generated on-site by passing an electrical
discharge through oxygen or air. When any of these pool chemi-
cals is used, it is necessary to keep the pH of the pool within the
range 7.2 to 7.6. A lower pH causes bather discomfort, especially
to the eyes. A higher pH reduces the sanitising power of the
chlorine due to reduced oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), a
factor measured in millivolts with a minimum 650mV considered
adequate to achieve the required 1-second kill rate for micro-
organisms introduced into the water. ORP test cells are available
as handheld instruments and as probes for mounting permanently
in the pool circulation plumbing to control automatic chlorine
feeders.
Pool water has not only to be cleared and purified, but also
to be heated. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and
Air-Conditioning Engineers sets the desirable temperature for
swimming pools at 27°C (80.6°F) but the optimum figure will
vary, by as much as 5°C (9°F), depending on geographical region
of the world and culture. Sizing of the system for temperature
and flow rates depends on:
• conduction through the pool walls;
• convection from the pool surface;
• radiation from the pool surface; and
• evaporation from the pool surface.
Essentially, the size and capacity of the equipment needed will
increase with the size of the pool and the anticipated intensity
of its use. For large pools, equipment may be duplicated to allow
for breakdowns and maintenance, and to cater for exceptional
loads. Pool hall boiler installations can be based on the use of
any of the conventional heating fuels.
The clearing, purification and heating processes require pool
water circulation and this is achieved by the use of pumps. Water
is drawn off the pool from outlets at high and low level. It is
passed through a strainer to remove debris and large particles.
Then the water is passed through a filter containing sand or dia-
tomaceous (powdery siliceous) earth and a heating unit and
chlorinator.
At least two outlets should be provided for every pool. The
low level outlet must be located at the lowest point of the pool,
because it is also used for drainage, and the other outlets should
43
swimming pools
be at the water surface level, where the maximum pollution is
liable to occur. Surface skimmers should be provided at the rate
of one per 40–50m2 of surface area. Surface skimming may also
be achieved by connecting an outlet to a continuous channel
around the perimeter of the pool. Some skimmer outlets have
additional suction points for connection of a vacuum sweeper (as
an alternative, an additional outlet can be connected to the
strainer inlet by a gate valve). Over-sizing filtration units, in rela-
tion to the anticipated throughput, will extend operating life.
Plastic pipes are generally preferred to metal pipes for water
circulation. Metal fittings should ideally be in stainless steel,
chromed brass or an equivalent material.
Waste heat recovery
By the 1980s rising energy and other running costs had adversely
affected swimming pools in the UK to the extent that many older
local authority pools were being closed or threatened with clo-
sure. A major cause of high maintenance costs in swimming pools
was attack on their structure, fabric and equipment by condensa-
tion that was highly acidic due to residual chlorine from the water
purification process. Traditionally, swimming pool hall conditions
had been controlled only on dry bulb temperature and pool water
temperature. The humidity within the space was, however, related
to the amount of evaporation from the pool surface and the
quantity and condition of air being introduced. Air distribution
systems tended to be at high level and inefficient.
Then, in the early 1980s, a combination of modern energy
technology and integrated design created the opportunity to
achieve profitability for pool owners and improved internal
environments for building users. The new philosophy for supply
and extraction of pool air was to create a stream of warm dry
air to sweep the structure and to exhaust as close to the source
of evaporation as possible. Excess moisture removed in this way
provided, via heat exchangers, a source of recovered heat that
could be used to promote energy efficiency in the building as
a whole. Its removal protected pool hall structure and fabric
from surface and interstitial condensation. The importance of
this innovation has increased because the trend is for warmer
water temperatures and consequent warmer air temperatures
(1°C > water temperature) resulting in increasing evaporation
rates.
5.5
Manchester Aquatics Centre (2002)
Swimming pools became financially viable again through the
use of new technologies in combination with established good
construction practice:
• good ventilation;
• adequate insulation of walls;
• moisture-resistant acoustic ceilings;
• perforated bricks and tiles; and
• double glazing for window areas.
Condensation was brought under control (relative humidity in pool
halls is now widely being maintained at the optimum of less than
60%). Wadebridge Leisure Centre, Cornwall, demonstrates the
trend with a new air-handling unit installed in 2006 to recover
heat from the air around its 25m pool and use it to heat the bath-
ing water. This cuts carbon dioxide emission by at least 150 tonnes
per annum, cuts running costs by £14,000 per annum and improves
air quality for the facility’s customers and staff. Sports and leisure
centres everywhere are seeking to achieve similar efficiencies in
energy consumption. Waste heat recovery is good news in the
battle against global warming. It has also afforded architects and
engineers the means of designing pool halls of unprecedented
beauty, by creating the freedom to design larger areas in steel and
44
glass rather than concrete and brick. The result is a new generation
of light and airy pool halls which, unlike their often noisy and
claustrophobic predecessors, are exhilarating to use.
Manchester Aquatics Centre
This 110m × 55m × 20m (above ground level) natatorium is the
first in the UK to incorporate two 50m pools. It is believed to
contain the world’s largest area of movable floors and booms.
These can be reconfigured to form pools of varying sizes and
depths, aimed at maximising flexibility in use and, hence, reve-
nue. The diving boards include one of the world’s first 3m wide,
10m boards, to cater for synchronised diving events. The building
form was developed to meet the requirements of the diving plat-
forms and to control the acoustics. Floodlighting is incorporated
and is located in order to avoid unwanted reflections, facilitate
maintenance and meet the FINA requirements. Energy conserva-
tion measures include small-scale combined heat and power
(CHP) and desiccant dryers.
The roof structure spans from masonry-clad concrete towers
on the south elevation, over an intermediate support at the rear

of the spectator seating, and then arches over the pool hall onto
thrust blocks founded 5m below ground on the north side. Support
to the main roof is by four pairs of main semi-arch ribs, cross-
braced across its full width. The form of these ribs changes about
the apex of the building from tapered plate girders on the visible
north side to truss rafters above the acoustic ceiling.
There are no movement joints within the main roof and con-
crete structures. Instead, thermal/shrinkage control joints are
provided around all the one-piece concrete pool tanks, which
are cast on slip membranes. All pool tanks were designed as
water-retaining structures and were cast to a specific design
sequence to avoid early shrinkage cracking. The profile of each
pool tank is punctuated by recesses for the submersible booms,
water supply trenches, windows and ladders.
To permit the thermal and deflection movements of the semi-
arch shaped roof, the glazed gable walls are supported from aero-
foil mullions restrained laterally at their head. The connection
allows both vertical and horizontal movement, with the plane of
the mullions stabilised by the circular hollow section (CHS) tie
element which follows the roof profile. Under longitudinal thermal
movements the glazed wall simply moves out of plumb. The mul-
lions also provide support for the external cleaning walkways.
The building design team decided to use the roof deck for
acoustic absorption. By perforating the inner liner sheet, the
mineral wool for thermal insulation could also be made to absorb
sound. However, this solution reduced the structural strength of
the liner sheet, which limited the amount of perforation that could
be accommodated.
The leisure, competition and diving pool areas are lit by
1000W metal halide and 400W SON floodlights mounted on a
central overhead gantry, positioned to avoid specular reflection
off the water from the lights. The main metal halide floodlights
are fitted with toughened diffused glass lens units to control glare
(a design consideration for backstroke swimmers). Each floodlight
is mounted on a specially designed, purpose-made retractable
arm bracket which allows easy lamp replacement from the gantry.
Switching patterns can be controlled to pre-set levels to meet
FINA requirements.
To control glare from direct sunlight and daylight entering the
pool hall, integral sealed window blinds are provided on the
north, west and east facades. Each blind system is operated by
protection rated (IP-rated) motorised control units linked to master
controller stations located around the pool hall. The rooflights
are on the north side of the roof and are opaque.
45
swimming pools
Beaurepaire Centre Pool, University
of Melbourne, Australia
The content of this chapter may give the impression that the only
really good pool is a really new pool. However, industries have
grown up around meeting needs to repair, refurbish and restore
existing facilities (see Chapter 29). In 2004 the Beaurepaire Centre
Pool won the RAIA Lachlan Macquarie Award for Heritage,
Australia’s top award for conservation architecture. Emeritus
Professor Peter McIntyre chaired the RAIA Heritage Award Jury
which commented:
‘As a fine and assured example of the so-called Postwar
Melbourne regional style, the Beaurepaire Centre is of
considerable historical, social and aesthetic/technical
importance. Designed by Eggleston, MacDonald and
Secomb in collaboration with Bill Irwin in 1954 for the
University of Melbourne, it was completed in 1957. The
project was part of the university’s 1950s building pro-
gramme which resulted in a significant group of Modernist
Functionalist buildings. Today it retains all its major ele-
ments, which demonstrate its original form and function
as a swimming pool and gymnasium complex.
The work by Allom Lovell and Associates spans conser-
vation, reinstatement and adaptation. Contemporary uses
and modern facilities are accommodated within the origi-
nal fabric in a way which celebrates the original structure,
materials and surfaces. This is no museum piece.
The conservation team has cleverly inserted new ser-
vices without dominating the existing surfaces. New floor
finishes that are more appropriate to contemporary activity
have been inserted in a way that has neither destroyed nor
completely hidden the original. Contemporary building
codes, including equity of access, have been managed by
the insertion of new elements which look appropriate and
hide nothing.
The university and the architects are to be congratulated
for choosing to conserve and adapt this building to current
usage. This has not only retained a significant piece of
architecture from a period which is often looked upon as
being unworthy of retention, but also provides a very clear
statement that the reuse of existing buildings is often more
financially viable than their replacement. In this respect

there is the added benefit of reducing the energy input
when recycling is undertaken instead of demolition and
replacement.
The Beaurepaire Centre project is the successful culmi-
nation of conservation ethics and practice. It takes its place
as a model for society to rethink its attitude to conserving
buildings of significance from our recent past.’
46
5.6–5.7
Beijing 2008 Olympics:
Water Cube visualisation (2007)
National Swimming Center, Beijing
(the Water Cube)
This building was designed to act like a greenhouse, absorbing
solar radiation and avoiding heat loss. The double skin facade of
bubbles is so well insulated that it has the potential to achieve
an annual net heat gain. The principle is to capture the solar
radiation in the area of the building where it is most needed –
around the pool – and keep it there. The thermal mass of the
concrete and the water absorbs and re-radiates this heat at night,
when it is most required. To achieve the right balance, the facade
5.8
London 2012 Olympic Games: Aquatics Centre visualisation (2008)
of the building has three modes of operation to respond to the
summer, winter and mid-season climates. The clear and translu-
cent facades allow high levels of natural daylight, which removes
the requirement to artificially light the pool during the day. A core
feature in the design of the ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)
foil skin is the variable shading control system. By modifying the
pressures in the cavity, the internal foils can be either ‘open’ or
‘closed’. This allows the light levels to be controlled to create a
dappled effect, similar to the light under a tree or deep under
water. The light can be controlled to fall only on areas that do
not suffer from glaring reflections. Alternatively, the entire roof
and wall can be turned ‘off’ to achieve optimal lighting conditions
for television cameras. At night the building glows, highlighting
the activities within.
47
World’s biggest swimming pool
The 1000m (3280ft) long pool at the holiday resort of San Alfonso
del Mar, Algarrobo, Chile, has been the world’s biggest swimming
pool since 2007. It is 8ha (17.6 acres) in surface area, the equiva-
lent of 6000 domestic pools. Its volume is 250,000m³ (8,830,000ft³)
and it contains 300,000,000 litres (66,000,000 gallons) of sea-
water. Revolutionary clear water lagoons are transparent to depths
of 35m (115ft) at the pool’s ‘deep end’. A computer-controlled
suction and filtration system is used to keep fresh seawater in
permanent circulation, drawing it in from the ocean at one end
and pumping it out at the other. The sun warms the water to 26°C
(78.8°F).
6.1
St Nicholas Rink, New York City (1896)
Chapter 6

Ice rinks

Introduction • paint the thin layer white, or pale blue for greater contrast,
and mark out as appropriate for ice hockey or curling and to
The world’s first mechanically frozen ice rink was opened by John accommodate logos or other decoration;
Gamgee in Chelsea, London, in January 1876. Two months later • spray on another thin layer of water;
he established a bigger, 40ft (12.2m) × 24ft (7.3m), permanent • build up the ice to a thickness of 2–3cm (0.8–1.2in) by
ice rink at 379 King’s Road, Chelsea. This had a concrete surface repeated flows of water onto the surface.
overlain with earth, cow hair, timber planks and oval copper
pipes. The pipes were covered with water and a solution contain- After the ice has been used it can be resurfaced periodically using
ing glycerine, ether and peroxide of nitrogen was pumped through a machine called an ice resurfacer (often called a Zamboni, a
them (this being a process discovered by Gamgee during his reference to its invention in 1949 by Frank J Zamboni). This is a
research into methods of freezing meat for import into the UK
from Australia and New Zealand). Gamgee operated the rink on
a membership basis, appealing to wealthy people who had expe-
rienced open-air ice skating during winters in the Alps. He
installed an orchestra gallery and decorated the walls with views
of the Swiss Alps. Initial success encouraged Gamgee to open
additional rinks at Rushholme, Manchester, and Charing Cross in
London. The latter ‘Floating Glaciarium’ contained a much bigger
rink measuring 115ft (35m) × 25ft (7.6m). But the process was
expensive and the club members were put off by mists rising off
the ice. All three of Gamgee’s rinks had closed by mid-1878 but
the Southport Glaciarium, opened in 1879, perpetuated applica-
tion of the invention.
Subsequent developments used chilled fluid pumped through
pipes within a bed of sand or slab of concrete to lower tempera-
ture so that a covering of water would freeze. The procedure for
preparing the surfaces of modern rinks is:

• with the pipes cold, spray a thin layer of water on the sand or
concrete to seal and level it (sand) or prevent marking 6.2
(concrete); Olympia Arena, Detroit, Michigan: new pipework installation (1967)

49
6.3–6.4
Oxford Ice Rink (1984)
truck-like vehicle which drags a ‘conditioner’. It uses a very sharp
blade to shave the surface off the ice and collects up the shavings.
An ice-edger, a machine similar to a rotary lawnmower, is used
to cut the edges of the ice rink that are beyond the range of the
resurfacer. The Continuous Edging System (Conti-Edger) integrates
edging into the general resurfacing process by mounting a second-
ary, pneumatically-controlled blade on the side of the resurfacer.
Many ice resurfacers are fitted with a board brush, a rotary brush
powered by a hydraulic motor, extended and retracted on the left
side of the machine on a hydraulic arm. The brush sweeps accu-
mulated bits of loose ice along the kick plates below the dasher
boards of the rink into the conditioner. Board brushes reduce the
need for edging the rink.
Between ice rink events, and if the facility is to be used for
alternative purposes, the ice surface may be covered with a heav-
ily insulated floor or melted by heating the fluid in the pipes.
Examples of dual-function venues include the renovated 13,800-
seat Boardwalk Hall in Atlantic City, New Jersey, which hosts ice
spectaculars between non-ice events such as boxing matches and
concerts (by musicians including rock performers Bruce
Springsteen, Paul McCartney and Elton John). The Agganis Arena
at Boston University, Massachusetts, has the principal function of
supporting the university’s ice hockey and basketball programmes
but is also expandable in spectator capacity to 7200 seats for
interim concerts, conventions, trade shows and family entertain-
ment. In the UK, conversion of the London Arena in 1998
included installation of an ice pad and refrigeration plant, 48
luxury high-level 10-seat VIP boxes, additional seating and a
centre ice video scoreboard. This created a multi-purpose enter-
tainment arena capable of hosting ice hockey and ice shows as
well as the established attractions of concerts, conventions, box-
ing and wrestling.
50
Specialist ice skating facilities:
Oxford Ice Rink
Popular interest in ice skating in the UK came with the success
of the ice skating partnership of Torvill and Dean and their unfor-
gettable ‘Bolero’ routine in the early 1980s. This was different
from the concurrent ‘Covett’ effect on participation in athletics
because the UK already had athletics facilities – now those who
wanted to emulate Torvill and Dean stimulated an unprecedented
demand in the UK for ice skating facilities. Oxford City Council
captured the mood of the time with Oxford Ice Rink. This was
completed on site in September 1984, within a period of 10
months, using a management contract. It demonstrated that new
types of building could be created economically to cater specifi-
cally for new directions in public demand for sports facilities. The
building was constructed close to the centre of the city on a
Victorian refuse tip that had been infilled and grassed over to
create a recreational area. A simple portal or braced frame solu-
tion could have been adopted, but the client wanted not only to
avoid the ‘warehouse’ feel that was characteristic of existing ice
skating venues but also to acquire a landmark building. A distinc-
tive nautical effect was achieved by using stayed steel masts and
a central longitudinal steel spine beam. The geometry resulted in
a large vertical load (380 tonnes) at each mast position and a
smaller uplift at the anchor points. These loads are carried on
straight shafted piles bored into the Oxford clay, whereas the
perimeter columns, carrying only 20% of the roof load, are
founded on shallow footings in the fill, providing the client with
a particularly economic foundation solution. The roof is formed
with a perforated profiled steel deck spanning between the roof
beams, without purlins, and covered with thermal insulation and
a single layer PVC waterproofing system. A transparent triple-

glazed wall, to the Oxpens Road frontage, advertises the ice hall
activities and is spectacularly illuminated by disco lighting at
night.
Ice hockey
Games between teams striking an object with a curved stick date
far back into antiquity – drawings on the tombs in the Valley of
the Kings in Egypt depict such sports being played 4000 years
ago. Skating on ice, using skates made of smoothed animal bones
or wood, was widespread in Scandinavia more than 3000 years
ago. The descendant sport of ice hockey has a similarly intriguing
and mysterious background. Ice hockey is related to ‘bandy’,
which is similar to association football (soccer) but played with
sticks and a small ball on an outdoor sheet of ice. Bandy probably
originated in the Fenlands of eastern England, where the shallow
waters freeze over quickly in winter and form a relatively safe
skating surface. The sport has now virtually died out in the UK.
It is known that the court of Peter the Great played bandy on the
frozen Neva River in Saint Petersburg in the early 1700s, leading
to its popular adoption throughout the Russian Empire by the
latter part of the 19th century. Today, bandy is played in Belarus,
Canada, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Kazakhstan, Latvia, Mongolia,
the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the USA. In Russia,
bandy is called xоккей с мячом (hockey with ball) and ice hockey
is xоккей с шайбой (hockey with puck). In Finland, bandy is
called jääpallo (ice ball) and ice hockey is jääkiekko (ice puck).
European immigrants to the New World brought with them all
sorts of hockey-like games, including bandy from England, shinty
from Scotland and hurling from Ireland. The Canadian historian
and author Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865) wrote of
51
ice rinks
6.5
Hanley Ice Rink, Telluride,
Colorado: youth ice hockey (2006)
‘hurley on the ice’ being played at Windsor, Nova Scotia, around
1800. However, it was not until 1875 in Montreal that the first
eye-witness account was recorded of two specific teams compet-
ing in a specific place, at a specific time, with a final score (2–1).
The venue was the Victoria Rink, designed by Montreal architects
Lawford and Nelson as a steel-arch-type structure 250ft (76m)
long × 100ft (30.5m) wide, illuminated by mains gaslights and
enclosing a 202ft (61.5m) × 80ft (24.4m) naturally frozen ice
surface. Meanwhile, in the 1870s, St Paul’s School, Concord, in
that extraordinary area of sporting innovation in Massachusetts
and New Hampshire (see Chapter 1), was staking a claim as the
birthplace of US ice hockey when it established nine hockey rinks
on its Lower School Pond and began hosting matches against
opponents including Harvard and Yale. Ongoing advances in
ice-making technologies and refrigeration techniques, together
with the growing use of structural steel for long-span structures,
would eventually see ice events accommodated throughout the
world, in all climates.
Ice rink design
The standard dimensions of a modern ice hockey rink are a mini-
mum 56m (183.7ft) × 26m (85.3ft), with corners 7m (23ft) radius,
and maximum 61m (200ft) × 30m (98.4ft), with corners 8.5m
(27.9ft) radius – not dissimilar to the dimensions and area of
Montreal’s Victoria Rink, which had opened in 1862. An ice
hockey rink has to be surrounded by a solid 1–1.22m (3.25–4ft)
high continuous fence (the boards), which has access and exit
points for skaters and a 3m (9.8ft) wide gate for the resurfacing
machine. Gates must open away from the ice surface. A circula-
tion space of at least 1.2–1.5m (3.9–4.9ft) must be provided
sports and facilities
around the perimeter. Appropriate storage provision within the
building enclosure has to be made for goalposts 1.22m high ×
1.83m wide × 1m deep (4ft × 6ft × 3.25ft), the line-marking
machine, resurfacing machine and any bleacher seating.
Specific criteria to be taken into account in ice rink design
include the possibility of heave due to alternate freezing and
expansion of the soil under the rink (this may necessitate drainage
and/or heating of the sub-soil). The facility’s walls and ceilings
should be designed to reduce noise reverberation. A plant room
approximately 11m (36ft) × 6m (20ft) × 3.7m (12ft) high will be
needed. The temperature of the facility should be maintained at
around 10–13°C (50–55.4°F), usually by heating/cooling com-
bined with mechanical ventilation. Warm air must not be circu-
lated directly above the ice. The designer should consider
recycling heat generated by the refrigeration plant and rejected
at the condenser. Rink lighting design should allow for variation
between 300 lux (27.87 foot-candles) for recreational skaters to
500 lux (46.45 foot-candles) for ice hockey matches and other
competitive events.
Among the high-quality ice hockey venues constructed in
recent years is the US$52 million TD Banknorth Sports Center at
Quinnipiac University in Hamden, Connecticut, which opened
in January 2007. This is a dual facility with basketball (3570-seat)
and ice hockey (3286-seat) ‘wings’ meeting at an entry court
which has large glass walls offering spectacular views into the
arenas. The curved arena roofs are supported by custom-made,
three-dimensional tubular steel trusses which give the develop-
ment its bird-like shape and provide armatures for lighting, sound
equipment, scoreboards and banners.
Sledge hockey
Sledge hockey was developed in Norway in the 1960s to enable
disabled people to compete in ice sports. It is played on a regula-
tion ice surface with regulation nets. Competitors are strapped
into low sleds (sledges), which are mounted on 10in (254mm)
metal skates. They use short ice picks to move the sled and strike
the puck. Sledge hockey is a full contact sport and, because able-
bodied people can use the sleds, it offers a level playing field in
every sense of the word.
52
6.6
Sun Gro Centre, Beausejour, Manitoba: curling club (2007)
Curling
Curling is a sport of complex stone placement and shot selection
played out on a rectangular sheet of ice by two teams, each
comprising four players. The teams take turns at sliding heavy
(maximum 44lb/19.96kg) polished granite stones, of up to 36in
(0.9144m) circumference and 4.5in (11.43cm) height, along the
ice to the target ‘house’, a 12ft (3.7m) wide set of concentric
rings. The sport is believed to have been invented in late medieval
Scotland. The first written reference to a contest using stones on
ice comes from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrew, Scotland,
in February 1541.
For curling, the ice surface is ‘pebbled’ by allowing loose drops
of cold water to fall onto the ice and freeze into rounded peaks.
The Scottish verb ‘curr’ means ‘to make a rumbling sound’. In
Scotland and Scottish-settled regions of the world (e.g. southern
New Zealand) curling is still known as ‘the roaring game’ because
of the sound the stone makes as it passes over the pebble. Friction
between stone and pebble causes the stone to turn to the inside
or outside, creating the ‘curl’. The amount of curl can change
during a game as the pebble wears. The surface of the ice for
curling is maintained at a temperature near 23°F (-5°C). Lighting
is a crucial design criterion since areas in shadow could jeopar-
dise the players’ assessment of the stones’ positions. The luminous
uniformity coefficient must be very high for playing and, as
appropriate, broadcasting. The recently inaugurated Pinerola Ice
Rink, Italy, has 200 metal iodide spotlights (186 asymmetrical
beam and 14 narrow beam), each rated at 1000W, to enhance
its curling competition.

Utah 2002: speed skating
Speed skating is considered to be the fastest human-powered,
non-mechanically-aided sport on earth. A highly specialised form
of rink is used. This is the two-lane oval, similar to an athletics
track. Standard speed skating tracks are 400m (437.4 yards) or
333.33m (364.5 yards) long. The curves have a radius of 25m
(82ft) to 26m (85.3ft) in the inner lane and each lane is 3m (9.8ft)
to 4m (13.1ft) wide. On such specialised tracks, skaters can
achieve phenomenal speeds of up to 48kmh (30mph).
There are few speed skating facilities in the world but, where
they do exist, they demonstrate the benefits to the skaters of close
collaboration between client, architect and sub-consultants. The
Oquirrh Park Skating Rink is situated near Kearns, 22km southwest
of downtown Salt Lake City, Utah. When the Salt Lake Organizing
Committee (SLOC) for the 2002 Winter Olympics selected its
speedskating site, it went for the highest altitude (1425m/4084ft)
of any indoor skating oval in the world. Thin air is less resistant
to skaters, while the dense, hard ice of high altitudes gives faster
times. The challenges at Utah were to create the fastest sheet of
ice in the world, provide a bright and pleasant training environ-
ment, set an example of energy efficiency, accomplish all of this
within a limited budget and – not the least challenging – complete
the facility a year before the Olympic Games were to begin.
Meeting the aims suggested a utilitarian solution, but SLOC
worked with architect GSBS and engineer Arup to create a sig-
nature building. The roof was designed as a suspended steel girder
system, which reduced the enclosed air volume by 22% over the
next best option, a steel truss roof system. The air-handling system
is divided into four zones and the use of space is optimised by
53
ice rinks
6.7
Lewis Ice Arena, Aspen, Colorado:
National Disabled Veterans
Winter Sports Clinic – curling
(4 April 2007)
placing the air-handling units (AHUs) in the building’s four cor-
ners, outside the oval.
There are no established performance design criteria for
humidity levels required by athletes so humidity control was
initially an issue of preventing condensation on the roof, frost on
the ice surfaces and fogging in the arena. To achieve this, the
dehumidification capability of the chilled water coils in the AHUs
was used, combined with fresh-air control and building pres-
surisation. During commissioning, condensation appeared on the
perimeter Perspex protective screens around the central hockey
fields within the oval. Surfaces adjacent to the ice, with lower
temperature than the roof, were especially prone to condensation
when the external conditions experienced a spike in wet bulb
temperature. There were also issues of restricting infiltration due
to heavy traffic in and out of the building. A system of desiccant
dehumidification was added to provide background humidity
control to 45% RH (relative humidity) set point, a level that gave
the operations staff sufficient time to investigate and monitor
system response to rising internal humidity.
The preferred temperature for skater comfort is 15.6°C (60°F)
but racing conditions require that the space temperature be low-
ered to 10°C (50°F), with the ice held at -6.6°C (20.12°F).
Maintaining 10°C in the racing zone had proved difficult in some
other arenas, principally because of high roofs. In big roof spaces
it is desirable to have heat gains rise under buoyancy and form
warm upper layers, but in a speedskating arena, where a large
floor is held at -6.6°C, it is often necessary to blow hot air to
achieve the 10°C above the ice.
This hot air must be forced down into the floor zone – against
its natural tendency to rise – without softening the ice. The low
sports and facilities

interior height afforded by Utah’s suspended steel girder system

made conditioning the space more manageable. Initial plans for
the ventilation outlet configuration envisaged motorised nozzle jet
diffusers, automatically adjustable to take account of the supply air
temperature, but the cost of this option proved prohibitive. The
alternative, both innovative and economical, was to configure the
nozzles at the required angle for heating, with high-level automatic
relief ducts that open during cooling to bleed some of the cold air
supply away from the supply jets. Cold draughts are thus avoided
during peak cooling conditions. This system also allows the opera-
tors a degree of fine-tuning and control over the final system con-
figuration, without having to manually adjust each of the 200 nozzle
diffusers at ceiling level above the ice. To further discourage strati-
fication, this system was combined with placing the AHU return air
suction grilles at floor level to remove air from the racing zone.
In tests before the Olympics, the systems maintained design
conditions throughout the space with less than 1°F (0.56°C) varia-
tion at all locations in the racing zone and less than 2°F (1.11°C)
variation between the racing zone and the ceiling condition. In
March 2001, the Utah Olympic Oval was among the first 12
buildings to be given LEED™ certification for sustainable design.
In the final speedskating event of the 2002 Winter Olympic
Games at Utah, Germany’s Claudia Pechstein set her second
world record, bringing the event’s aggregate to eight world records 6.8
set in ten Olympic races. Skatetown, Roseville, California: Ice Skating Instruction (2007)

Turin 2006 Figure skating

Turin’s indoor ice skating venues for the XXth Olympic Winter
Games were the 8500 spectator capacity Oval Lingotto (speed
skating), 4320 capacity Torino Esposiezioni and 12,350 capacity
Palasport Olimpico (ice hockey) and the 10,000 capacity Torino
Palavela (figure skating, short-track and speed skating). The
Palavela is a striking, reinforced concrete ‘sail’ structure that was
modified to host Olympic ice events and, following the Olympics,
to serve as a multi-purpose facility capable of division into two
parts. Post-Olympic events hosted have included temporary exhi-
bitions and an interactive tour of Egypt, created by the Egyptian
Museum Foundation. The Palasport Olimpico, completed in 2005,
was designed as a multi-purpose indoor sports/concert arena – the
biggest in Italy – which has hosted concerts by leading musicians,
including Bruce Springsteen, Pearl Jam and Bob Dylan.
The International Skating Union (ISU), founded in 1892, regu-
lates international figure skating judging and competitions.
Competition skaters aim to perform the most difficult routine
possible (technical merit) and present the routine in the best
possible way (presentation). The United States Figure Skating
Association (USFSA) is the governing body for amateur ice skat-
ing in the USA. Its test structure to measure skaters’ achieve-
ments comprises essentially:
• freestyle – individual skating involving a required number and
type of jumps, spins and other moves;
• dance – a man and a woman performing a choreographed
dance on ice, with the man ensuring that he does not lift the
woman above his waist or throw her; and

54
6.9
Palavela, Turin: Olympic figure skating (2006)
• pairs – a man and a woman performing jumps, lifts and throws,
with the man pushing the woman from him.
Up until 1999 USFSA included in its test structure compulsory
figures – with the individual skater following a trace on an area,
a ‘patch’, of the ice in the form of an 8, or other complex figure.
Other disciplines of figure skating include synchronised skating,
moves in the field (field moves), fours, theatre on ice (ballet on
ice), adagio skating, special figures and acrobatic skating (acro-
batics on ice, extreme skating), which offers a spectacle demon-
strating the utmost in aesthetic and physical excellence.
Recycling buildings
Many existing buildings are adapted to host ice events and some
existing buildings are converted to permanent ice rinks. The
Millennium Dome on the Greenwich Peninsula, London, hosted
the Millennium Experience exhibitions and arena events in the
year 2000. It has subsequently been used for concerts and other
events (including sporting events). In September 2007 the Dome
55
(now known as the O2 Arena) accommodated a sell-out event
hosting 17,500 fans for Saturday/Sunday evening back-to-back
ice hockey matches between the Anaheim Ducks and the Los
Angeles Kings. The teams competed on a 1200m2 (12,917ft²)
purpose-built ice rink that was completed in five days using
21.75km (13.5 miles) of underfloor pipes to freeze the surface.
Having been frozen, the 2cm (0.8in) thick ice was maintained at
a constant temperature of -9°C (15.8°F).
The Anaheim Ducks and Los Angeles Kings were competing
for the Stanley Cup, the most prestigious ice hockey trophy, in
the first National Hockey League (NHL) season opening match
to take place in Europe. The Stanley Cup – also known as The
Cup, The Holy Grail and Lord Stanley’s Mug – is the oldest
sports trophy in North America. It was originally awarded to
Canada’s top-ranking amateur ice hockey club and became the
NHL championship trophy in 1926. The Cup was forged in
Sheffield and purchased from a silversmith in Regent Street,
London, by Lord Stanley in 1892. Lord Stanley had been
appointed Governor General of Canada by Queen Victoria in
1888 and became hugely enthusiastic about ice hockey, which
he first observed at Montreal’s 1889 Winter Carnival. One of
his sons, Arthur, would go on to establish ice hockey in the
UK.
7.1
National Recreation Centre, Crystal Palace, London (2007)
Chapter 7
Integrated sports facilities
Introduction
This chapter is about providing facilities for different sports within
a single building or complex. In the UK the pioneering project
was the National Recreation Centre at Crystal Palace, Sydenham
Hill, South London. This is a campus-type, greenfield develop-
ment incorporating athletics stadium, sports hall and athletes’
hostel tower. The 63m × 63m × 19m (207ft × 207ft × 62ft) high
multi-functional sports hall, designed 1953–59 and built 1960–
64, accommodates swimming pools and dry sports. Swimming
facilities include a 50m racing pool, diving pool with spring-
boards and 5m, 7.5m and 10m platforms, 18.28m (60ft) teaching
pool and 25m training pool. Sports facilities include squash,
basketball, korfball, five-a-side and eleven-a-side football, vol-
leyball, trampoline, karate, aerobics, weight training, netball,
hockey, tennis, badminton, skiing, gymnastics and a climbing
wall. Today Crystal Palace is one of six national centres operated
for Sport England. It hosts Grand Prix Athletics every summer and
other activities, training sessions and national and regional events
throughout the year.
The massive single roof is supported by a concrete A-frame
which forms the spine of the building and allows views across
the whole of the interior. Swimmers and dry sport participants
can interact easily by crossing the aisle created by the A-frame.
Innovative use of prestressed concrete made possible the slim
and elegant beams forming the facades. The revolutionary flying
roof, with underside clad in timber, adds a sculptural quality to
the concrete framed building.
The National Recreation Centre was rooted in the architecture
of the 1950s, but has all of the social exuberance of the 1960s.
It is the forerunner of other concrete-framed sports complexes in
57
the UK (such as the Swiss Cottage Sports Centre and Coventry
Central Baths) and has influenced similarly high-quality sports
architecture in North America and West Africa.
The space age
Europe’s first 400m 3M ‘Tartan’ synthetic track was installed at
Crystal Palace in 1968. At that time David Bedford was revolu-
tionising world distance running with his huge training mileages.
On 13 July 1973 Bedford set a new World Record of 27:30.8 for
the 10,000m on the Crystal Palace track. In tandem with these
revolutionary events, a revolution was taking place in building
design and construction as an outcome of contemporary advances
in computing technology.
Since about 1945 a new system of metal roof construction was
being developed and became known under various names includ-
ing three-dimensional frames, space frames, space decks and
double-layer grids. The simplest such structure is of two-way
intersecting lattice girders, making up a top and bottom layer
interconnected by vertical and sloping members. Because the
members of the girders are mainly subjected to axial forces (ten-
sion and compression) the stress in any member is uniform (and
in a grid system compression members extend only from joint to
joint, so buckling length is small). Because of this, double-layer
grids make more efficient use of material. In the 1960s advances
in computing stimulated the design and development of many
new space frame systems.
NODUS was one such space frame system, comprising cast
joints and tubular steel connectors. It was invented by Hugh

7.2
NODUS space frame joint: exploded view (1975)
Walker and his colleagues at British Steel Corporation, developed
with Professor Z S Makowski and his team at Surrey University
and tested at Cowthwick Quarry near Corby, Northamptonshire.
Initial applications were for small car showroom canopy struc-
tures in the Newcastle-upon-Tyne area. Then, astonishingly,
NODUS was specified for the new National Exhibition Centre
(NEC) at Birmingham, one of the biggest building projects ever
undertaken in the UK. Steelwork erection of the NEC initial
development of six halls (1, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5), total area 72,400m²
(779,300ft²), commenced on site in late 1973 and was completed
in 1975. The NODUS space frame system was used for the 93
identical roof structures, each measuring 27.9m × 27.9m (91.5ft
× 91.5ft). These contain 45,384 rectangular and circular steel
hollow sections (488 members in each space frame). Birmingham
International Arena, 10,125m² (108,985ft²), was subsequently
built on site in 18 months. This has NODUS roof structures sus-
pended from masts to create a clear span multi-purpose area 60m
× 60m (197ft × 197ft).
The use of steel space frames for the initial NEC development
created the large uninterrupted spans appropriate to the exhibi-
tions business, allowed for unimpeded future extensions in any
direction and offered the capacity to carry extensive overhead
services. The small size components used in the space frame
construction enabled fast workshop production, easy transporta-
tion to site and quick erection. Because the space frames were
identical, high wind conditions did not result in work stoppages
58
on site – the erection team simply switched from high-level work
on the halls to assembly of space frames at ground level, prior to
craning into position. Similarly, rain can cause stoppages on site
because people cannot walk on wet steel but, in this case, it was
possible to switch to the ground level construction. All castings
in the NODUS size 35 joint range selected for the NEC project
could be handled by one man working alone. Specifically, it was
found that one space frame could be assembled on site in four
days by a team consisting of a charge-hand and four workers.
The reason for describing NEC is that, apart from hosting
exhibitions, it became a significant sporting venue. It has accom-
modated mass-participation events such as the Interplas Marathon
1981. Its international arena can be used in ice rink mode to host
ice skating events. It was the proposed location in the City of
Birmingham’s (unsuccessful) bid for the 1992 Olympic Games
and has hosted many major sports-related events such as the BBC
Sports Personality of the Year (December 2007). More signifi-
cantly, the NEC demonstrated the advantages of using space
frames in general, and NODUS in particular, to achieve the wide
spans required for sports and leisure facilities.
Sunderland Leisure Centre
An example of the use of the space frame is Sunderland Leisure
Centre, completed in 1976 to allow family groups as well as indi-
viduals to participate in a wide variety of sports and leisure activi-
ties. The 138m × 78m × 15m (453ft × 256ft × 49ft) high building
has a plan area of more than a hectare (over 2.2 acres) – almost the
equivalent of three soccer pitches. It accommodates: a two-court
sports hall; multi-purpose sport area; eight squash courts; a free-form
leisure pool; diving pool; two restaurants/cafés; crèche; sauna suite;
bars; six-lane flat bowling hall; general purpose and club rooms;
ice rink; changing, storage and general circulation areas; shop units;
administrative and staff areas; exhibition and display areas; disco-
theque; plant and supplementary accommodation. The roof is a
single massive 3m (9.8ft) deep space frame supported on twelve
groups of four columns, resulting in major support spacing of 48m
+ 42m + 48m (157ft + 138ft + 157ft) longitudinally and 33m + 36m
(108ft + 118ft) transversely. Columns were designed to double up
as lifting sticks. The two-layer space frame roof has a 3m square
bottom grid with a diagonal top layer grid connected mainly with
NODUS size 45 joints. The roof design load (excluding wind) is
7.3
Harrow Sports Centre, London (1973)
1.7kN/m2 (0.035kip/ft²). Structural analysis of the frame was made
on the basis of symmetry and for a quarter of the whole roof.
Because of the large number of connecting members and joints
involved, it was necessary to expand the computer program to such
an extent that the frame analysis had to be handled by the large
NASA computer in Houston, transmission being bounced off tele-
communication satellites. The 800 tonne roof, containing more than
24km (15 miles) of rectangular hollow sections, was successfully
lifted into position in October 1975, using the Lift Slab method. The
frame was protected by factory blast-cleaning and 75 microns zinc
spray, a wash primer of 13 microns and three coats of chlorinated
rubber to 125 microns.
Harrow Leisure Centre
HRH Princess Anne opened this building on Wednesday 11 June
1975 as a multi-purpose centre unique in north-west London for
the range of activities that it offered. Wet sports include a main
pool 33.3m × 16.7m (109ft × 55ft) and a learner pool 16.7m ×
14.4m (55ft × 47ft). Both pools have water up to the level of a
tiled surround – the ‘level deck’ system common in Europe and
North America. Overlooking the pools are fixed accommodation
for 120 spectators, the restaurant and a bar area. The dry sports
facilities include: sports hall 38.4m × 33.6m (114.2ft × 110.2ft);
weight-lifting training hall 16m × 10m (52.4ft × 32.8ft); small
training hall (above) 16m × 10m; range for shooting, golf, archery
and cricket; twelve squash courts, three with fixed spectator seat-
ing behind glazed rear walls; an external covered area 33.4m ×
19.2m (109.6ft × 63ft) for five-a-side football, basketball, hockey,
etc.; a bowls hall 43.2m × 43.2m (141.7ft × 141.7ft).
59
The multi-purpose main sports hall and the squash courts were
built using rolled hollow sections (RHS) and the bowls hall was
roofed using NODUS. The London Borough of Harrow’s Engineer’s
Department chose NODUS for the bowls hall because there was
a limit on the depth of roof structure and internal roof supports
were not permitted. A square-on-diagonal grid was adopted with
a top chord module of 2.4m (7.9ft) and a depth of 2m (6.6ft).
Universal columns 4.5m (14.8ft) high, set at 4.8m (15.7ft) centres,
were used to support the roof at bottom chord level. Although
the grid has a cornice edge, secondary steelwork was used to
generate a vertical fascia to suit the curtain walling and drainage
requirements. The 55 tonne grid was assembled at ground level
in two weeks and the lift, employing eight 15 tonne cranes, was
carried out in two hours. No ‘fit’ problems were encountered.
Herringthorpe Leisure Centre,
Rotherham
In this project two identical 38.4m × 32m (126ft × 105ft) grids,
of square-on-square offset design with a Mansard edge, were
used, one for the sports hall and one for the swimming pool. Each
roof was assembled offset from the final grid position, to enable
the columns to be erected prior to lifting. The swimming pool
roof was assembled on scaffolding over the pre-constructed pool
and propped to the concrete pool floor, where necessary, using
Acrow props. The sports hall roof was assembled on a level con-
crete floor. Assembly times were 520 person-hours (0.42 person-
hours/m²) for the swimming pool and 300 person-hours (0.24
person-hours/m²) for the sports hall. Erection was carried out using
7.4–7.5
Heringthorpe Leisure Centre, Rotherham (1975)
two 25-tonne and two 40-tonne telescopic cranes. The 40-tonne
cranes were necessary because the working radius was increased
due to a social facility block extending along the side of the sports
hall. The sports hall roof was lifted in three hours. Then, at the
corner lifting position of the swimming pool roof adjacent to the
social block, the crane jib was telescoped through the mansard
edge of the grid of the already-erected sports hall roof to overcome
the access difficulty at that point. This 32-tonne lift was then
completed in 2½ hours.
Back to the future
Back in the 1850s cast-iron and modular construction were used
to create a ‘crystal palace’ which would become one of the most
influential buildings of the Victorian era. In terms of sports facili-
ties, the influence of the crystal palace is clearly seen in space
frames, in the UK’s Standardised Approach to Sports Halls (SASH)
initiative of the 1980s and in the UK’s big, light, airy, steel and
glass sports and leisure centres of the 1980s and 1990s.
The Crystal Palace was designed by James Paxton for the Great
Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park, London. Paxton was a gardener
and landscape designer with experience of large greenhouse
construction. He proposed a design for the building for the Great
Exhibition after the planners had rejected 220 competition designs
and failed to gain support for their own alternative. They were
looking for a solution with strength, durability, simplicity of con-
struction and economy – pretty much what planners of today are
looking for. To these attributes they added speed of erection, as
60
they began to run out of time. Also, and this had ruled out many
of the competition designs, they were looking for a temporary
building because they wanted to restore Hyde Park to its original
appearance after the Great Exhibition had taken place.
Paxton proposed the world’s first ‘modular’ or ‘prefabricated’
public building and completed his original design within 10 days.
The building measured 1848ft (536m) × 408ft (124m) and covered
772,784ft2 (71,794m2), the equivalent of 19 acres (7.6ha). The
structure comprised 550 tons of wrought-iron, 3500 tons of cast-
iron, 300,000 panes of glass covering 900,000ft2 (84,000m2), 202
miles (323km) of sash bars and 30 miles (48km) of gutters.
Doubts were expressed from the outset and had to be taken
seriously because the critics included Sir George Biddell Airy,
the Astronomer Royal, and Richard Turner, who had constructed
the Palm House at Kew Gardens. Strains on the ironwork were
not considered to be a problem because the girders were
designed to take several times their anticipated loading. What
was seen to be a problem was resonance – the idea that a large
crowd, moving regularly inside the building, could cause it to
vibrate more and more until it collapsed. This had happened
before in bridge structures (and the phenomenon would be
encountered in the future by, for example, the designers of
London’s Millennium Bridge in the year 2000). In the case of
the Great Exhibition, an experiment was set up with a test con-
struction on which 300 workmen walked backwards and for-
wards, regularly and irregularly, and then jumped simultaneously
in the air. Then, to induce the most regular oscillations possible,
the army’s Sappers and Miners (now the Royal Engineers) were
called in to march ‘at the double’ over a platform erected
between the girders. The maximum girder movement was one-

7.6
Harborough Leisure Centre: swimming pool overlooked
by gym treadmills (2008)
quarter of an inch (6.35mm). In further efforts to shake the
structure Herr Reichardt, a well-known tenor, was asked to sing
at one end of the building. Then a full orchestra was tried, and
then the full orchestra with all the bass pipes of the organ groan-
ing in discord. But no pane of glass moved or showed any
response. Building work would proceed.
Construction commenced in September 1850 and was com-
pleted in January 1851, ready for opening on May Day 1851. The
Great Exhibition attracted 600,000 visitors in six weeks, which
represented a huge success (the population of England in 1851
was 16.8 million compared with 60.9 million in 2007). After the
event Hyde Park was restored and the crystal palace was dis-
mantled and re-erected as the focal point of a 200 acre (80ha)
Victorian theme park established at Sydenham Hill in South
London, where it would give its name to the area. Crystal Palace
was opened by Queen Victoria on 10 June 1854. It was ultimately
destroyed by fire on the night of 30 November 1936. The timeless
nature of the Crystal Palace is suggested by the Bromley London
Borough Council (Crystal Palace) Act 1990 (c.xvii) which
61
i n t e g r at e d sports facilities
specified that ‘The principal building to be constructed in any
development of the pink land consequent upon the provisions of
this Act shall reflect the architectural style of the original Crystal
Palace’.
The Crystal Palace of 1851 was, at 71,794m2 (772,785ft²),
remarkably similar in covered area to the initial National Exhibition
Centre halls development of 1975 which was, at 72,400m²
(779,300ft²), one of the major UK building projects of the 20th
century. The big and technically challenging Sunderland Leisure
Centre covers 15% the area of Crystal Palace. While Crystal Palace
was exceptional, this chapter will demonstrate that, far from set-
ting an unattainable standard, its design and construction posi-
tively informed sports facilities development in the UK.
Standardised Approach to
Sports Halls (SASH)
The Sports Council was founded by the Labour Government in
1965. It became the intermediary between government and sport
and, in 1972, began distributing the first government funds allo-
cated specifically for the development of British sport and its
facilities. Funds previously hoarded by cost-conscious local
authorities were also suddenly released and spent – in anticipa-
tion of local government reorganisation – on sports and leisure
centres, swimming pools and golf courses. In 1972 the UK had
27 sports centres. In 1980 there were 770 and the municipal
leisure centre had become a focal point of towns and cities
throughout the UK.
New estimates indicated that by the early 1990s the UK could
support a total of 3000 sports and leisure centres. The Sports
Council targeted 800 additional facilities of one type or another
by 1987, with 240 of the 800 being entirely new construction.
To provide these buildings within the prevailing restricted national
budget was a major challenge to politicians and the whole of the
recreation management profession.
The Sports Council response was to invest its research and
development resources in the development of a standardised
sports hall. The Council’s Technical Unit for Sport (TUS) com-
prised architects, engineers and quantity surveyors, who worked
with local authorities in developing sports facilities. A particular
collaboration, over Tamworth Sports Centre in Staffordshire,
7.7
Bitterne Leisure Centre, Southampton (1984)
became in many respects the prototype for what came to be
known as the SASH Sports Centre Programme.
SASH evolved following a national competition which attracted
122 entries and was won in 1982 by a Bovis-led team comprising
Bovis Construction Ltd (Design and Construction Manager),
Nicholas Grimshaw & Partners (Architect), Arup (Structural,
Mechanical and Electrical Engineer) and Brian Clouston & Partners
(Landscape Architect). The programme had two basic objectives
– economy and speed of provision. Concomitant requirements
were ease and speed of individual projects and completeness, in
terms of fitting out and equipment.
The SASH neighbourhood sports centre was designed to com-
plement existing facilities, to fill a gap in local sports provision
or serve a newly developing community. Each centre would
accommodate the needs of a catchment population of between
15,000 and 25,000. The basic layout was a sports hall the size of
four basketball courts and a fitness room, together with social
and service facilities. To this could be added one or more swim-
ming pools, squash courts, a separate multi-purpose hall, addi-
tional changing accommodation and more social areas.
In October 1982 the Bovis team was commissioned for its first
SASH sports hall, to be built at Eastbourne. The team was on site
by March 1983 and the building was completed in December
1983. By that time another seven schemes were under construction.
The average time for construction of a basic centre was set at 37
weeks. This imposed a discipline of efficiency and economic per-
formance on every building element. Bovis and its design team
developed a building fitting a modular grid because the programme
constraints meant that many of the building components had to be
manufactured and prefabricated off site. This was true not only of
62
the structure but also of the finishing elements. Products had to be
readily available, easily constructed and durable, with low main-
tenance requirement. Steel was specified as the principal structural
element and was used in many forms throughout the buildings.
A simple pin-jointed steel frame system was selected for ease
of fabrication, painting, transportation and erection. Stanchions
were erected directly on to foundation pads, beams connected
to columns with simple bolted end-plate details and conventional
bracing was provided in the perimeter walls. The only mezzanine
floor, providing the plant room, was formed using permanent
Holorib steel decking with a concrete slab on top. The steel
structure supporting this floor was clad in fireproof dry lining
which was itself pre-clad in steel to provide a damage-resistant
wearing finish. The interior load-bearing walls were designed in
140mm (5.5in) concrete blockwork and offered rigid support for
the lightweight steel sections.
In the main hall the roof was supported by three main beams.
The introduction of circular holes in the webs gave a light and
pleasing appearance when painted white (the Sports Council brief
was for no natural light in the sports hall). Arup said that ‘such
an opportunity to use a stressed skin roof deck was not to be
missed’. Long span (8m, 26.2ft) steel decking was fixed directly
to the top flange of the roof beams. This carried the lateral forces
to the wall bracing and provided stability to the compression
flange of the beams. The roof decking was perforated to permit
the thermal insulation to perform the additional function of sound
absorption. The roof deck finish was white throughout the sports
centre, eliminating the need for a suspended ceiling.
Grimshaw wanted a building which would be attractive and
pleasing to approach. High tensile profiled steel cladding was
7.8
Bitterne Leisure Centre, Southampton (1984)
used on all external walls, with circular perforations for the bright
red steel porthole windows. The cladding was generally in metal-
lic silver finish with two bands of red and blue. The main option
in the external envelope was the choice between full-height clad-
ding and the use of a 1m high brick plinth. A higher-cost alterna-
tive of a pre-insulated steel panel was available.
A striking and original use of steelwork within the building
was the use of red Nylon-coated sheet steel panels formed to
provide four deep bulkheads which enclosed all the piped and
electrical services at high level, through the toilet and changing
areas to the showers. These epitomised the modular kit form of
construction. They provided a ready-made facility for all final
fixing of socket outlets, air-conditioning grilles, public address
speakers and lights.
Bovis, as team leader, coordinated and programmed the design
work. They also developed a method of taking advantage of the
modular/kit form of design to maximise economy and efficiency
on site.
The target time of 37 weeks for construction of a SASH centre
was quickly bettered, with the average being brought down to 35
weeks and then 31 weeks (with an average 16-week lead-in).
Structural steelwork usually commenced on site after eight weeks,
at which stage the ground floor slab was ready to be cast. The
fabricator delivered the steel to site ready painted, erected the steel
frame inside one week and included temporary roof bracing prior
to the roof skin being fixed. Once the frame was fully erected the
roofing works commenced, overlapping with the start of the exter-
nal cladding. This provided protection against inclement weather,
eliminating interruptions to construction work within the structure.
Buildings were usually watertight at or before 18 weeks.
63
Dubai sports halls
The use of precision-manufactured structural steel was at the same
time making feasible some of the world’s biggest-ever sports
facilities. In the 1980s HH Sheikh Hamdan bin Rashid Al
Maktoum, UAE Minister of Finance and Chairman of Dubai
Municipality, granted a donation which enabled Dubai’s four
principal football clubs each to receive an indoor sports centre
designed to international standards. The four facilities are huge.
Each is about three quarters the area of the UK’s National Sports
Centre building at Crystal Palace.
The architectural concept called for a column-free area of
62m × 48m (203ft × 157ft) containing a main court area 50m ×
42m × 13m (164ft × 137ft × 42.6ft) clear height to cater for
basket­ball, volleyball, handball, tennis, badminton, gymnastics,
weightlifting, boxing, wrestling, bowling, squash and table tennis.
Seating for 3000 spectators at each venue is provided mainly on
terraces of fixed seating and by retractable bleacher seating.
Four massive reinforced concrete shear walls were designed
to support the main roof trusses. Each hall has two 110 tonne,
3.5m (11.5ft) deep main trusses, of hexagonal cross section,
fabricated in sizes up to 300 × 300RHS (rectangular hollow sec-
tions) (11.8 × 11.8 in). This met the aesthetic requirements and
enabled large air-conditioning ducts to be installed at the most
energy-efficient locations.
The main trusses span 48m between the shear walls and were
designed using principles applicable to bridge structures, with
particular attention being paid to provision for thermal movement
and rotation at bearing points. Secondary tubular trusses, at 9m
(29.5ft) centres, are of triangular section, 1.7m (5.6ft) deep. Main
sports and facilities
trusses were pre-assembled at ground level and lifted into position
by a 500 tonne capacity hydraulic crane. At the time of construc-
tion, the roof steelwork erection was the biggest on-shore lift in
the UAE and the completed roofs were the largest clear span
structures in the Gulf area. The project was completed, within
budget, to a 16-month programme.
The Dome, Doncaster Leisure Park
In the UK in the 1980s building form and materials choice were
used to explore the approach to interaction of a sports and rec-
reation centre with park landscaping. Architect FaulknerBrowns
and engineer F J Samuely & Partners drew on extensive combined
sports and leisure building experience to create the largest build-
ing of its type in the UK, and one of the largest in the world
outside the USA and Germany. The opportunity arose when
Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council wanted to take advan-
tage of a national surge of growth in the leisure industry to
develop a 130ha (286 acre) disused coalmining site on the eastern
edge of the town. This was very much a regeneration project, with
establishment of the Dome being seen as the necessary precursor
to further development of the park.
The aspiration was for a fun building of the 21st century which
would embody the exuberant spirit of sports and leisure.
Consideration was given initially to locating the proposed four
principal activities of swimming, ice skating, bowling and court
sports in four separate buildings linked by walkways. This option
was abandoned in favour of a solution in which all the activities
would be integrated, at various levels, into one building envelope.
Particular attention was paid to the planning of the circulation
spine, which expands dramatically at the centre of the building
into a 30m × 19m (98ft × 62.3ft) high atrium. It was decided that
access to the atrium would be free, to encourage casual visitors
to the building. Thus, the central atrium forms a foyer area which
opens onto public ‘malls’ which afford ‘shop window’ views of
the various sports and leisure activities in progress.
A tubular steel roof structure, 15.5m (50.8ft) at its highest
point, was designed to make an elegant transition across consider-
able height differences, ranging from the 3m (9.85ft) of the ice
rink to the 12m (39.4ft) of the sports hall. Triangulated lattice
trusses 2m (6.56ft) deep span a maximum of 45m (147.6ft), at
7.8m (25.6ft) spacing, and are used as steps in the roofing (the
64
sole break in the structural rhythm is at the forum, which is
enclosed by a circular flat roof punctuated by a small glass dome).
Circular hollow sections were chosen for the roof members
because of their structural efficiency, elegant appearance and
ease of jointing, painting and maintenance. The triangular cross-
section of the trusses and the lateral and torsional rigidity of the
tubes provided a stable structural element for the long spans
without the need for additional bracing along the length of the
main trusses. High grade steel was used to keep the size of the
main boom members to the minimum, meeting a planning con-
straint of limited truss depth relative to the longest spans.
In the ice rink/swimming pools area the two-storey high ridged
mall frames support the main CHS triangulated roof trusses, which
span a maximum 38m (124.7ft) to the curved perimeter on the
north elevation. CHS curved edge trusses and a CHS ring beam
complete the elevation and provide support for the gutter and
lateral support to the masonry walls below. Here the main trusses
are supported on CHS columns with specially welded plate col-
umn heads set clear of the wall (because the pitched roof intersects
a curved edge, the column heights and column head geometries
vary). A combination of banded masonry and curtain wall glazing
was used in the wall behind the column and column head.
The differential deflections caused by adjacent unequal main
truss spans and by unequal snow loadings were studied by F J
Samuely, by analysing the interaction between main and second-
ary trusses, using grid analysis computer programs. The analyses
showed that, in order to control bending stresses in the secondary
trusses and torsional effects on the main trusses, it was necessary
to connect them using pin-jointed and guided end connections.
These joints allowed adjacent main members to move vertically
relative to each other. The exception to this arrangement occurs
near the outer ends of the main members, where differential
deflections are small. Here, rigid connections between main and
secondary trusses were introduced to provide torsional stability
to the main trusses.
The same basic elements were used on the south side of the
building to form a fragmented, informal edge. In this area the
main trusses overshoot the external walls and are supported
externally to the building envelope by freestanding cantilevered
CHS columns clad in banded masonry. Warren braced secondary
CHS trusses span east–west between the main trusses, at high or
low level, at 4m (13.1ft) centres.
Stability in the north–south direction is provided by the pin-
footed mall A-frames. In the east–west direction the latticed
7.9
The Dome, Doncaster (1989)
bottom chords of the main trusses distribute lateral load to two
‘K’ braced bays along the north edge, via inclined ‘K’ bracing to
the diagonally-braced mall frames near the centre and to the
reinforced concrete health suite on the south edge. The health
suite provides vertical support to the main trusses and to some
secondary trusses. Steelwork is attached to the health suite via
bearings guided in the north–south direction.
The roof deck is supported on secondary trusses spaced at 4m
centres. These are connected to the triangular members at differ-
ent levels, to suit architectural and services requirements, and
with the air ducts supported beneath the structure.
The bowls hall/sports hall area is of similar construction to the
ice rink/swimming pools area. Main air ducts run within the trusses
and, in the sports hall, the deck spans directly between the bottom
booms to provide a flat soffit. Changing rooms are located in a
three-storey steel-framed structure between the bowls hall and
sports hall. The east side of the building contains two-storey offices
and a single-storey boiler-house, which are steel-framed, and
single-storey squash courts, which are of load-bearing masonry.
All steelwork in the roof, and much of the steelwork in the
floors, is exposed to view as an architectural feature. Most mem-
bers were transported to site in one piece but the larger main
triangulated trusses were delivered in sections for welding together
on site. All chord members and single tubular members were full
strength, full penetration butt welded using backing rings. The
CHS member linking the ends of the main trusses together was
full strength, full penetration butt welded at every joint to provide
65
continuity for the transmission of lateral wind loads into the brac-
ing systems. Curved beams were formed by first bending the chord
members to the correct profile and then holding the chords in a
jig to allow welding-in of the diagonals and verticals.
Construction of the 15,100m2 (162,535ft²) building com-
menced in November 1986 and the Dome was completed in
August 1989. Substructure works included concrete stanchion
bases, reinforced in-situ concrete perimeter ground beam and
floor slabs and swimming pool structures, all on a bed of granular
material, together with a temporary dewatering system. External
works included site contouring, topsoiling, grass seeding and
planting, creation of a 6400m2 (68,890ft²) plastic-membrane-
lined lake, hard paving around the building, tarmacadam entrance,
service roads and parking for 600 vehicles, external lighting,
surface-water drainage and collecting manholes.
The Play Drome,
Clydebank Tourist Village
Clydebank Tourist Village was established to provide sports facilities
for a local urban population of 50,000 and a wider catchment area
of 125,000. The complex divides into three areas: wet sports pool
hall 45m × 45m (147.6ft × 147.6ft) with 25m competition pool,
330m2 (3552ft²) leisure pool, teaching pool, tyre ride, water slide);
7.10
Clydebank Leisure Centre (1993)
dry sports (multi-purpose) sports hall 36m × 32m (118ft × 105ft)
and bowls hall 43m × 26m (141ft × 85.3ft), with squash courts,
health suite and changing rooms); three-storey link (wet sports
changing facilities, gymnasium, management suite, plantroom).
The roof is tension-stayed, being supported primarily by tubu-
lar hangers suspended from perimeter masts. This form was
selected to meet the need for large clear internal spans, optimise
usable space within the building envelope (by minimising the
size of the elements of construction, commensurate with struc-
tural economy)and to act as a landmark which, appropriately,
symbolises the form of the River Clyde’s shipyard cranes.
The roof structure comprises eight pairs of cellular principal
rafters with a maximum span of 29m (95ft) radiating out from a
central tubular steel tower and supported at the building perimeter
by 17m (55.8ft) tall tubular steel masts. Cellular beams are also
used for secondary rafters and for purlins. The purlins are spaced
at 3.3m (10.8ft) centres, span 6.4m (21ft) and support a high-
performance roof cladding system using metal decking and clad-
ding, sandwiching 135mm (5.3in) of mineral wool insulation. The
cellular rafters are supported from above the roof at approximately
one-third points by tubular steel hangers suspended from the
perimeter masts. Hangers are each formed from two parallel CHS
members spaced 270mm (10.6in) apart.
Hanger loads are resisted by mass concrete blocks. Load
transfer to the mass concrete is by a universal column (UC) fab-
ricated anchor cast into each mass concrete base. Means of fine
adjustment of hanger length were provided at the hanger–rafter
connection and at the foundations to cater for fabrication and
erection tolerances. The perimeter masts are formed from twin
CHS connected by fully welded cross members. This arrangement
66
provided the required strength and stiffness while achieving a
light appearance.
All visible connections between principal tubular members
are by purpose-made cast steel forked connectors, joined with
steel pins. Connectors were cast with a spigot and shoulder size
to suit respectively the internal and external diameters of the tube.
The tubes were square cut to length and butt welded to the cast-
ings. Cast steel was also used for the purpose-made saddles
located where the tubular hangers connect to, and change direc-
tion around, mast outriggers.
Pool hall and externally exposed steelwork was protected
generally by hot dipped galvanising to a thickness of 140 microns
followed, after etch primer, by two coats of chlorinated rubber
paint to a total dry film thickness of 100 microns. Components
that were too large for galvanising were zinc-sprayed and sealed.
Where zinc spray coatings were used, intricate fabricated com-
ponents such as forked connectors, which could not be effectively
sprayed, were designed to bolt on to the main members and were
hot dipped galvanised. All stainless steel components were elec-
trically isolated with non-conductive washers and bushes at
connections with mild steel.
Changing rooms
If a sports centre accommodates both wet and dry sports, then
an early decision must be taken as to whether the changing rooms
for the two types of activity will be separated or combined.
Changing provision required per person is 0.2m2 (2ft2) excluding

circulation. Including circulation, the requirement is 0.7–0.85m2
(7–9ft2). The number of changing room spaces needed equates to
roughly twice the number of people using each activity per hour.
However, for swimming pools the numbers relate to pool area
and are one per 8.4m2 (90ft2) of formal pool area and between
6.5m2 (70ft2) and 4.2m2 (45ft2) of leisure pool area. Shower facili-
ties have to be provided and an early decision has to be taken as
to whether these will be individual or general. One shower will
be required for every seven people using the facility at any one
time. Lockers are also necessary. They are available in all sizes
but full-height ones may be up to, say, 0.5m × 0.5m (20in × 20in)
by around 1.8m or 6ft tall.
Toilet cubicles should be a minimum 1.4m (4ft 7in) × 0.8m
(2ft 7in). One should be provided per 15–20 males and one per
7–10 females. One urinal should also be provided per 15 males
and the usable space allocated per urinal should be at least 0.75m
(2ft 5in) × 0.625m (2ft 1in). One sink should be provided per 15
people and a usable area of 1.1m (3ft 7in) × 0.7m (2ft 3in) should
be allocated for washing at a sink. Additional toilet and washing
facilities will be required if the sports centre is to cater for specta-
tors as well as participants. The requirement for spectators is less
intensive than for participants. For example, seven additional
toilets would accommodate up to 1000 male spectators or up to
900 female spectators, with an associated requirement of one
sink per 60 spectators.
Every public building should incorporate at least one unisex
wheelchair-accessible toilet. A single changing unit incorporating
toilet and washing facilities for a disabled sports participant will
require a minimum of 2.6m (8ft 5in) × 2m (6ft 7in).
Restaurants
Restaurants (including kitchens, counters and seating) are essen-
tial support facilities in sports centres. The biggest space-filler is
the seating. If the usual table-plus-four-chairs arrangement is
adopted, and placed on a diagonal layout, then the space required
for the basic table-plus-chairs module is 1.9m (6ft 3in) × 2.2m
(7ft 2in) which amounts to 4.18m2 (45ft2) and gives a restaurant
density per person of 1.05m2 (11ft2). Allowance must also be
made within the building for vending machines. These can be
similar in height to a full-height locker (1.8m or 6ft) with plan
area of up to around 1m × 1m (40in × 40in).
67
i n t e g r at e d sports facilities
Circulation
Circulation has to be planned into the sports centre and must be
inclusive. Corridors should be a minimum of 1.2m (4ft approxi-
mately) wide, although 1.5m (5ft approximately) is preferable.
Handrails should be provided on major routes. Otherwise projec-
tions from walls, such as litter bins, should be avoided in order
to assist building users with impaired vision. Doors should be
0.9m (3ft) wide with minimum 2.3m (7ft 6in) between door faces.
They should have levers rather than knobs, kick plates 0.4m (1ft
4in) high and toughened or wire glass vision panels down to
approximately 1m or 40in above floor level. Doors should not
normally open on to corridors. All door locations should be
planned to facilitate wheelchair access.
Wealth of experience
The results of a 2004 survey by the National Intramural-
Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) indicated that 333 US
universities and colleges planned, between 2004 and 2010, to
spend approximately $3.17 billion on new and renovated sports
and recreation facilities. NIRSA has, since 1988, been presenting
annual Outstanding Sports Facilities Awards for creative, innova-
tive designs of new or expanded facilities. It has published details
of the award-winning buildings as a resource for campus master
planners, recreational sports directors, architects and other con-
sultants, contractors and students. Case studies of many outstand-
ing North American university and college sports and recreation
centres feature in Robert Yee’s book (see References).
8.1
Don Valley Athletics Stadium, Sheffield (1990)
Chapter 8
Sports-led
u r b a n re g e n e r a t i o n
Introduction
Sports development was inextricably linked with community
development in school-building programmes in the USA from the
late 1930s, which, in turn, had a positive influence on school-
building in the post-World War II regeneration of the UK. In this
regeneration, system-built schools became one of the first non-
industrial types of building to express all the character and virtues
of steel. This was recognised internationally when the post-war
British schools were considered by many architects to be on a par
with the beautiful but austere works of Mies van der Rohe and his
architectural school at the Illinois Institute of Technology.
Subsequent landmarks of sports-led urban regeneration in the
UK are the cases of Sheffield (1991) and Manchester (2002). These
city-wide initiatives are different from London 2012 because build-
ing for the London Olympics was designed to exert a country-wide
influence in sports facilities construction that is closer in concept
to the much earlier system-built schools initiative.
School and Community Sports
Facilities, USA
In the USA in 1939 the Educational Policies Commission,
appointed by the National Education Association and the American
Association of School Administrators, published Social Services
and the Schools, which reported that:
‘School authorities are now administering programs of
public recreation in a number of communities. One reason
69
for this is that the school is to be found everywhere, even
in the most sparsely settled regions. Legislatures of several
states have coupled this fact with the universal need for
recreation and have empowered boards of education to
establish and provide personnel and equipment for com-
munity leisure-time programs. Even without legislative
authority, people in some rural areas are utilizing school
facilities and personnel for recreation purposes because to
them the public school is an acceptable channel for the
disbursement of tax-monies devoted to activities associated
with their education and well-being’.
By the mid 1950s it was possible to say that in the USA the mod-
ern elementary school was also designed to function as a neigh-
bourhood centre, combining the best features of the school, small
park or playground and neighbourhood recreation building. The
gymnasium in the modern school-cum-neighbourhood-centre
was used for physical education classes during regular school
hours, for extra-curricular class groups after school and for the
community centre recreation programme in the evening. It was
the busiest component of the school development and a focal
point for the local community.
School administrators, therefore, continuously wanted more
usable floor space for their ‘gym dollar’. The most costly part of
the gym was its roof, because the necessary wide spans required
support on braced columns rather than bearing walls. Popular
solutions of the time included steel or timber bowstring trusses,
rigid frame steel construction with intermediate purlins, rigid
frame laminated timber construction – if frames were within 6ft
(1.8m) apart – or a type of heavy corrugated steel panel arch
construction which eliminated the need for built-up roofing.
Table 8.1  Uses of steel in consortia components
System Structure Staircases
CLASP Rigidly or flexibly braced frame; Channel stringers and tray treads
box-section columns; lattice floor
and roof joists
SCOLA Rigidly braced frame; box-section Channel stringers
columns; channel or castellated
perimeters; lattice floor and roof
joists
SEAC Rigid frame; box-section columns; Channel stringers; tray treads;
channel perimeters; lattice floor balusters
and roof joists
CMB Rigidly braced frame; box-section Channel stringers; tray treads;
columns; lattice floor and roof balusters and rails
joists
CLAW Box-section columns; space deck – Panel units
roof frame
MACE Box-section columns; lattice dia- Folded sheet stringers and treads
grid roof frame
ONWARD – Channel stringers
ASC Lattice roof joists – Opening lights
Consortium Building, UK
What was happening in the USA would profoundly affect post-
World War II school-building in the UK. At the end of World War
II the then Ministry of Education in the UK had to face challenges
arising from a shortage of school places. Some school buildings
had been destroyed. Many others were damaged and in need of
repair. At the same time, building materials were in short supply
and there was a severe shortage of building manpower. The situ-
ation was exacerbated by the raising of the school-leaving age to
15 in 1945. A national programme HORSA (Hutting Operation
for the Raising of the School Leaving Age) was initiated to build
hutted school accommodation. But the huts had been designed
during the war years and had little relevance to schools. However,
the Ministry also encouraged individual authorities to find their
own solutions. With several New Towns in its area aggravating
the problem, Hertfordshire believed that a more satisfactory long-
term solution would be to develop a component-based building
system using factory-manufactured parts wherever possible, for
assembly on site by semi-skilled labour. Pilot projects commenced
at Cheshunt and Essendon in 1947. The Hertfordshire system was
based on a 99in (2.5m) modular grid. Its steel frame had lattice
beams fabricated from top and bottom channels with rod lacings,
and stanchions fabricated from four angles, secured with ring
battens welded internally. Under its Chief Education Officer John
Newsom, Hertfordshire would build 100 new schools by 1954
and another 100 by 1961.
70
External walls and roofing Internal components
Vitreous enamel infill panelling Stelvetite-faced partitioning and
door frames
Galvanised window walling, Tee suspension bars; ceiling tiles
with mullions; fixed and opening
lights; vitreous enamel infill
Galvanised window walling, Tee suspension bars; ceiling tiles
with mullions; fixed and opening
lights; vitreous enamel infill;
galvanised roof deck
Opening lights; galvanised roof –
deck; galvanised box gutters
–
– Colorcoat-faced partitioning
– –
–
By 1949 school-building was underway throughout the coun-
try but often proved to be very expensive and educationally
unsuitable. The Ministry decided that its newly-formed
Development Group would design building systems, in collabora-
tion with specific industrial firms, to better meet the needs. A
light hot-rolled steel frame was developed for an initial project
at Wokingham and a cold-formed steel frame for a second project
at Belper. The Ministry also encouraged the use of privately-
sponsored systems, many of which did emerge but subsequently
fell away. Sponsors did not have a large guaranteed market and
without this they could not afford to study in depth changing
educational needs, which might require modifications to their
systems. Also, because they did not insist on the use of standard
parts, they found themselves manufacturing uneconomic
‘specials’.
In 1955 Nottinghamshire initiated development work on mod-
ern building methods to facilitate the Nottinghamshire School
Building Programme. It realised that, in the interests of economy,
it was necessary to guarantee a construction programme larger
than that required for its own use. So Nottinghamshire invited
other authorities which were facing similar challenges to partici-
pate. Six other authorities accepted the invitation and the
Consortium of Local Authorities Special Programme (CLASP) was
born. In 1957 the first CLASP school was completed, at
Mansfield.
In 1962, again as the result of local initiative, the Second
Consortium of Local Authorities (SCOLA) was established. The
8.2
Ponds Forge International Sports Centre: Sheffield (1991)
South-Eastern Architects Collaboration (SEAC) was formed in
1963, based on the systems developed in Hertfordshire. Then
came the Consortium for Method Building (CMB), Consortium of
Local Authorities in Wales (CLAW), Organization of North Western
Authorities Rationalized Standard Design (ONWARD), the Anglian
Standing Conference (ASC) and the Metropolitan Architectural
Consortium for Education (MACE).
These consortiums ranged from a closed building system
(CLASP) to a component approach to building (CMB) and a bulk-
buying mission (CLAW). The importance of the consortiums was
heightened by another forthcoming increase in the school-leaving
age (to 16 in 1972).
CLASP adopted a steel frame because of its need to take into
account ground movement due to mining subsidence. Prestressed
and precast concrete, being essentially rigid construction meth-
ods, were considered unsuitable for subsidence sites. Timber was
not a viable alternative because of fire safety issues above a height
of two storeys. Lightweight steel frame construction resolved the
subsidence issue and facilitated transportation of components to
site, handling on-site and lifting into position. The other significant
benefit was speed of erection. CLASP found it common practice
for the complete steel frame of a primary school to be erected
71
within four to five days, taking up as little as 1.5% of the total
site labour content.
SCOLA wanted quick design and erection, within very strict
cost controls, but with freedom of choice in external appear-
ance and internal variety. Again, the choice was a steel frame
which, because it was quickly erected, allowed a large propor-
tion of following work to be carried out under cover. Equally
important to SCOLA was the flexibility offered by steel frame
construction in terms of internal partition layout, with mini-
mum interruption from stanchions. Changing patterns in educa-
tion make the ability to change the internal layouts of buildings
desirable. This is cheaper and easier with steel than with tra-
ditional building types in which load-bearing walls
dominate.
The consortiums generally carried the steel theme through
into the design of staircase stringers, treads, balusters and rails.
CMB had two methods for constructing staircases and both were
based on using steel. Either the steelwork fabricator could pro-
vide the – usually dog-leg – staircases and erect them with the
steel frame. Or a standard dog-leg staircase, using metal trays
for steps, was available from the component supplier for comple-
tion on site to the particular finish required. The MACE staircase
8.3
Hillsborough Leisure Centre (1991)
was factory prefabricated from folded sheet steel. ONWARD,
which did not have a structural steel frame, did have a steel
staircase component.
The consortiums made extensive use of steel in external wall-
ing. SEAC offered a developed modular range of steel window
walling and associated components. These were bolted together
according to the shapes and sizes of proposed buildings, without
restricting aesthetic criteria. CLASP made use of vitreous enamel
panels for their low cost, durability of finished surface and wide
colour range.
The roofing of consortium buildings was accelerated by the
use of profiled galvanised steel decking, spanning up to 15ft
(4.5m) and available in continuous lengths up to 36ft (11m). SEAC
pioneered the use of the steel roof deck for educational buildings
and demonstrated its cost competitiveness. CMB too, with a
preference for non-organic materials, found steel decking cost-
effective for the range of spans required on its flat roofs.
The CLASP partitioning components were based on the use of
Stelvetite pvc-faced steel panels bonded to plasterboard, sup-
ported by steel studs spanning 8ft (2.4m) or 10ft (3m) from cold-
72
rolled steel channels at the top and bottom. Such a partitioning
system, which could contain the columns, gave fire protection of
one hour and sound insulation values up to 42 decibels. Steel
was also used for associated door frames (Stelvetite cold-formed
channels), ceiling tiles and tee-suspension bars.
CLASP found that the cost of the steel frame in a series of
primary schools dropped from 8 shillings per square foot (1956)
to 5 shillings 2 pence (1969). The cost reduction included 25%
attributed to re-design and system development, and 14% attrib-
uted to increased production. This cost saving occurred during a
period when steel costs increased by 10% on average.
Later systems included Module 2, which derived from study
into the use of light-gauge steel for the construction of schools,
recreation centres, offices, factories and hospitals. A common
theme of Module 2 buildings was maximisation of clear floor
space to permit a high degree of flexibility in planning and sub-
sequent use. An example of Module 2 is Bridgend Comprehensive
School, which was built in the late 1960s. This featured a large
communal block with prominent entrance, entrance canopy,
decorative mural and spacious hall with administration at first

floor level. In the original brief the main sports facilities were
given as a swimming pool and gymnasium of 1800ft² (167m²).
Because of the economic construction it proved possible not only
to have the proposed 55ft × 24ft (16.75m × 7.3m) swimming pool
but also to replace the gymnasium with a sports hall of 7200ft²
(669m²). One end of the sports hall was designed for gymnastics
but a much wider range of indoor sports could now be accom-
modated. As required, the gymnasium area could be divided from
the sports hall as a whole by the use of movable screens.
The flexibility of the consortium school-building programme
was demonstrated many times by school extension and refurbish-
ment projects of the 1980s and 1990s. The following two exam-
ples were by Hampshire County Council. In the 1980s, at
Horndean Community School, a 1350m² (14,530ft²) hall – the
Barton Hall – was commissioned for shared use between the
school and local outside groups. The new-build is a steel-framed
structure infilled with glazing and fairfaced concrete blockwork.
This integrated with the 1970s’ SCOLA school development while
achieving a cost-effective, fast-track construction programme. A
barrel-vaulted roof, light timber floor and range of lighting moods
help to meet needs ranging from school assembly and examina-
tions to sport and dance, while achieving the appropriate acoustic
and ventilation standards for all these activities. In the early
1990s, at Fleet, a deteriorating system-built block was given a
new shallow-pitched, overhanging roof of insulated steel com-
posite panels and a three-storey steel colonnade with sun and
rain breakers. By these means the roof was made watertight, its
insulation improved and the facades sheltered from the effects of
rain and sun. The transformation rendered the refurbished block
indistinguishable from adjoining new drama and mathematics
blocks, which used a similar form of construction.
XVI th Universiade 1991, Sheffield, UK
Sheffield’s hosting of the XVIth Universiade, the World Student
Games, represented one of the most ambitious ventures ever for
the regeneration by sport of a major western European city.
Principal generating elements of the plan included Ponds Forge
International Sports Centre, Sheffield Arena and the Don Valley
Athletics Stadium.
Ponds Forge International Sports Centre is located on a disused
industrial site at Sheffield’s city centre, locked between the bus
73
sports -led urban r e g e n e r at i o n
station, shopping centre and landscaped roundabout at Park
Square. Within the tight confines of these boundaries, the building
design sought to explore and articulate the complex relationships
between international sports competition, leisure pursuits and
tourist attractions while relating these to the needs of the city
community. The result was unarguably the finest swimming pools
complex in the UK – one widely considered to be the best facility
of its type in the world. The 400 tonne tubular steel barrel vault
roof over the main pool area is 54m (177ft) clear span × 84m
(275ft) long, designed to appear as if floating overhead. Erection
of this complex roof structure was completed without mishap to
its planned three-month erection sequence, enabling construction
of the main pool to follow to schedule.
Sheffield Arena is arguably the first sports arena of the modern
era to be built in the UK. It accommodates audiences from 3500
up to 12,500 for events including sports, ice rink, exhibitions,
concerts and theatre-style shows. Its unique corporate hospitality
provision includes 32 private suites, each catering for up to 12
people, and the Arena Club, a purpose-built facility which offers
the opportunity to enjoy pre-show fine dining for up to 100 guests
before taking some of the best seats in the venue. The suites
(skyboxes) had been designed to be put in or left out at the last
minute since, in 1991, there was no confidence that they could
be sold. The positive decision was taken to keep them in and
locate them high up along each side of the arena. The original
intention was to hang the steel box structures from the roof frame
but this proved impractical because of consequent fire protection
requirements to the main roof structure. As an alternative, the
skyboxes were designed as steel propped cantilevers, supported
directly by the concrete frames, with a floor slab cast on perma-
nent metal decking. The success of this scheme changed the
British way of thinking on the feasibility of premium facilities at
stadium and arena venues.
The Don Valley Athletics Stadium is located in the lower Don
Valley, at the old industrial heartland of Sheffield. It is the first
purpose-built athletics stadium to be built in the UK and was
conceived as a generator in the planned revitalisation of the whole
area of the lower Don Valley. Its structure combines tubular steel
with membrane roof canopies, providing a link with the site’s
steelmaking past. Circular hollow sections (CHS) were used
throughout for their high multi-directional resistance to
buckling.
The inheritor of the World Student Games facilities is Sheffield
International Venues (SIV) which incorporates Sheffield City Hall,
8.4
City of Manchester Stadium (2002)
Sheffield Arena, Ponds Forge International Sports Centre, Don
Valley Stadium, the English Institute of Sport, Hillsborough Leisure
Centre, the Concord Sports Centre, iceSheffield and four golf
courses. This portfolio makes SIV one of the largest sports, leisure
and entertainment companies in Europe. The venues are managed
on behalf of SIV by Live Nation, the world’s biggest music com-
pany (in 2006 Live Nation connected 60 million fans to 26,000
events in 18 countries).
Sportcity, Venue for the 2002
Commonwealth Games, Manchester
Sportcity is the largest concentration of sporting venues in Europe.
It is located within the Medlock Valley in east Manchester, just
two miles (3km) from Manchester City Centre.
The brief required that the 38,000 seat main athletics sta-
dium for the Commonwealth Games be convertible to a 48,000
seat football stadium from 2003, as the new home of Manchester
City FC. Phase 1, the athletics configuration, incorporated an
international standard athletics track with permanent main
74
stands and demountable/temporary stands. Phase 2, the foot-
ball configuration, included permanent end stands and an
excavated lower seating tier. Stadium facilities include cater-
ing, VIP accommodation, private boxes, meeting rooms and
conference rooms. The stadium roof is a mast and cable struc-
ture. Its design reduces bulk and depth while providing long
cantilevers for uninterrupted views of the playing surface. The
structural plan form of the roof is orthogonal, simplifying con-
struction and permitting the possible future incorporation of a
structurally separate moving canopy to enclose the stadium
during inclement weather. The structural masts (maximum
height 64m) also signal the stadium location and, by rising
through the main circular access ramps, orientate spectators
for safe access to and egress from the areas of seating. A cable-
stayed roof is vulnerable to load reversal. There are applied
vertical downward loadings arising from snow and positive
wind pressure on the upper surface, and applied vertical
upwards loadings arising from wind uplift. A key and innova-
tive part of the structural design is the grounded catenary
tension ring used to preload the tension cables so that they
can resist uplift loads without going slack. Approximately 2000
tonnes of steel were used for the stadium superstructure and
8.5
London 2012 Olympic Games: Aquatics Centre
the cantilevered roof is aluminium-clad, with its leading edge
translucent to increase light.
The other principal components of Sportcity are: Manchester
Aquatics Centre (Chapter 5); Manchester Regional Arena (6500
spectator capacity, with eight-lane, 400m track); the English
Institute of Sport (medical assistance, rehabilitation, physiother-
apy, performance analysis, coaching); Sportcity Fitness Studio
(70-station gymnasium, health suite, workout studio); the National
Squash Centre (six standard courts and one glass show court,
each configurable for singles or doubles play at the push of a
button); Regional Tennis Centre (six indoor and six outdoor
courts); the National Cycling Centre – Manchester Velodrome –
which is acknowledged to be one of the best sporting venues of
its type in the world; Philips Park, 31 acres (12.5ha) of woodland,
wild grassland, water and rolling hills with facilities including a
visitor centre, children’s play area, hardstanding ball court, junior
football pitch, bowling green, pavilion and show-field for hosting
events. In creating the principal sports facilities of Sportcity the
design team had to overcome the constraints of brownfield devel-
opment which included:
• abandoned recorded mineshafts (but not beneath the stadium
location);
• mine workings in coal seams;
• contaminated ground from previous site usage;
• River Medlock culvert;
• foundations from demolished buildings;
• services (electricity, gas, water, foul water and stormwater) and
electrical sub-stations;
75
• roads, including junctions for limited access off Alan Turing
Way on the eastern site boundary;
• proposed light rapid transit (LRT) line and two stops to be built
alongside the Ashton Canal, with pedestrian access required
along Alan Turing Way to the eastern side.
Site development necessitated substantial land remediation, and
the removal/relocation of services and earthworks, which had to
be achieved at minimum cost.
London 2012 Olympics
and Paralympics
When its core construction work started on site in 2008, London
2012 became the biggest regeneration project in Europe. For the
first time in Olympic history, the Games and its legacy formed
part of the same overall plan. Following 2012, the Olympic Village
becomes affordable housing for key workers, with 9000 new
homes created. The Olympic Park is constructed on recycled
brownfield land which, after 2012, becomes the Ecopark – the
largest new urban park in Europe – with sports facilities set in an
attractive environment created by restoring waterways, establish-
ing new wildlife habitats and forging efficient transport links.
Regeneration for the Games of the Lower Lea Valley, Hertfordshire,
and Stratford, east London, was planned to help stimulate the
sub-regional development of both east London and the Thames
Gateway. International standard sports facilities were established
8.6
London 2012 Olympic Games: main stadium
in the Home Counties and beyond, in the run-up to 2012, for use
as training facilities for visiting teams of 2012 competitors and
ongoing use by local communities. Some of the structures for the
23 London venues of the Olympic events were designed to be
demountable, or partially demountable, so that the concentration
of new facilities in the capital could benefit regional sports facili-
ties development and regeneration post-2012. Some of the London
2012 Olympic events themselves were allocated beyond London.
Examples are sailing (Weymouth and Portland Harbour, Dorset)
and the football which takes place in London (New English
National Stadium, Wembley), Birmingham (Villa Park), Cardiff
(Millennium Stadium), Manchester (Old Trafford), Newcastle (St
James’ Park) and Glasgow (Hampden Park).
The 80,000 seat Olympic Stadium for London 2012 is located
on former industrial land at Marshgate Lane, Stratford. It is
accessed by footbridges across the modified waterways of the Old
River Lee, City Mill River, Old Pudding Mill River, St Thomas’
Creek and parts of the Bow Back Rivers. The stadium’s sunken
bowl, excavated out of the soft London Clay, brings spectators
close up to the action. The bowl contains 25,000 permanent seats,
surrounded by 55,000 demountable seats to be taken away after
the Games. This is the first Olympic stadium to have such a large
proportion of demountable seating and such a mix of permanent
and temporary seating. The seating is over-sailed by a 28m (92ft)
wide cable-supported fabric roof, which is continuous around
the stadium and covers two-thirds of the spectators. Catering and
merchandising facilities are grouped into self-contained ‘pod’
76
structures. Party concourses planned outside the stadium were
inspired by the successful ‘fan zones’ of the 2006 Germany World
Cup where spectators congregated to eat, drink and watch the
action on giant screens. Following the Games, the stadium will
be big enough to host grand prix athletics events and national
sporting events, but not too big to host local events and/or to
attract a lower-league football or rugby club tenant.
Innovative features of London 2012 included its Sustainable
Development Strategy (SDS) aimed at setting new standards for
the sustainable design and construction of major sports venues
and infrastructure. The SDS made initial commitments to:
• identify, source and use materials that are environmentally
and socially responsible;
• ensure that at least 20% of the materials in the permanent
venues and Olympic Village have been previously used else-
where or are recycled products;
• maximise the use of timber from sustainable sources, with all
timber coming from known, legal sources with clear supply
chain evidence;
• achieve 90% reuse or recycling of demolition material.
 sports -led urban r e g e n e r at i o n

Leading the field

We like our political leaders to be sports participants – for the

reasons cited by Kofi Annan in the quotation in the prelim pages
(see p. x). On 11 May 2005 one of the authors (JP) was privileged
to accompany Judy Chong, of construction manager Gilbane, on
a Construction Writers Association tour of the newly-refurbished
Robert F Kennedy Main Justice Building, Washington DC. One
point of interest is no longer there – the top-floor area of the
building that Robert Kennedy had marked out as a basketball
court so that he and his colleagues could shoot some hoops
between meetings. Eight blocks away, at the White House, Franklin
D Roosevelt built a pool, Dwight D Eisenhower installed a putting
green, Richard Nixon constructed a bowling alley and Bill Clinton
laid a running track (on the edge of the south lawn). In 2009
Barack Obama planned to replace the bowling alley with an
indoor basketball court.

8.7
Barack Obama: basketball with the US Military, Djibouti (2006)

77
9.1
Airdrionians FC, Broomfield Park, Airdrie (1959)
Chapter 9

Stadiums

Introduction
Homer wrote that competitors in the foot-race ran to a mark in
the distance, turned around it and ran back to the starting point
so the ancient Greeks raced up and down a straight track, not
around bends. The ‘stade’ (Greek racecourse) gained its name
from the fact that it had a sprinting track which was one stade
(600ft/180m) long, with all races being multiples of that . However,
the track at Olympia, reputedly stepped out by Herakles, son of
Zeus, was 192.27m (630.8ft) long. The track at Epidaurus was
181.3m (594.8ft) and that at Delphi 177.5m (582.3ft). Whoever
stepped out the track at Pergamon out-stepped even Herakles –
with a whopping 210m (689ft). The ancient Greek stadium was
therefore non-standard but in the common form of a long paral-
lelogram some 180m long by some 30m (98.4ft) wide. The
enclosure containing the stadium would allow approximately
15m (49.2ft) at either end of the track and might be square, as at
Epidaurus, or curved, as at Delphi and Athens, hence the deriva-
tion of the shape of the modern stadium.

Inside or outside
The Greek stadiums were for outdoor sports. Previous books on
sports facilities have tended to exclude stadiums because of their
association with outdoor sports. However, this is a difficult distinc-
tion to make now because of the new generation of stadiums with
closing roofs and the development within stadiums of under-terrace,
fully-enclosed sports facilities. Just as the Greek stadiums were 9.2
marvels of the ancient world, the new closing-roof stadiums are British Steel Wide Span Sports Solutions (circa 1970)

79
9.3
Rugby Union Football HQ, Twickenham:
under terrace accommodation (1996)
among the wonders of the modern world. Closing roofs can prevent
inclement weather from spoiling events, put a lid on noise and
present the opportunity to control the enclosed environment. The
authors’ involvements in these projects have ranged from a single
day (PC – Stüttgart, 2007, re Aslantepe Türk Telekom Stadyumu) to
more than a decade (PC – Wembley Stadium Redevelopment).
Airdrionians FC, Broomfield Park
Developments at Broomfield Park, Airdrie, at the end of the
1950s comprised concrete substructure and lightweight steel
superstructure – which are typical not only of stadium con-
struction in the late 1950s but also of stadium construction
today. Principal differences between then and now include the
standing terraces with their crush barriers (rather than today’s
all-seater stadiums), grandstands to the length and side of the
pitch – separated by massive floodlighting towers at the four
80
9.4
Rogers Center (formerly Skydome), Toronto:
Jays v Tampa Bay (30 September 2007)
corners of the ground (rather than today’s continuous, wrap-
around-the-pitch style of spectator accommodation) and the
incorporation of intermediate roof-supporting columns which
interrupt sightlines (and are eliminated in today’s designs).
There is also now a wholly different approach to Health and
Safety on site.
Wide-span solutions
High strength steel was developed by British Steel in the 1960s
specifically for the roof of the BOAC 747 01 Hangar at Heathrow
Airport. By demonstrating the wide-span capability of steel to
accommodate servicing of the 747 airplane, British Steel demon-
strated the viability of business and leisure air travel as we know
it today. The 01 hangar was a direct, necessary and urgent response
to a global demand created by the introduction of the new wide-
bodied generation of passenger aircraft. It was the biggest steel

9.5
Millennium Stadium, Cardiff (2000)
structure of its kind in the world and the world’s largest-ever
diagonal steel grid. It posed a unique challenge in the history of
construction because of the exceptionally large dimensions and
the magnitude of loads supported by the structure. Its success
meant that structural steel would thereafter always be the first
choice material for aircraft hangar construction globally.
British Steel’s structural marketing manager Ron Taylor said that
from now on architects would only be constrained by the limitations
of their own imagination. He encouraged architects to think wide
span, and then wider and wider span. One of the first sports mani-
festations of high strength steel was the 9000-seat Celtic Football
Club Grandstand, which was completed in an 18-week contract
period, April to August 1971, in readiness for the 1971–72 playing
season. In association with Ron and his colleagues, architect James
Cunning and structural engineer Vivian Rossi reached the conclu-
sion that it would be technically feasible to give the grandstand’s
full complement of spectators an uninterrupted view of the playing
area from their seats. The proposal which made this possible was
for a roof supported by an enormous central spine girder 97.5m
(320ft) long × 5.4m (17.7ft) deep, fabricated from circular hollow
sections (CHS) to BS4360 in Grades 55C, 50C and 43C. The main
chords of the twin top and bottom booms are 406.4mm (16in)
outside diameter in Grade 55C in all but the end booms. This was
the largest tubular steel girder of its kind in Europe.
81
s ta d i u m s
Ron Taylor continued to advocate spans greater than 100m
(328ft), and up to and beyond 300m (1000ft), to make full use of
the high grade steels available. Ron went into private practice
when his design development for a Channel Bridge placed him
at odds with a British government committed to a Channel Tunnel.
He continued to design innovative wide span structures for con-
struction throughout the world, including many aircraft hangars
and sports facilities.
Millennium Stadium, Cardiff
This is the first closing roof stadium in the UK. It needed to be in
the order of 50m (164ft) larger than the pitch in all directions, to
accommodate the 72,500 seats required, and the opening had to
be at least the size of the pitch. This gave roof dimensions in the
order of 220m (720ft) long × 180m (590ft) wide with an opening
of approximately 120m × 80m (390ft × 260ft). At an early stage
of design it was decided that the following criteria should be
adopted:
• to keep the roof as low as practicable to reduce the stadium’s
impact on adjoining buildings;

9.6–9.7
Miller Park, Milwaukee, Wisconsin: (top) roof closed (2001); and
(bottom) roof open (2001)
• to keep the structure and edge of the opening as low as pos-
sible to reduce the extent of shading on the pitch;
• to make the track, for the retractable roof to move along, as
near to flat as possible to simplify the retractable roof mecha-
nism and, therefore, make it more cost-effective and less
problematic.
These criteria were met in a structural solution which incorporated
continuous primary plane lattice trusses over the full 220m (720ft)
length of the stadium, rising 35m (115ft) above the pitch.
82
Miller Park, Milwaukee
In April 2001 Miller Park opened at Milwaukee, Wisconsin, where
extremes of heat and cold, with unpredictable snow and rain,
had previously resulted in low attendances and lost games. The
need for a natural grass playing surface has been met with a 600ft
(138m) span retractable roof that opens and closes within 10
minutes. With the roof closed, temperatures for spectators can be
raised or lowered by ±17°C (9.54°F). The heating, ventilating and
air-conditioning (HVAC) design strategy was to introduce air by
way of jet nozzles above each seating level to create an envelope
of warm air, supplemented at the highest level by jets introducing
more warm air into the downdraught from the roof and determin-
ing the dominant air movement through the space. Mixing of the
two airstreams is sufficient to temper the cold airstream but insuf-
ficient to prevent its downward momentum. The airflow then rises
due to gains above the seating deck. Air is returned through the
concourse and vomitories to the air-handling units (AHUs) which
contain indirect gas-fired heaters to provide heating capacity for
the bowl and concourses, and smoke control capability. These
systems use a minimum outside air quantity of 0.14m³/min per
person. The quantity of air equivalent to the ventilation require-
ments for the bowl is exhausted by the concession hoods or
dissipated through the facades. In 2002 Miller Park was the win-
ner of an Excellence in Engineering Award presented by the
Structural Engineering Association of California (SEAOC).
Table 9.1  Selected projects – stadiums designed with closing or moving roofs

Name City Country Open Capacity Owner Architect Club

Singapore National Kallang Singapore 2012 55,000 Singapore Sports Hub DP Architects N/A
Stadium Consortium
Swedbank Arena Solna Sweden 2012 50,000 SFF, Solna Municipality, Sweco Swedish National Football
PEAB, Fabege, Jernhusen Team + AIK
Stade Borne de l’Espoir Lille France 2011 50,186 Urban Community of – Lille OSC
Lille Métropole
Dallas Cowboys Arlington USA 2009 80,000 Arlington, Texas HKS, Inc Dallas Cowboys
New Stadium
Aslantepe Türk Istanbul Turkey 2009 52,647 Galatasaray SK Mete Arat Galatasaray SK
Telekom Stadyumu
Lucas Oil Stadium Indianapolis USA 2008 63,000 Indiana Stadium and HKS, Inc Indianapolis Colts
Convention Building
Authority
New English National London UK 2007 90,000 The Football Association World Stadium Team N/A
Stadium, Wembley (Foster and Partners +
HOK Sport)
University of Phoenix Glendale USA 2006 63,400 Arizona Sports and Peter Eisenman/ Arizona Cardinals +
Stadium Tourism Authority HOK Sport Fiesta Bowl
Commerzbank-Arena Frankfurt Germany 1925 52,300 Waldstadion Frankfurt Gerkan, Marg ünd Eintracht Frankfurt
(Waldstadion) (rebuilt Gessellschaft für Partner
2005) Projektwicklung
LTU Arena Düsseldorf Germany 2004 51,500 City of Düsseldorf Hascher Jehle and Fortuna Düsseldorf
Associates
Reliance Stadium Houston USA 2002 71,500 Harris County HOK Sport Houston Texans
Veltins Arena Gelsenkirchen Germany 2001 61,482 Schalke 04 Hentrich-Petschnigg Schalke 04
ünd Partner
Ōita Stadium Ōita Japan 2001 40,000 Ōita Prefecture Kisho Kurokawa Ōita Trinita
Toyota Stadium Toyota Japan 2001 45,000 Toyota City Kisho Kurokawa Nagoya Grampus +
Toyota Verblitz
Miller Park Milwaukee USA 2001 42,200 Southeast Wisconsin HKS, Inc + NBBJ + Milwaukee Brewers
Professional Baseball Eppstein Uhen Architects
District
Minute Maid Park Houston USA 2000 40,950 Harris County – HOK Sport Houston Astros
(formerly Enron Field) Houston Sports Authority
Telstra Dome (formerly Melbourne Australia 2000 53,355 James Fielding Funds Daryl Jackson Carlton, Essendon,
Docklands Stadium, Management Architects + HOK Sport North Melbourne,
Victoria Stadium, St Kilda, Western
Colonial Stadium) Bulldogs, Melbourne
Victory, Melbourne Storm
Safeco Field Seattle USA 1999 47,116 Washington-King NBBJ + 360 Architecture Mariners
County Stadium Authority
Millennium Stadium Cardiff UK, Wales 1999 72,500 Welsh Rugby Union HOK + LOBB WRU + Football
Partnership Association of Wales
Chase Field (formerly Phoenix USA 1998 49,033 Maricopa County, Ellerbe Becket Diamondbacks
Bank One Ballpark) Arizona
Gelredome Arnhem Netherlands 1998 32,500 Kjell Kosberg Vitesse Arnhem
Amsterdam ArenA Amsterdam Netherlands 1996 51,628 Gemeente Amsterdam Bouwcombinatie AFC Ajax
Stadion Amsterdam NV
Fukuoka Yahoo! Fukuoka Japan 1993 35,695 Hawks Town Takenaka Corporation + Fukuoka SoftBank Hawks
Japan Dome (formerly Maeda Corporation
Fukuoka Dome)
Rogers Centre Toronto Canada 1989 31,074 Rogers Rod Robbie & Toronto Blue Jays +
(formerly Skydome) Communications Michael Allen Toronto Argonauts
Montreal Olympic Quebec Canada 1976 Régie des Installations Roger Taillibert Montreal Expos
Stadium (roof 1987) Olympiques

Post-2008 opening dates are best guesses (table produced September 2008)
Selected projects are 30,000+ spectator capacity
Spectator capacities quoted are for principal sport mode (higher capacities may be achieved
for hosting sports with reduced playing areas and for hosting concerts)

83

9.8
Wembley arch erection (2005)
New English National Stadium,
Wembley, London, UK
This stadium is signposted from miles around by the iconic 315m
(1033ft) ‘Wembley Arch’, a 138m (452.7ft) high, 7m (23ft) diam-
eter unclad lattice structure. The arch is formed of 457CHS (18in
outside diameter) longitudinal chords with diaphragms at approxi-
mately 20m (65.6ft) centres. Alternate diaphragms are primary
and support the roof stays. Steel grades are S355 JO or J2 to BS
EN 10025. Rolled hollow sections (RHS) are S355 J2H to BS EN
10210. Protection is 400dft micron epoxy primer/buildcoat and
a 75dft micron finish coat, over a blast-cleaned surface to Sa 2.5
of BS 7079, giving a period to first maintenance of 30 years.
Access to the arch, through its centre, permits structural inspec-
tion, lighting maintenance/replacement, repainting (30-year inter-
vals), festivity/celebration (e.g. pyrotechnics) and dressing the
arch with flags or banners.
The stays are spiral strand galvanised wires grade 1570. The
roof plate main structure runs north–south. The roofing material
84
is a mixture of standing seam aluminium and 30% translucent
polycarbonate sheeting (the latter allowing diffused light through
the roof leading edges). A moving roof over the whole of the
southern side of the stadium was required to provide maximum
covered seating for spectators while providing daylight for the
turf. The permanent roof structure running north–south provides
the runway beams supporting the track for the panels.
The area of roof that moves is split into five bays. The middle
section extends the 135m (443ft) length of the pitch and there
are two bays at each end which cover the end stands. Each of the
two end bay panels is subdivided to enable double-stacking on
top of the fixed roof, without projecting over the southern edge
of the building. The roof panels are framed by fabricated box
sections up to 3m (9.8ft) deep (for the central large cantilever
panel) which are connected to the running bogies. Secondary
framing universal beam (UB) sections are used with full diagonal
rod bracing for each panel, to ensure that racking of the panel
does not occur. A full opening or closing cycle for the roof takes
20 minutes.
Bird’s Nest Stadium, Beijing 2008
This is a huge stadium – 230m wide × 330m long × 55m high
(755ft × 1083ft × 180ft). Although it will always be thought of in
the ‘bird’s nest’ context, its form was actually inspired by ancient
Chinese ‘scholar stones’, heavily veined pebbles mounted on
small plinths, and by traditional crackle-glazed ceramics. The
perforated exterior facade was conceived to enable people to
move freely into and out of the stadium, making it part of the city.
The geometry of the stadium’s steel superstructure derives from
a small patch from the inside face of a vast toroid. At its edges
the roof flows into smooth corners. This creates a seamless transi-
tion into the facade, which slopes inward at 14° from the vertical.
The original stadium design accommodated a moving roof but
the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games
(BOCOG) dropped this feature (reducing steelwork from 55,000
tonnes to 45,000 tonnes). This design change enabled the opening
above the playing area to be enlarged, so drawing in more light
and air. Principal structural elements are 1.2m × 1.2m (4ft × 4ft)
boxes with plate thickness 15mm (0.6in) to 60mm (2.4in). Depth
of the bottom chord box sections reduces towards the centre of
the stadium, from 1.2m (4ft) to 800mm (31.5in). Design was to
9.9
Beijing 2008 Olympics: main stadium
Chinese building codes and the computer analysis used CATIA
software. The cladding is inset by 800mm within the steelwork
grillage and comprises a single-ply ethylene tetrafluoroethylene
(ETFE) skin, with an acoustic lining beneath. To prevent rainwater
pooling, each cell of the roof drains into a pipework system run-
ning within the primary steel members.
Eric Liddell (Li Airui)
Eric Liddell (or Li Airui as he is known in the Far East) won the
400m at the 1924 Paris Olympics, representing Great Britain by
virtue of his Scottish parentage. In so doing, he became the only
China-born Olympic gold medalist until Xu Haifeng won the
50m pistol shooting at Los Angeles in 1984. Liddell returned to
his home city of Tianjin in 1925, where he worked as a mission-
ary and science/sports teacher at the Anglo-Chinese College. He
approached the British Embassy about building a stadium at
Tianjin and subsequently used Stamford Bridge, his favourite
85
athletics venue, as a model for the city’s Minyuan Stadium (which
continues to host meetings as an 18,000 all-seater stadium). In
1941 Liddell moved to Shaochang to serve the poor. The Sino-
Japanese war had broken out in 1937 and reached Shaochang
in 1943, when the Japanese incarcerated Liddell at the Weihsien
Internment Camp. The British Prime Minister Winston Churchill
initiated a prisoner exchange and Liddell was among those due
to be released, but he gave up his place in favour of a pregnant
woman and died in captivity in 1945, aged 43. China interred
his remains in the Mausoleum of Martyrs at Shijiazhuang, 150
miles (240km) southwest of Beijing, where 700 selected individu-
als who made the ultimate sacrifice in the liberation of China
are honoured. The simple wooden cross which had marked his
resting place at Weihsien (now Weifang) has been replaced with
a granite gravestone carrying the biblical quotation: ‘They shall
mount up with wings of eagles, they shall run and never be
weary’.
sports and facilities

DN  R 
C R
DT

9.10
The ‘C’ value

20,000mm365mm  6,000mm
C  6,000mm
20,000mm  800mm
Sightlines – this is because we tend to tilt our heads backwards slightly as
20,000mm  6,365mm the action moves closer towards us, reducing the distance between
  6,000mm
20,800mm
A feature which sets the stadium apart from other sports facilities the centre of the eye and the top of the head to around 90mm.
is the much greater amount of seating incorporated for spectators. At a football match the action moves to all parts of the playing
127,300mm  6,000mm
The modern stadium has to offer excellent views from quality
120mm surface so, ideally, every football stadium would be designed to
20,800mm
seating. To achieve this there must be no structural impediments provide a ‘C’ value of 120mm to all parts of the playing
to stadium sightlines and each spectator must be able to see over surface:
the head of the person sitting in front. To allow this to happen, a
line drawn from the spectator’s eyes to the lowest point of the D N  R 
C R
viewing area has to be at least 100mm above the eyes of the DT
spectator one row in front. This figure is arrived at by using the
‘C’ value, a measurement (120mm or 4.8in) of the distance The calculation to determine the ‘C’ value for viewing sport
between the centre of the eye and the top of the head. In some is therefore:
sporting events for which spectators wear hats (e.g. horseracing)
the ‘C’ value may be increased to 150mm (6in) or even 200mm 20,000mm 365mm  6,000mm
C  6,000mm
(8in). At a cricket ground, where the action seldom comes close 20,000mm  800mm
to the seating, a ‘C’ value of 90mm (3.5in) may be acceptable
20,000mm  6,365mm
  6,000mm
20,800mm
86 127,300mm  6,000mm
  120mm
20,800mm
 s ta d i u m s

D N  R 
C R
DT

C
20,000mm 365mm  6,000mm
 6,000mm
20,000mm  800mm
20,000mm  6,365mm
  6,000mm
20,800mm
127,300mm  6,000mm
  120mm
20,800mm
where:
C = viewing standard i.e. the ‘C’ value
D= distance from eye to point of focus
(typically the near touchline)
N = riser height
R = height between eye and point of focus
T = tread depth, i.e. depth of seating row.
While this calculation is straightforward, it has to be made for
every row of seating and from every variable that the stadium
design presents (e.g. rake or angle of stand, curvature of particular
corner or height and depth of concrete treads and risers). A higher
‘C’ value has consequences for the rake and height of the stand
that are particularly challenging when designing a large, multi-
tiered stadium. As a result, in some areas of the large stadium it
may be difficult to achieve a ‘C’ value greater than 60mm.
Bringing the touchline closer to a stand makes it possible to
maintain an optimum ‘C’ value of 120mm but affects the height
of the stand. It increases the angle of rake, the measurement of
how steeply or gently the stand or terrace slopes down towards
the touchline. Getting as many spectators as possible as close to
the action as possible results in very steeply raked stands. Italian
codes of practice suggest that a stadium rake can be as steep as
41°. Rakes of more than 35° can be found in North American
stadiums. In the UK, the angle rake is determined by safety limits
for staircases and the Green Guide recommended a rule of no
more than 34°, which may be increased if compensatory measures
are taken. Rakes exceeding 34° can induce vertigo and the steeper
Italian stadiums have handrails provided in front of each seat.
Shallower rakes are used on lower tiers, with the upper decks of
stands being steeper in order to accommodate more spectators
closer to the playing surface, with an acceptable standard of
view.
Under-terrace accommodation
One of the advantages of using long span steel construction is
that it enables stadium operators to eliminate columns beneath
the terraces. For example, the 5400 capacity Dolman Stand at
Bristol City Football Club, UK, was conceived in the 1960s as
having columns in the main structure and multiple columns
beneath the terraces. Re-thinking led to a main roof girder span-
ning the full length, approximately 100m (328ft), of the pitch.
This eliminated the internal roof support columns and provided
a clear, uninterrupted view of the playing surface to all 5400
spectators. This solution also eliminated most of the columns
beneath the terraces, enabling the football club to use the space
for the provision of general social facilities and a bowling green.
Such clear space beneath terraces has the flexibility to be adapted
to suit changing trends in indoor sport and entertainment.
Examples include an 85m (279ft) indoor sprint straight with fit-
ness, training, physiotherapy and TV facilities (Don Valley Athletics
Stadium), hospitality boxes, shops, bars, restaurants, fast food
outlets, museum, national fitness centre, changing rooms and
medical centre for players and match officials (Rugby Union
Stadium Redevelopment, Twickenham), purpose-built cinema
(Queen’s Stand, Epsom Race Course) and Jockey’s Weighing Room
(Goodwood Race Course).
Saitama Super Arena, Japan
Under-terrace accommodation need not necessarily be consid-
ered as purely the creation and optimisation of finite space within
a fixed structure. This arena opened up exciting new possibilities
when architects Nikken Sekkei (MAS.2000 Design Team) and
Ellerbe Becket, with consulting engineers Flack + Kurtz, responded
to their client’s wish for something with ‘the functional diversity
and flexibility of the Swiss army knife, offering a wide range of
features and combinations’. A holistic response to the brief
resulted in the world’s first ‘smart’ arena, with the capability of
converting from a concert venue for a string quartet to a full-scale
stadium within 30 minutes. This versatility is achieved by a 41.5m
(136ft) tall moving block – incorporating the spectator seating,
shops and facilities – which weighs 15,000 tonnes. Moving 70m
(230ft) horizontally, the block adapts the space to seat between
22,000 and 36,500 spectators. The 130m × 130m (426.5ft ×

87
9.11
Saitama Super Arena, Japan (2004)

Table 9.2  South Africa 2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums

Name Location Opened Upgraded Capacity 2010 Owner Architect

FNB Stadium (Soccer City) Johannesburg 1987 2007 94,700 The Stadia and Soccer Boogertman Urban Edge &
Development Trust Partners
Coca-Cola Park Johannesburg 1928 (rebuilt 2010 70,000 The Golden Lions –
(formerly Ellis Park) 1982) Rugby Club
King Senzangakhona Durban 2009 N/A 70,000 City of Durban GMP Architekten
Stadium
Green Point Cape Town 2009 N/A 68,000 City of Cape Town GMP Architekten + Louis Karol
Architects + Point Architects
Loftus Versfeld Pretoria 1906 2005 51,762 City of Pretoria –
Port Elizabeth Stadium Nelson Mandela 2009 N/A 48,000 Nelson Mandela GMP Architekten
Bay/Port Elizabeth Bay/Port Elizabeth
Free State Stadium Mangaung / 1952 2008 48,000 Mangaung / –
(Vodacom Park) Bloemfontein Bloemfontein City
Mbombela Stadium Nelspruit 2009 N/A 46,000 Mbombela Local Boogertman Urban Edge &
Community Partners
Peter Mokaba New Stadium Polokwane 2009 N/A 46,000 Polokwane Prism Architects +
Municipality AFL Architects
Royal Bafokeng Stadium Rustenburg 1999 2010 42,000 Rustenburg Municipality –

88
 s ta d i u m s

Table 9.3  Commonwealth Games Delhi 2010

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Jawaharlal Nehru Stadium Opening/closing ceremonies, track and field (58,000),

Maj. Dhyan Chand National Stadium
Indira Gandhi Indoor Stadium Complex
Dr Karna Singh Shooting Range
Tyagaraj Sports Complex
Talkatora Indoor Stadium
Siri Fort Sports Complex
Delhi University
RK Khanna Tennis Complex
SPM Swimming Pool Complex
lawn bowls (2500), weightlifting (2500)
Hockey pitch 1 (21,000), pitch 2 (2500), warm-up pitch
Gymnastics (21,500), cycling (14,000), wrestling (7500)
Shooting, press centre, accreditation centre/warehouse
Netball (5823)
Table tennis (5000), archery (2500)
Badminton (5000), squash (3000)
Rugby 7s (10,000)
Tennis (6000): centre court, 9 match courts, 4 warm-up
courts
Aquatic events (5000): competition pool 50m × 25m,
warm-up pool 50m × 25m, diving pool

426.5ft) stadium roof is supported by large fan-shaped beams.
Cable rails supply electricity and connect and reconnect ducts
as the block moves. Additional retractable seats at the sides, a
vertically-moving floor, and movable partitions and ceiling panels
can add more capacity, and an adjustable ceiling renders the
acoustics appropriate for each configuration.
Fire safety design
Increasing innovation in the design, construction and uses of
modern buildings has created situations in which it may be dif-
ficult to satisfy the functional requirements of applicable building
regulations. Recognition of this, and increased knowledge of how
real structures behave in fire, has led many authorities to acknowl-
edge that improvements in fire safety may be possible by adopting
analytical approaches. For example, as long ago as 1991,
Approved Document B to the Building Regulations for England
and Wales stated that ‘a fire safety engineering approach that
takes into account the total fire safety package can provide an
alternative approach to fire safety. It may be the only viable way
to achieve a satisfactory standard of fire safety in some large and
complex buildings’.
Sports stadiums and sports facilities are among the building
types that can benefit from a structural fire engineering approach.
This is particularly the case in under-terrace accommodation,
which may in practice be mixed-occupancy buildings containing
shops, restaurants and gymnasiums. Fire safety engineering aims
to adopt a rational scientific approach which ensures that fire
resistance/protection is provided where it is needed and that
expense is not incurred needlessly in creating an illusion of safety.
Minor changes introduced at design stage can often simplify the
process of meeting fire resistance requirements and reducing
costs. It may be, for example, that using a slightly larger structural
steel member than necessary will reduce load ratio such that
plasticity will occur at a higher temperature and fire resistance
will be significantly increased.
The aim in many countries is to achieve a balance between
the risks of fire outbreak, risks of fire spread, detection/control
systems and spectator exit system design. These aspects of fire
safety design are incorporated in a ‘risk assessment’ to achieve
an overall level of safety considered to be appropriate.
Compartmentation will be integral to the assessment, separating
high-risk areas such as kitchens from other areas. As a matter
of principle, stadium and sports facilities designers should
engage with local fire and safety authorities at the earliest
opportunity.

89
Table 9.4  Olympics and Paralympics London 2012

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Olympic Park Main Stadium Opening/closing ceremonies, track and field (80,000)
Olympic Park Aquatics Centre Aquatic events (20,000): competition pool 50m × 25m, warm-up pool 50m × 25m,
diving pool, polo pools 50m and 38m
Olympic Park Western Arenas Basketball, fencing, handball, modern pentathlon, volleyball (10,000–15,000 × 4 arenas)
Olympic Park Hockey Centre Hockey main arena (15,000), secondary arena (5000)
Olympic Park Velopark Cycling (6000), BMX circuit (6000)
O2 Dome, Greenwich Gymnastics, basketball (20,000)
Greenwich Park Equestrian, modern pentathlon
ExCel Exhibition Centre, London Docklands Boxing, table tennis, judo, taekwondo, weightlifting, wrestling (6000-10,000 x4 arenas)
Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, London Beach volleyball (15,000)
Hyde Park, London Triathlon (3000 – finishing area)
Lord’s Cricket Ground, London Archery (6500)
Regent’s Park, London Road cycling (3000)
Royal Artillery Barracks, Woolwich, London Shooting (7500)
Broxbourne, Hertfordshire Canoe slalom (12,000)
Eton Dornay, Windsor, Berkshire Rowing (20,000)
Weald Country Park, Essex Mountain biking (3000)
Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour, Dorset Sailing
Wimbledon, London Tennis
New English National Stadium, Wembley, London Football (90,000)
Hampden Park, Glasgow Football (52,103)
Millennium Stadium, Cardiff Football (76,250)
Old Trafford, Manchester Football (76,212)
St James’s Park, Newcastle Football (52,193)
Villa Park, Birmingham Football (43,300)

90
Table 9.5  Commonwealth Games Glasgow 2014

Sports facilities name Events (capacity)

Celtic Park Opening ceremony

Hampden Park Track and field (46,000), closing ceremony
Tollcross International Aquatics Centre Aquatic events (6000)
Kelvinhall International Sports Arena Wrestling and judo
Ibrox Stadium Rugby 7s (50,000)
Kelvingrove Lawn Bowls Complex Lawn bowls
The Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC) Boxing, press centre
The Clyde Auditorium (The Armadillo) Weightlifting
Scotstoun Stadium Table tennis, squash
Strathclyde Park (Strathclyde Loch) Triathlon
Barry Buddon and Jackton Shooting
The National Indoor Sports Arena (NISA), Celtic Park Cycling – new venue
The National Velodrome, Celtic Park Cycling – new venue
The National Entertainments Arena, SECC Site Gymnastics, netball (12,500) – new venue
The Glasgow 2014 Hockey Centre, Glasgow Green Hockey

9.12–9.13
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games: (facing page) Scotstoun Stadium;
and (above) The National Indoor Sports Arena (NISA), Celtic Park

London 2012 – the Big One

In the UK the Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) specified 50cm
(20in) wide spectator seating for the London 2012 venues, 4cm
(1.6in) wider and 5cm (2in) deeper than originally planned. This
resulted from talks with stadium designers who advised that seats
of existing standard dimensions would be unable to cater for the
bulkier UK population of 2012 (the number of obese people in
the UK was projected to hit 27.6 million by 2010, 14% up on
2003). The seats at the New English National Stadium, Wembley,
are also 50cm wide. This raises the conundrum of a widening gap
between sports participants and sports spectators – with the for-
mer getting sleeker (due to training and dietary advances) and the
latter moving in the other direction.

91
10.1
Harborough Leisure Centre: airdome (2008)
Chapter 10

Indoor facilities
for outdoor sports

Introduction
These types of facilities were rare until recent years, when they
became growth areas. Dramatic examples include indoor ski
slopes and climbing wall installations. Both of these examples
have leisure connotations too, so, for the purposes of this chapter,
we have chosen to feature indoor facilities for four competitive
outdoor sports: tennis, bowls, cricket and rowing.

Tennis-specific indoor centres

These are usually built to encourage tennis during the winter
months, converting tennis from a summer sport to an all-year-
round sport. They lead to culture change in tennis clubs because, 10.2
after an initial period of adjustment, clubs tend to create new Tipton Leisure Centre (1998)
ladders and leagues, and provide more coaching. They also create
appropriate base facilities for clubs to launch outreach pro-
grammes into local communities. Building options include rigid
structures, membrane structures and air-supported buildings. The recommending an unobstructed height at the net line of 9m (26ft
most critical sport-specific design consideration is roof clearance. 6in), unobstructed height at the base line of 5.75m (18ft 11in)
The United States Tennis Association (USTA) and United States and unobstructed height at the rear of the run-back of 4m (13ft
Tennis Court & Track Builders’ Association (USTC & TBA) state: 1in). International Tennis Federation (ITF) rules include a Guidance
‘The space directly over the court should be free of overhead Note recommending a minimum height to the ceiling of 30ft
obstructions and there should be not less than 18ft at the eaves, (9.14m).
21ft over the baseline and 35ft at the net, although 38ft is recom-
mended, measured to the interior finished ceiling’.
The quoted dimensions equate to 5.487m, 6.401m, 10.668m
and 11.582m respectively. The Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) in
the UK publishes Guidance Notes for its clubs and associations,

93
10.3
Harborough Leisure Centre: bowls hall (2008)
Indoor bowling greens
In the late 1960s the Butler Manufacturing Co, Kansas City, stud-
ied in depth the leisure market for steel buildings. Its findings led
it to turn a substantial part of its expanding manufacturing capa-
bility over to the fabrication of steel primary and secondary
structurals and colour-coated steel and roof panels specifically
for indoor tennis buildings, sports halls, gymnasiums, caravan
and boat showrooms, squash courts and indoor bowling
greens.
One of Butler’s initial fields of study was the UK market for
indoor bowling greens, to enable the traditional English game to
be played in controlled environmental conditions all year round.
Indoor bowls clubs vary in size according to the number of rinks
but, as a guide, the English Indoor Bowls Association considered
provision of a six-rink green to be justified, economically and
environmentally, within a catchment area of 250,000 people.
Smaller towns, and to some extent rural areas, were considered
capable of supporting smaller greens of three to four rinks.
The Butler LRF range of indoor bowls facilities, introduced
into the UK in the early 1970s, allowed 15ft (4.57m) width for
each rink, with the length of the green being 120ft (36.76m). At
94
either end space was provided for players to assemble and a
walkway was incorporated along either side. The surface of the
concrete floor has to be absolutely level and was sunken to allow
for fitting of a ‘grass felt’ carpet to enable the woods to roll
true.
The advent of indoor bowling greens in the 1970s coincided
with the world oil crisis and global concerns to save energy. This
led to steeply pitched roofs being considered unnecessary and
inappropriate – even unattractive and wasteful – because they
created empty space that had to be heated. The solution for an
indoor bowls club was seen to be a low profile portal frame. This
principle, an example of sustainable design, has prevailed to the
present day.
Many bowls clubs incorporate a club room, bar and changing
rooms, either within the main frame or in a width extension.
Positioning and intensity of lighting is a critical factor. The sun’s
rays cause fading of the green and create variations of shade.
These are crucial considerations for bowls enthusiasts, meaning
that few clubs are designed with rooflights.
10.4–10.5
Arundel Castle Indoor Cricket School, West Sussex (1990)

Cricket-specific indoor centres

Cricket-specific indoor centres are built principally to service
out-of-season cricketing needs. The English Cricket Board (ECB)
suggests minimum requirements:

• flooring to meet ECB Technical Specification for Artificial

Surfaces;
• additional spin mats if available and required;
• bowlers’ shock pads in each lane throughout the crease area
and for a minimum of 3m into bowlers’ follow-through
strides;
• batting and bowling creases marked out in each lane;
• full-length match pitch with bowlers’ shock pads marked out in
the centre of the hall (dependent on layout and size of hall).

Buildings should be capable of accommodating six to eight

lanes each 37.12m (121.8ft) minimum to 41.12m (135ft) maxi-
mum long by 3.66m (12ft) minimum to 4m (13.1ft) maximum
wide, with each lane including 16–20m (52.5–65.6ft) for the
bowler’s run-up. The height of the horizontal top net should be
4m (minimum) to 5m (16.4ft) maximum. The outside back and

95
10.6
London Regatta Centre: powered rowing tank (2001)
side netting should be suspended to give a minimum of 1m
(3.28ft) clear space between the building’s walls and the netting,
to provide for safety and access. Nets should be suspended from
a heavy-duty aluminium tracking and trolley system, with no
space between roof netting and tracking system through which
the ball could pass from net to net. White nylon should be used
for the roof netting and the side netting should be long enough
for at least 0.3m (11.8in) of slack/drape to rest on the floor. Good
quality uniform lighting is essential so that players can follow the
movement of balls travelling up to 128kmh (80mph).
The attributes of the floor surface are critical. Whether it is a
multi-sport surface or rollout mat, it should perform well in terms
of resilience, stiffness, friction and resistance to wear. It should
be repairable or replaceable without any effect on its playing
characteristics such as spin, pace and bounce. It could be a
polymer sheeting or carpet, laid on a concrete screed. Sheeting
generally wears better than carpet. Also, the density and thickness
of polymer can be varied to simulate different playing conditions.
Permanent underlays to the continuous surface and/or temporary
rollout mats can also be used. If rollout mats are used then they
should be firm with no extra cushioning, or the combination of
subsurface and mat will seriously affect ball bounce.
96
Rowing-specific indoor centres
Rowing tanks are used to teach rowing to beginners, to improve the
technique of experienced rowers and to facilitate training in inclem-
ent weather. In traditional rowing tanks the experience was unre-
alistic, with the rowing being about 40 times harder than rowing a
real boat on water. In the late 1990s a revolutionary powered rowing
tank design was developed which moves the water in the tank past
the rowers, recreating the feel of rowing a boat on water. The water
is powered by submersible electric pumps through hydraulically-
efficient channels, with the flow being adjustable to simulate speeds
up to 3m/sec (9.8ft/sec). A rowing frame allows rowing stations that
represent the layout and structure of a boat, enabling rowers to sit
behind each other as they would in racing conditions. The frame is
set to a chosen level above the water surface and rocks about its
longitudinal axis to enable the crew to feel the balance of the ‘boat’.
Standard equipment for fitting out boats is used in the powered
tank, with the gearing adjusted so that conventional oars and sculls
can be used. The cost of building the tank was approximately
£100,000 and would normally be incorporated in the cost of build-
ing new rowing training facilities. Clients include national rowing
centres, rowing clubs and universities.
10.7
London Regatta Centre: boathouse (2001)

The first powered rowing tank was incorporated into the

London Regatta Centre, Royal Albert Dock, sited at the finish line
of a new 2000m Olympic rowing course. The Centre comprises
clubhouse and boathouse. The clubhouse is 90m long × 20m
wide (295ft × 65.6ft) with reception area, gymnasium, rowing
tank, changing facilities and plantroom (ground floor) and bar/
clubroom, restaurant, kitchen, accommodation and caretaker’s
flat (first floor). The centre’s structure comprises a weathertight
skin suspended from a simple galvanised steel frame hung in
catenary. The roof panels are 6m × 1.4m (19.7ft × 4.6ft) stainless
steel sheets, 3mm (0.12in) thick, jointed with curved 102mm ×
127mm × 11mm (4in × 5in × 0.4in) structural tees. These are
suspended from 219CHS (8.6in outside diameter) gridline beams
running the length of the building at 6m centres. Longitudinally,
the building is stabilised by two bays of cross-bracing, central on
each external face. The stainless steel roof sheets act as a stressed
skin to provide stability to the internal rows of columns. Lateral
stability is from diagonal props, at each external column position,
which also restrain horizontal catenary loads in the roof. These
elements are contained within gabions that run either side of the
building. The boathouse, of similar roof structure to the club- 10.8
house, has boat racks bracketed off the primary structure. London Regatta Centre: solar pipes (2001)

97
 Part TWO

Facilities
Development
11.1
Gymnasium, Sligo (2007)
Chapter 11
B u i l d i n g re g u l a t i o n s
Introduction
Different countries have different systems of building regulation
and control. In England and Wales the power to make building
regulations was vested in the Secretary of State for the Environment
by section 1 of the Building Act 1984. In this case making build-
ing regulations was intended:
• to secure the health, safety, welfare and convenience of people
in or about buildings and of others who may be affected by
buildings or matters connected with buildings;
• to further the conservation of fuel and power; and
• to prevent waste, undue consumption, misuse or contamina-
tion of water.
In this chapter we select issues which have been the subject
of building regulation and which are of particular interest in
regard to sports facilities developments. The issues are universal
ones but are demonstrated by the authors’ experience of working
to the Building Regulations for England and Wales.
Structural stability
Safety is of paramount importance. Buildings must be con-
structed so that all dead, imposed and wind loads are sustained
and transmitted to the ground safely and without causing such
settlement to the ground, or such deflection or deformation of
the building, as will impair the stability of any other building.
Structural safety of the new building works depends on
101
successful interaction between design and construction with
special reference to:
• degree of loading;
• properties of materials of construction;
• design analysis tools;
• construction details;
• safety factors;
• standards of workmanship.
Building regulations give direction on imposed loadings to be
sustained by floors, ceilings or roofs, taking into account regional
differences in climate, for example for an altitude of less than
100m (328ft) above ordnance datum, imposed snow load may
be 1kN/m² (0.02kip/ft²) for a building in the Tyne and Wear area
but 0.75kN/m² (0.016kip/ft²) for a building 480km (300 miles)
south in the Bristol area. Gust wind speed contours in England
and Wales fan out from a basic wind speed of around 36m/s
(118ft/s) in the Greater London area to around 44m/s (144ft/s) on
a line circumscribing the cities of Plymouth, Cardiff, Nottingham
and Norwich to around 46m/s (151ft/s) on a line from Falmouth
in Cornwall, along the North Devon coastline, along the Welsh
coastline, into the North West and across country to Newcastle.
These regional differences in wind gust speed have led to differ-
ences in the maximum permissible height of buildings which, for
a normal or slightly sloping site in an unprotected open area, may
range from 11m (36ft) on Tyneside to 15m (49ft) in the Greater
London area.
Certain external walls, compartment walls and separating
walls may be covered by building regulations. A minimum thick-
ness of 190mm (7.5in) may be required for the whole of a wall
facilities development
not exceeding 3.5m (11.5ft) in height by up to 12m (39ft) long.
A minimum thickness of 290mm (11.4in) from the base over two
storeys, and a minimum thickness of 190mm above that, may be
required for a wall of between 9m (29.5ft) and 12m in both height
and width. Wall cladding should:
• be capable of safely carrying and transmitting the combined
dead, imposed and wind loads to the structure of the
building;
• be securely fixed to and supported by the structure of the
building (with the fixing providing both vertical support and
lateral restraint);
• be able to accommodate differential movement between the
cladding and the building support structure;
• be manufactured of durable materials (including any fixings
and other components, which should have a longevity equal
to or exceeding that of the cladding material).
Fire safety
Buildings must be constructed so that, in the event of a fire, the
building users are able to reach a place of safety. This requirement
is met by providing an adequate number of exits and protected
escape routes. The width of an escape route is related to the
number of people who may need to use it with – for England and
Wales – a minimum number of escape routes of two for 500
building users and three for 1000 users, up to eight for 16,000
or more users (with an additional escape route/exit required for
every 5000 people, or part-5000 people, above 16,000). Where
a storey has two or more exits it is assumed that one exit will be
disabled by a fire. It is therefore recommended that the remaining
exit or exits be of sufficient width to facilitate evacuation of all
people on that storey, safely and quickly. Therefore the widest
exit should be set aside from egress calculations, with the other
exits being designed to cater for the fully populated storey. Stairs
have to be the same width as the exit leading onto them, so exit
width is a determinant in stairway design.
In the event of a fire, buildings need to resist collapse for a period
of time sufficient to enable evacuation of the building users and
prevent further rapid fire spread. This requirement is met by setting
reasonable standards of fire resistance for the floors, roofs, load-
bearing walls, building frames and other elements of structure.
102
Another requirement is that the spread of fire within and
between buildings be kept to the minimum. This is met by:
• dividing large buildings into compartments and providing
higher standards of fire resistance to walls and floors bounding
a compartment;
• setting standards of fire resistance for external walls;
• controlling the surface linings of walls and ceilings to inhibit
flame spread;
• sealing and sub-dividing concealed spaces in the structure or
fabric of a building to prevent the spread of unseen fire and
smoke;
• setting standards of resistance to fire penetration and flame
spread for roof coverings.
Fire appliances must be able to function and fire-fighters must
be able to do their job. These requirements are met by designing
adequate access for fire appliances and facilities for fire-fighters,
providing fire mains within the building and ensuring that heat
and smoke can be vented from basement areas.
For large and complex buildings, including such types of sports
building, the above measures may be considered inadequate or
difficult to apply. In such cases a fire safety design approach may
be adopted, which addresses fire safety issues holistically.
Construction materials
Construction materials must be fit and proper for carrying out
building work. Identifying and widely acknowledging ‘proper’
building materials not only confirms their fitness for purpose but
also helps to promote the free movement of such products (by
overcoming technical barriers to their use in different places).
In this respect, a ‘standard’ can form a vital, but often mis-
understood, part of doing business. The term ‘standard’ refers to
a test method or a set of performance values (a ‘specification’)
or a combination of the two. It should be noted that if a standard
is also a specification then exact test method references must be
quoted – where reference numbers are identical, a year reference
is used as a suffix to indicate when a particular version came
into use (some specifications require the latest version of a test
method to be used while others may state a particular dated
procedure).
Table 11.1  National Standards Bodies, European Union

EU Member National Standards Body Abbreviation

Austria Österreichisches Normungsinstitut ONORM

Belgium Bureau de Normalisation NBN
Bulgaria Bulgarian Institute for Standardization BDS
Cyprus Cyprus Organization for Standardization CYS
Czech Republic Czech Standards Institute CSN
Denmark Dansk Standard DS
Estonia Eesti Standardikeskus EVS
Finland Suomen Standardisoimisliitto SFS
France Association Française de Normalisation (AFNOR) NF
Germany Deutsches Institut für Normung DIN
Greece Hellenic Organization for Standardization ELOT
Hungary Magyar Szabványügyi Testület MSZT
Ireland National Standards Authority of Ireland NSAI
Italy Natio Ente Nationale Italiano di Unificazion UNI
Latvia Latvian Standard LVS
Lithuania Lithuanian Standards LST
Luxembourg Institut luxembourgeois de la normalisation, de l’accréditation, ILNAS
de la sécurité et qualité des produits et services
Malta Malta Standards Authority MSA
Netherlands Nederlands Normalisatie-Institut NEN
Norway Norges Standardiseringsforbund NS
Poland Polish Committee for Standardization PKN
Portugal Instituto Portugues da Qualidade NP
Romania Asociatia de Standardizare din România ASRO
Slovakia Slovak Standards Institute SUTN
Slovenia Slovenian Institute for Standardization SIST
Spain Asociación Española de Normalization (AENOR) UNE
Sweden Swedish Standards SS/SIS/SMS
UK British Standards Institute BS

Two of the most important standards organisations are the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO), based in
Switzerland, and the American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM). These two bodies are seeking to establish a closer rela-
tionship, which would have a beneficial effect on global trade by
promoting commonality of products.
Almost all countries have their own official standards-
making body, known as the National Standards Body (NSB). An
example is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Since the Single European Act of 1986 there has been a radical
change in writing directives and European standards. ‘New
Approach Directives’ expressed requirements in broad terms,
called ‘Essential Requirements’. The Construction Products
Directive (CPD) 89/106 EEC aimed to achieve the approxima-
tion of laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the
Member States in relation to construction products. The CPD
defined construction products as being those produced for
incorporation in a permanent manner in construction works,
insofar as the Essential Requirements (ERs) relate to them. Six
ERs were identified:
• mechanical resistance and stability;
• safety in case of fire;
• hygiene, health and the environment;
• safety in use;
• protection against noise;
• energy economy and heat retention.
The link between the ER and the product on the market was made
in Interpretative Documents (IDs) indicating:
• appropriate product characteristics;
• appropriate topics for harmonised technical specifications;
• the need for different levels or classes of performance to allow
for different regulation requirements in different Member
States.
From this background came harmonised European standards,
which created the best route for demonstrating compliance for a
product. These standards were developed mainly by European
standards organisation CEN (Comité Européen de Normalisation)

103
facilities development
or CENELEC (which translates as ‘European Committee for Electronic
Standardization’ – the electrical standards equivalent to CEN) on
the basis of standardisation requests (mandates) from the European
Commission. It should be noted that there is a close working rela-
tionship between CEN and ISO, which have in many areas jointly
developed standards under what is known as the Vienna Agreement
– dual numbering as EN and ISO standards gives rise to prefixes
such as BS EN ISO or DIN EN ISO (see Table 11.1). Most CEN test
methods are referred to as ENs but those for construction products
are known as hENs (harmonised European Norm). Once a harmon-
ised European Norm is published across the CEN member states,
any conflicting national standard must be withdrawn – usually
within twelve months. In their draft or provisional state ENs are
known as prENs, which have no real weight in EU law, so must be
treated with caution. English is the official language for CEN and
ISO but French and German versions are also published. For CEN,
the English language version is usually the definitive text but French
and German translations are mandatory.
Only the parts of standards relating to the ERs are mandated
and these are those parts supporting the fixing of an EC mark (the
CE symbol) to products. The EC mark indicates that a product
may legally be placed on the market (it is not a quality mark).
All of this brings us towards a definition of ‘proper construction
materials’ as those bearing an appropriate EC mark under the
CPD or conforming to an approved harmonised standard of
European technical approval. From a British perspective, they
may alternatively conform to an approved British Standard or
British Board of Agrément Certificate. Or they may conform to
some other material technical specification of any one of the
Member States (in which case there must be a level of protection
and performance equivalent to that demonstrated by conforming
to a British Standard or British Board of Agrément Certificate).
Workmanship
Adequacy of workmanship may be established by use of a British
Code of Practice or equivalent technical specification (e.g. of
another Member State). Technical approvals such as Agrément
certificates often contain workmanship recommendations (and, as
with Codes of Practice, it may be possible to use another nation’s
technical approval if this provides an equivalent level of protection).
Workmanship may also be approved by ISO 9000/EN 29 000/
104
11.2
Inclusive design: indoor sports facilities
BS 570 Quality Systems. Past successful experience of implement-
ing a method of workmanship may be considered sufficient indica-
tion that a required level of performance will be met. In some cases,
workmanship may be subject to external inspection and assessment
(e.g. testing of drains and sewers by local authorities).
Site preparation
Site preparation issues are covered in Chapters 13 and 14.
Precautions must, however, be taken to prevent any substances
found on or in the ground from causing a danger to health and
safety. This includes ground covered by the building and the area
covered by the foundations. Potential contaminants include any
material (including faecal or animal matter) and any substance
which is or could become toxic, corrosive, explosive, flammable
or radioactive. (This requirement explains the interest of sports
facilities owners and operators in brownfield sites because, as
long as there is sufficient ‘good’ ground for the building works,
the ‘bad’ ground can often be used for the relatively large area
of surface car parking required in association with sports building
developments.)
Moisture exclusion
Building regulations describe the types of damp-proof course
which will prevent moisture movement into buildings from the
ground. Essentially, a damp-proof course can be in any material
that will prevent moisture movement, has to be continuous and
has to be at least 150mm (6in) above outside ground level.
In addition to resisting ground moisture, external walls need
to be resistant to rain and snow and able to prevent consequential
moisture transmission to other parts of the building that may be
11.3–11.4
Harborough Leisure Centre: (left) corridor to reception area (2008); and (right) inclusive design – WC (2008)
susceptible to damage. Forms of construction which meet these
requirements include:
• solid walls of sufficient thickness to hold moisture during bad
weather until it can be released during periods of good
weather;
• impervious cladding which prevents moisture from penetrating
the outside face of the wall;
• cavity wall construction in which the outside leaf holds mois-
ture in a similar way to that of a solid wall, preventing penetra-
tion of moisture to the inside leaf.
Roofs, like walls, must be resistant to rain and snow and must
not transmit consequent moisture to other parts of the building
that may become damaged.
Inclusive design
‘Sport for all’ cannot be achieved without provisions to enable
the participation of disabled sportsmen and sportswomen. The
main provisions in the Building Regulations are:
• suitable means of access into the building from outside;
• suitable access within the building to those facilities which
are provided;
• reasonable provision of sanitary conveniences;
• a reasonable number of wheelchair spaces (at least 900mm
wide × 1400mm deep) where the building contains audience
or spectator seating.
Approaches to the building should be level where possible and
not steeper than 1 in 20 (unless a ramped approach is provided).
Surface width should be at least 1200mm (47.25in). Tactile warn-
ings should be provided on pedestrian routes for people with
105
impaired vision where the route crosses a vehicular carriageway
or at the top of stairs. Dropped kerbs should be provided for
wheelchair users at carriageway crossings.
Because ambulant disabled people can often negotiate steps
better than ramps, where possible steps should be available as an
alternative to ramps. There should be no hazards to impede people
with impaired sight using access routes around the building. While
it is not considered reasonable to require the provision of tactile
warnings at the start of level changes, stair nosings should be
distinguishable for the benefit of people with impaired sight.
Entrance doors must have a clear width of at the very least
800mm (31.5in). Ideally the minimum clear width that will be
provided by a 1000mm (39.4in) single leaf external doorset will
be 850mm (33.5in) clear or by one leaf of an 1800mm (71in)
double leaf doorset 810mm (31.9in) clear. The space into which
the door opens should be unobstructed. Disabled people cannot
normally react quickly to avoid collisions if a door is opened
suddenly, meaning that glazed panels 900mm (35.4in) to 1500mm
(59in) from the floor should be provided in doors to enable people
to see and be seen. Revolving doors and access turnstiles should
only be used alongside wheelchair-friendly doors or swing
barriers.
Building regulations do not attempt to provide guidance on
disabled access to all types of facility within a building. They do,
however, offer guidance on showering and changing facilities,
covering space requirements to manoeuvre the wheelchair and
to transfer onto a seat. They also cover height requirements for
seats, shower heads, taps, clothes hooks and mirrors.
Sound, ventilation, vertical movement
These criteria are addressed in building regulations but are not
covered in this chapter because they are the subjects of Chapters
17, 22 and 26.
12.1
East Midlands International Swimming Pool, Corby:
site hoarding – public viewing porthole (July 2008)
Chapter 12
Health and safety
Introduction
Different countries have different regulations or codes of practice
regarding health and safety in construction. In England, Scotland
and Wales the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
2007 (CDM 2007) came into force on 6 April 2007. They replaced
the Construction (Design and Management) Regulations 1994
(CDM 1994) and the Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare
Regulations 1996 (CHSW). Their key aim is to integrate health
and safety into the management of the project and to encourage
everyone involved to:
• improve the planning and management of projects from the
very start;
• identify hazards early on, so that they can be eliminated or
reduced at the design or planning stage and the remaining
risks can be properly managed;
• target effort where it can do the most good in terms of health
and safety; and
• discourage unnecessary bureaucracy.
107
Except where a project is for a domestic client (a person or per-
sons having work carried out on their own home), the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE) must be notified of projects where con-
struction work is expected to last more than 30 working days or
involve more than 500 person-days (e.g. 50 people working for
more than 10 days). This requirement clearly renders notifiable
new-build sports facilities developments in England, Scotland and
Wales, many extensions to existing sports buildings and some
types of sports building repair, refurbishment and restoration
works.
The Health and Safety Commission has published an Approved
Code of Practice (ACOP) which provides practical guidance on
complying with the duties set out in the Regulations. Table 12.1,
drawn from the ACOP, summarises the duties under the
Regulations.
facilities development

Table 12.1  Duties under the Regulations

Responsibility All construction projects (Part 2 of Regulations) Additional duties for notifiable projects (Part 3 of Regulations)

Client Check competence and resources of Appoint CDM coordinator (compulsory role until end
all appointees of construction phase)

Ensure suitable management arrangements Appoint principal contractor (compulsory role until end
for project, including welfare facilities of construction phase)

Allow sufficient time and resources for Ensure construction does not begin unless suitable welfare
all stages facilities and a construction phase plan are in place

Provide pre-construction information to Provide information relating to health and safety file to
designers and contractors CDM coordinator

– Retain and provide access to health and safety file

CDM coordinator – Advise and assist client with his/her duties

– Notify Health and Safety Executive (HSE)

– Coordinate health and safety aspects of design work and

cooperate with others involved in project

– Facilitate good communication between client, designers and contractors

– Liaise with principal contractor regarding ongoing design

– Identify, collect and pass on pre-construction information

– Prepare/update health and safety file

Designers Eliminate hazards and reduce risks Check that client is aware of duties and that CDM coordinator
during design has been appointed

Provide information about remaining risks Provide any information needed for the health and safety file

Principal contractors – Plan, manage and monitor construction phase in liaison with contractor

– Prepare, develop and implement a written plan and site rules

(initial plan completed before construction begins)

– Give contractors relevant parts of plan

– Ensure suitable welfare facilities provided and maintained

throughout construction

– Check competence of all appointees

– Ensure that all workers have site inductions and any further information
and training needed for the work

– Consult with the workers

– Liaise with CDM coordinator regarding ongoing design

– Secure the site

108
 h e a lt h and safety

Responsibility All construction projects (Part 2 of Regulations) Additional duties for notifiable projects (Part 3 of Regulations)

Contractors Plan, manage and monitor own work and that Check that client aware of duties, CDM coordinator is appointed and
of workers HSE is notified before work starts

Check competence of all own appointees and Cooperate with principal contractor in planning and managing work,
workers including reasonable directions and site rules

Train own appointees Provide details to principal contractor of any contractor whom he/she
engages in connection with carrying out the work

Provide information to own workers Provide any information needed for the health and safety file

Comply with specific requirements in Part 4 of the Inform principal contractor of any problems with the plan
Regulations

Ensure there are adequate welfare facilities for own Inform principal contractor of reportable accidents, diseases and
workers dangerous occurrences

Everyone Check own competence Check own competence

Cooperate with others and coordinate work so as Cooperate with others and coordinate work so as to ensure the
to ensure the health and safety of construction workers health and safety of construction workers and others who may be
and others who may be affected by the work affected by the work

Report obvious risks Report obvious risks

Comply with requirements in Schedule 3 and Part 4 Comply with requirements in Schedule 3 and Part 4 of the Regulations
of the Regulations for any work under own control for any work under own control

Take account of and apply the general principles of Take account of and apply the general principles of prevention when
prevention when carrying out duties carrying out duties

Failure to ensure that CDM 2007 is followed in England, Scotland and Wales
increases the likelihood of a dangerous or fatal incident during construction.
Failure to appoint a CDM coordinator or principal contractor on a notifiable
project renders the client legally liable for health and safety matters that should be
dealt with but are not.
Serious breaches of health and safety legislation on a construction project can
result in construction work being stopped by HSE or the local authority, in which
case additional works may be necessary to put things right. In the most serious
circumstances, prosecution may result.
Clients can source suitable designers and contractors from the memberships of
appropriate reputable professional institutions and trade associations.

109
13.1
Millennium Dome (now O2 Arena): under construction (1998)
Chapter 13
F e a s i b i l i t y, s i t e s e l e c t i o n
and investigation
Introduction
When creation of a new sports facility is considered, the client
body will usually form a planning committee to which one mem-
ber – say the director of sport, leisure and tourism – will be
responsible on an executive basis. The executive officer will usu-
ally work with an in-house building professional or hire an
external building professional, traditionally an architect, to inves-
tigate project feasibility and produce outline proposals and a
scheme design.
Establishing feasibility (essentially the need for the project) is
prerequisite to any other sports facility development activity. This
will be gauged by calculating local demand for sports facilities,
the characteristics of any competing facilities and the potential
size of the catchment area. Given a positive outcome on feasibil-
ity, the criteria of site selection and site investigation can be
addressed. Construction on site cannot begin until these consid-
erations have been resolved to the satisfaction of the project
commissioning organisation (and its specialist consultants), the
local public authority and any appropriate statutory bodies.
Unless feasibility, site selection and ground conditions are right,
the built facility cannot be right.
Similar sports facility projects will be studied and learned from
at this stage. For the proposed facility, assessments will be made
of the spatial and design requirements for the different wet and
dry sports (as covered in Section 1of the book) together with their
inter-relationships and associated social spaces, special-use
spaces, administration, refreshment and ancillary areas (as out-
lined in Chapter 7). Issues addressed will include capacity (user
and spectator), transportation planning (e.g. pedestrian movement
studies), acoustics (sound quality, noise and vibration studies),
111
control and supervision of the different activities, equipment and
storage needs, servicing (mechanical, electrical and plumbing)
requirements and provision for future adaptation or extension of
the facility.
Data collection
Establishing feasibility involves a lot of information-gathering and
analysis to ascertain:
• the need for a new sports facility in an area;
• comparative accessibility of public and private transport to
alternative sites;
• car parking potential;
• ground conditions;
• any problems with utility services supply;
• criteria relating to planning permission;
• capital costs and funding options;
• implications of the anticipated project time-scale.
Geotechnical desk studies
Most project delays and cost overruns are caused through unfore-
seen ground conditions being encountered once construction
work has begun on site. The geotechnical desk study is a relatively
inexpensive way of gaining a large amount of data relating to a
site. It enables potential ground-related hazards to be identified
facilities development
at an early stage, when their resolution can still be programmed
in or an alternative site can still be preferred. A desk study can
usually be carried out quickly prior to land purchase, to detect
any unknown factors that could push up the cost of development.
Thus, the geotechnical desk study can not only mitigate project
cost but also increase negotiating strength. Desk study reports
range from assessment of anticipated foundation conditions to
extended considerations of environmental impact, archaeology,
ecology and traffic impact. A typical report might include data
on site history, geology and geomorphology, groundwater, topog-
raphy and drainage, vegetation and land use, underground fea-
tures (such as existing foundations, services or tunnels),
archaeological potential, contamination, geo-hazards and
seismology.
Risk management
Because the desk study will identify potential ground hazards, it
presents an important early opportunity to introduce a risk and
value management regime to interact with all stages of the project.
Risk and value management is essential to mitigate risk, which
grows as sites available for development become increasingly
complex and expensive. Early assessment of hazards relating to,
say, geology, hydrogeology, seismicity and the environment will
enable the design development to incorporate appropriate mea-
sures of mitigation and control.
Ground investigation
The ground investigation is the process by which geotechnical
and other relevant parameters are obtained for engineering design.
On-site sampling, testing and monitoring, in combination with
laboratory testing, are used to obtain information on all aspects
of the ground, including stratigraphy, soil parameters, groundwa-
ter conditions, contamination and gas production.
112
Pride Park, Derby
Pride Park is the 80ha (176 acre) home of Derby County Football
Club and location of other leisure, commercial and light industrial
developments. It was formerly occupied by gas and coke works,
domestic and industrial landfill, a gravel quarry and locomotive
works. The site had been heavily contaminated by tars, oils,
phenol, heavy metals, asbestos, ammonia, boron and low-level
radioactive material. Of particular concern in the proposed site
redevelopment was the close proximity of the River Derwent,
which flows south into the River Trent and is an important source
of water for the Nottingham area. The reclamation strategy
included construction of a 3km (2 mile) long bentonite cement
cut-off wall, a groundwater treatment works, an on-site fully
engineered waste repository, gas venting systems and ground
reclamation for the various site end users.
O 2 Arena (Millennium Dome),
Greenwich Peninsula, London
In the year 2000 the Millennium Dome was the highest earner
of any tourist attraction in the UK. The Greenwich Peninsula
had been the contaminated site of the largest gasworks in
Europe, with additional tar works and benzene works on site.
Spent lime, some converted to gypsum, had been dumped on
the site. The ground was heavily polluted with BTEX (benzene,
toluene, ethyl-benzene and xylene) and tar. This heavily con-
taminated and environmentally dangerous waste was ‘cleaned
up’ and replaced on site by the Millennium Dome, a unique
320m diameter cable and membrane structure supported by
twelve 90m tall tubular steel masts. Originally the membrane
was to be of PVC-coated polyester fibre but the incoming Labour
government of 1997 wanted to keep open future options for the
Dome’s use. The decision was taken to use instead a long-life
PTFE/glass membrane. This choice enables the Dome to continue
operating as an ad hoc exhibition and event centre. Hosted
sports include tennis, NBA basketball, NHL ice hockey and
World Championship Boxing.

Archaeology
In the UK the Department of the Environment Planning Policy
Guidance Note ‘PPG 16’ (November 1990) required local plan-
ning authorities to make archaeological concerns a ‘material
consideration’ of a planning application. There is now a demand
that the archaeological resource of a site, if significant, be pre-
served in situ by ‘good engineering practices’. This requires a site
to be thoroughly evaluated archaeologically and so leads to a
need for a separate archaeological investigation in many cases.
An investigation may involve geophysical prospecting and exten-
sive hand-dug trenching. Understanding the previous land uses
can significantly aid the engineering site investigations, and hence
the design and installation of new ground works. Important rev-
elations might include old foundations, backfilled quarries and
infilled rivers, bomb craters, industrial soil contamination, ground
instability, removed trees, tunnels, sewers, wells, mine shafts and
burial grounds.
Big North American firms have a tradition of incorporating
public amenities in private developments. An example is the
offices development during the 1990s for Merrill Lynch at
Newgate, on the boundary of the City of London. The west build-
ing provides public access to an excavated section of Roman city
wall and medieval bastion, the main Scheduled Ancient
Monuments on the site. For protection during building works,
these remains were enclosed and wrapped in foam sheet, under
a ply lid. The ‘chamber’ created was filled with washed sand that
was vacuumed out on project completion. Subsequently, a new
environment and display setting were created. The natural envi-
ronment was monitored for humidity, temperature and wind
movement for more than a year. The data collected was used to
create conditions that would allow viewing from the foyer above
and permit visitors to walk around the remains.
Although the office foyer of Merrill Lynch could just as easily
be a sports centre foyer, a more appropriate demonstration project
is the Thermen Museum at Heerlen, in the Netherlands. Here, in
the 1970s, a NODUS space frame roof was assembled over the
remains of a complete Roman bathhouse dating from the second
century ad. The roof structure was then lifted into position to
protect the ancient remains in situ and create the sort of large
clear-span enclosure appropriate to sports and leisure building
developments.
113
feasibility , site selection and i n v e s t i g at i o n
Remote sensing and
geophysical testing
The remote assessment of sites using aerial photographs and satel-
lite images enables a detailed appraisal of a site to be undertaken.
It can identify and aid the evaluation of contaminated land, past
industrial use, landfill histories, abandoned mineshafts, mine
subsidence, soil changes, drainage conditions, landslides and
dissolution features. It can be used to identify matters of potential
engineering concern in advance of site investigation and construc-
tion. By examining aerial photographs of different dates it is
possible to build up a detailed chronological record of incremen-
tal changes of site land use, which is particularly useful in areas
with an industrial or mining history.
Geophysical testing is typically combined with, and validated
by, intrusive investigation. Its use is particularly important where
intrusive investigations are constrained by access problems. Even
where access is feasible, the subsequent laboratory measurement
of material properties on samples taken from the investigation
may not be representative of the in-situ ground properties. Also,
modelling complex and variable ground conditions using purely
intrusive investigations can be costly. Appropriate forms of geo-
physical testing include electromagnetic techniques (e.g. ground
penetrating radar) to identify voids or buried obstructions, electri-
cal techniques (e.g. resistivity imaging) to identify groundwater
pathways and seismic techniques (e.g. downhole geophysics) or
a radioactive technique (e.g. downhole gamma logging) to cor-
relate geophysical properties with stratigraphy. Geophysics is used
to identify ground properties and subsurface features including
material strength and stiffness, rock mass characteristics, perme-
ability, stratigraphy profiles, buried obstructions, voids, geological
features, piezometric or water-table surfaces, groundwater path-
ways, contamination and locations of bombs.
Soil mechanics
Soil mechanics is the study of the mechanical properties of soils
and the ways in which these properties affect human activities.
It involves applying the mechanisms of materials and fluids to
describe the behaviour of soils, and establishing the performance
of soil as an engineering material. Studies of soil mechanics might
13.2
Colosseum, Rome (1994)
involve collecting geological samples, carrying out experiments
and analysing photographs. Penetrometers may be used to mea-
sure the force required to penetrate to various depths in the soil.
Core tubes may be taken for analysis, enabling soil properties
such as density, average grain size, strength and compressibility
to be measured as a function of depth. Software is available to
facilitate such analysis. Soil mechanics includes sub-surface
exploration, soil composition and texture, classification, perme-
ability and seepage, consolidation, shear strength, settlement,
lateral earth pressures, retaining structures, geosynthetics, slope
stability, shallow and deep foundations.
Soil dynamics
The effect that vibrations have on soils is of vital importance to
engineers and is known as ‘soil dynamics’. This deals with soil
properties and behaviour under changing stress conditions. Such
dynamic stresses manifest themselves in many different aspects
of the built environment, such as earthquakes, bomb blasts, fast-
moving traffic and wind or wave action. Key aspects of soil
dynamics include the propagation and attenuation of energy
114
through the ground, the rate and amplitude of subsequent loading
and the effect of cyclic loading on the soils. These criteria need
to be fully understood to ensure that buildings and structures meet
their desired level of performance. Actions that may be taken
include machine foundation assessment, analysis and design, the
assessment of railways’ induced vibrations, derivation of dynamic
soil properties, specification of high-quality cyclic soil tests,
foundation design for cyclic loads, impact assessment and testing,
finite element analysis of cyclic loads, pile driving analysis,
assessment and prediction of construction-induced vibrations.
Hydrogeology
Groundwater is a major asset for abstractors, such as water com-
panies and industry, and is a precious environmental resource
supporting wetlands and other ecologically important features. It
can also be a problem for construction works, during which its
control may be necessary. Recognising the significance of ground-
water at an early stage in any project allows the design of appro-
priate solutions to minimise groundwater impact and optimise
environmental benefits.
13.3
Colosseum, Rome (2006)
Foundation design
Foundations range in cross-sectional area and depth from pads
and rafts to piles and caissons. They ensure that, under a wide
range of defined loading conditions, movements of structures are
kept within acceptable bounds. Foundations also ensure the
robustness and safety of structures in earthquakes, ground col-
lapse brought about by geological or human-made features and
seasonal or tree-induced ground movements. Their design should
incorporate the interpretation of desk study and ground investiga-
tion data, the use of local knowledge and experience, selection
of engineering parameters, analysis of soil–structure interaction,
assurance of design compatibility with the construction process
and inspections to check site implementation.
Basement and substructure design
Demand for space in cities and other urban environments
often makes it cost-effective to use space below buildings for
parking, deliveries, storage and plant rooms. Key issues of base-
ment and excavation work include supporting the excavation
115
sides, controlling ground movements outside the site perimeter,
controlling groundwater flows during excavation, protecting
against water penetration into the completed facility and treating
archaeological remains in the ground.
One of the world’s most intriguing basement designs was for
a sports facility, albeit a ‘blood’ sports facility. The Colosseum in
Rome opened in ad80, when the Emperor Titus staged a sea fight
in approximately 1m of water. Because of this, we know that the
Colosseum was originally built without a basement. But within a
few years a labyrinthine underground system had been installed
to accommodate ‘stage props’ and caged animals, and the slaves
whose job it was to get these into the arena on cue. The basement
of the Colosseum was due to be excavated in 1812 but the water-
table was too high so the project was deferred. It was not until
the 1990s that a team from the German Archaeological Institute
measured the basement floor areas and cavities in the walls where
wooden lifts, levers and cages would have been constructed. By
comparing their findings with contemporary accounts of how
animals ‘magically appeared’ the archaeologists pieced together
an underground operation comparable in size and complexity to
that of a modern stage set.
13.4
German Gymnasium, St Pancras (2007)
CTRL beyond London and the
Turnhalle (German Gymnasium)
The fundamental importance of geotechnical engineering is dem-
onstrated by the 21st century work of hollowing out the ground
beneath King’s Cross and St Pancras. This brought the two termi-
nals together for extension north of the high-speed Channel
Tunnel Rail Link (CTRL) and redevelopment as a ‘dense, vibrant
urban quarter’ of the 58 acres (23ha) of railway land between the
sets of lines. Locating a ticket office beneath St Pancras meant
not only cutting off tunnel roofs and raising the Euston Road but
also slicing into the station’s foundations. This has only become
possible with the use of new underpinning techniques developed
by geotechnical engineers in the past 20 years. Without such
techniques, either the project could not have happened or the
elegant gothic facade of St Pancras would have crumbled.
116
The special significance of this transport project to sport is that
the site contains a structure known as the German Gymnasium (one
part of a German school) which is a unique, purpose-built gymna-
sium of immense historic and aesthetic importance. It was built in
1861 when gymnastics was ‘transported’ to Britain from Germany
by followers of Frederick Ludwig Jahn, the ‘Father of Modern
Gymnastics’. German immigrants formed the country’s first Gym
Club and opened their ‘German Gymnasium’ in St Pancras. This
was the start of the modern Olympic movement in the UK, with its
message for ordinary working class people to ‘get sport’. The archi-
tectural style of the building is Prussian neo-medieval vernacular
(reminiscent of Munich in the 1860s). It has rare surviving laminated
timber roof ribs of a type originally used in King’s Cross Station.
The building is Grade II listed and was the subject of a preservation
order in the railway terminal redevelopment project. Sensors were
positioned all around it to monitor any movements during the
adjacent construction works. None were recorded.
 feasibility , site selection and i n v e s t i g at i o n

Sport in Britain: Thirty years later archaeologists were excavating a site in

its origins and development Colchester, Essex, prior to the construction of a housing develop-
ment, when they unearthed the first Roman chariot-racing arena
to be found in Britain. The remains consist of walls, some running
This is the title of a book by H A Harris which was published in in parallel, outlining a structure measuring 350m (1150ft) long ×
1975 (sadly the author died in August 1974, days after sending 70m (230ft) wide. The ‘circus’ had a capacity of perhaps 8000
the manuscript to the publisher). An example of the highly per- spectators and is comparable in size to chariot-racing arenas in
ceptive deductions made by Professor Harris is: Spain and southern France. This is the largest Roman building to
‘A mosaic found in a Roman villa at Horkstow in Lincolnshire be discovered in Britain. It is proof that sport was big – literally
and now in the British Museum depicts a chariot race. This of – in the Britain of 2000 years ago.
course merely shows that the owner of the villa was interested in
racing; it does not prove that the racing took place in Britain. But
most racing mosaics found in the provinces of the Empire depict
four-horse chariots among the splendours of the Circus Maximus
in Rome. The Horkstow picture has two-horse chariots and the
very simplest of equipment, merely the two turning-posts and the
wall joining them – the kind of course we might expect in a
remote and poor part of the Empire. There would have been less
difficulty in providing such a track than there is today in laying
out the course for the point-to-point races of a local hunt. So,
although no circus has yet been identified in Britain, there is every
likelihood that chariot racing did in fact take place here’.

117
14.1
Barnsley Metrodome (1993)
Chapter 14
Masterplanning,
transportation
a n d i n f r a s t r u c t u re
Introduction
The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment
(CABE) in the UK has defined a masterplan as
‘a document that charts the masterplanning process and
explains how a site or series of sites will be developed. It
will describe how the proposal will be implemented, and
set out the costs, phasing and timing of the development.
A masterplan will usually be prepared by or on behalf of
the organisation that owns the site or controls the develop-
ment process’.
The Urban Task Force in the UK, headed by Lord Richard Rogers,
stated that a successful masterplan must be:
• visionary – should raise aspirations and provide a vehicle for
consensus building and implementation;
• deliverable – should take into account likely implementation
and delivery routes;
• fully integrated into the land use planning system, while allow-
ing new uses and market opportunities to exploit the full
development potential of a site;
• flexible, providing the basis for negotiation and dispute
resolution;
• the result of a participatory process, providing all the stake-
holders with the means of expressing their needs and
priorities;
• equally applicable to rethinking the role, function and form
of existing neighbourhoods as to creating new neigh­
bourhoods.
119
In the USA White and Karabetsos flag up the need for a ‘Master
Plan or, in municipal agencies, Comprehensive Plan … a well-
contemplated systematized strategy taking into account the many
variables (present and future) that may affect a facility’. They refer
to the plan being a ‘formal, comprehensive building scheme that
identifies the organization’s facility needs and establishes the
priority in which construction of new or the renovation of existing
facilities will occur’.
In Australia Jim Daly defines planning for recreation and sport
as a people-oriented process that brings together information
about the rational allocation of recreation and sport resources to
meet the present and future requirements of people at the state,
regional and local level. (Daly defines design as ‘the practical
application of recreation and sport resources identified in the
planning process’ with the designer’s task being ‘to create specific
open spaces and built facilities for recreation and sport that are
compatible with the environment and add to the quality of life
of the present and future user’.)
The aim during the planning stages is to create the situation
described succinctly by Kit Campbell: ‘The best sports and rec-
reation buildings are generally the result of an enlightened client
working closely with an experienced design team to a clear
brief’.
Masterplanning
Several different terms have been used already to describe a plan-
ning process which has to be fluid, inclusive and extensive.
Planning activities that can be contracted out (e.g. aspects of
14.2
Barnsley Metrodome (1993)
feasibility, data collection, site investigation) were described in
Chapter 13. These activities should be designed to inform the
masterplanning, which is a collaborative process. Masterplanning
may involve organising stakeholder workshops (to analyse issues
and opportunities), technical reviews, technical testing, evalua-
tion of masterplan options, environmental appraisal and public
exhibition of proposals. It may involve deciding on assessment
criteria to be used to evaluate alternative sites and alternative
development proposals, and administering the scoring. It will
certainly involve a great deal of refinement and provision for the
testing of any divergences from the plan (during design and con-
struction) to maintain the integrity of the development concept.
Some considerations
Planning in an urban environment, where the development has
to fit in with existing buildings, is totally different from planning
for a rural environment, where the development has to fit in with
the landscape. In both cases a visually unobtrusive development
will usually be more readily acceptable to planning authorities.
120
In the case of the rural location, perimeter planting can often be
used effectively to screen the mass of what is inevitably and rela-
tively a large building development.
Transportation planning is crucial because facility users must
have the means of safe and efficient access to and egress from
the site and the buildings within the site. Principal considerations
will include the positioning of the access, its detailed design and
suitable site boundary treatment. However, a well-designed sports
and leisure centre requires that all aspects of the design be con-
sidered at the same time. Because it is an integral part of the built
environment, the road layout should not be considered in
isolation.
People movement should be planned to contribute towards
an attractive environment and to meet the needs of the drivers,
pedestrians and cyclists who share the road space. It is necessary
to consider road hierarchy from local distributor roads of, say,
6.7m (22ft) or 7.3m (24ft) width to transitional links or feeder
roads of, say, 5.5m (18ft), 6.7m or 7.3m, access roads of, say, 5m
(16.4ft) or 6.7m and shared (combined pedestrian/vehicular)
surfaces of, say 4.5m (14.8ft). Service routes have to be considered
at a very early stage and agreed with the highway authority. The
geometry of new junctions to the existing road network will need
14.3
North Berwick Leisure Centre (1997)
to take into account both the type of traffic generated on the
minor road by the new development and the existing traffic flows,
speed and classification of the major road. Where the major road
traffic speeds are higher than 40mph (64kmh) it is unlikely that
simple priority junctions will be considered appropriate by the
highway authority.
Junctions within development sites need to be designed so
that they provide safe and easy access by vehicles, with good
visibility, but do not compromise pedestrian movement. Traffic
speeds should be reduced by the positioning of the buildings and
spaces, and by reducing the effective length of each section of
road. Corners with tight radii are usually more appropriate for
areas around sports and leisure developments because there is a
lot of pedestrian movement around the buildings and gentle radius
corners encourage higher vehicle speeds. Speed restraining bends
(i.e. bends with a deflection of between 80° and 100°) can be
used to emphasise the change in direction.
The site car parking requirement will derive from the calcula-
tions of facility usage made in the feasibility study. Standard car
parking spaces are 4.8m (15.7ft) × 2.4m (7.9ft) and car parking
spaces for disabled drivers are 4.8m × 3.6m (11.8ft) minimum
width.
121
Footways should generally be sufficiently wide, at, say, 2m
(6.6ft) to allow two people to pass. A single pedestrian width of
say 1.2m (3.9ft), with minimum headroom of say 2.25m (7.4ft),
is usually permissible for limited lengths provided that such a
‘courtesy section’ is located so that pedestrians are not forced to
step onto the carriageway. Gradients of footways should be a
maximum of, say 1:12 and, where possible, should be 1:20 to
accommodate people with a mobility impediment.
Pedestrian and cycle links should be a minimum of 2.5m (8.2ft)
wide if the surface is shared or 3m (10ft) if pedestrians and cyclists
are separated. Where a cycle route crosses a distributor road or
transitional link, a flush dropped kerb is generally necessary at
the road crossing. Bollards approximately 1.2m (3.9ft) high, with
suitable reflective markings, can be used to protect buildings and
demarcate footways.
Lighting should be designed to achieve sufficient illumination
to enable safe movement by pedestrians and cyclists, reduce
opportunities for crime and enable drivers to see hazards on the
road. Designers should also aim to illuminate the built environ-
ment in an attractive way, and to select and position the lamps
so that they enhance the local scene. Road lighting systems
designed in accordance with the current edition of BS 5489 will
14.4
Birmingham Olympic Bid 1992: main stadium concept (1986)
be required on most UK roads, footways and roundabouts serving
new development.
Signs and sign gantries are other prominent items of street
furniture. Supporting columns for signs are generally tubular or
rectangular rolled hollow section steel (hot-dipped galvanised
and plastic coated) or aluminium, to BS 873, BS 4 and BS 4848.
The mounting height for signs must be 2.1m (6.9ft) within a foot-
way and 2.4m (7.9ft) within a cycleway. Pedestrian guardrails for
footpaths are generally 2m (6.6ft) × 0.9m (3ft) panels of 50 × 25
× 3RHS frame with 12mm diameter bar infill, founded at the
panel frame verticals on 300mm (1ft) diameter × 600mm (2ft)
deep concrete foundations.
Bridges may be needed on sports and leisure centre sites to
carry people, vehicles or pipes over water, roads or rail lines.
These can be designed in concrete, steel or timber, depending on
function, span and location. Where activities are split between
different buildings on a site, high level linkbridges may be used
to make transfer between buildings easier. Bridges may be neces-
sary to link new sports facilities to existing buildings on, say,
university or college, hospital or corporate headquarters sites.
122
City of Birmingham Bid
to host the 1992 Summer Olympics
This project is chosen to demonstrate aspects of masterplanning
because readers are familiar with the National Exhibition Centre
(NEC) (Chapter 7) on which the Birmingham Olympic Bid was
based, and the authors were involved with the NEC development
and the Bid. In May 1985 Birmingham City Council decided to
compete for the British nomination as host city for the 1992
Olympic Games. The submission to the British Olympic Association
(BOA) was required by the end of July, meaning that a feasibility
study covering all aspects of the Games had to be completed
within eight weeks. To its advantage, Birmingham quickly decided
upon that essential element of every masterplan – a clear philoso-
phy. Birmingham wanted to ‘give the Games back to the Athletes’
by creating a ‘compact Games’, better than any previous event,
at an already superb location at the heart of England with excel-
lent communications, exhibition centres, sports facilities and
tourist attractions.
 masterplanning
Seven principal areas of study were identified:
• sports facilities;
• accommodation;
• transport;
• telecommunications;
• Games management;
• funding and finance;
• economic impact.
More than 100 organisations were consulted, including the
West Midlands Police, West Midlands Passenger Transport
Executive, National Exhibition Centre, National Agricultural
Centre, BBC, ITV and the Press. Proposals were tested and a full
economic study was undertaken. In July 1986 the BOA made
Birmingham the British nomination by an overwhelming majority,
ahead of London and Manchester. Bid documents were then
prepared for submission to the International Olympic Commission
(IOC). In October 1986 the IOC in Lausanne, Switzerland,
selected Barcelona to host the 1992 Summer Olympics, ahead of
Birmingham, Amsterdam, Belgrade, Brisbane and Paris. Many
people, including the authors, believe that the technical authority
of the Birmingham Bid paved the way for future successful bids
to host international sporting events by Manchester (2002
Commonwealth Games) and London (2012 Olympic Games).
Birmingham’s strategy had the principal aim of determining
whether it could host an Olympic Games that would meet the
spirit and letter of the Olympic Charter to a standard of which
the Olympic movement and the City of Birmingham would be
proud (the area’s existing facilities for sports, accommodation,
transportation, communications and infrastructure were com-
pared with the requirements and intent of the Olympic Charter
to flag up existing suitable assets and those areas of deficiency
for which development proposals should be made). The second
aim of the strategy was to evaluate costs, revenues, cash flow and
sources of funding to give a complete financial picture of achiev-
ing the principal aim (assessment was also made of the economic
impact of the Games on Birmingham and the Midlands). The third
strategic aim was to group most of the Games together, and as
close as possible to a single Olympic Village, in order to provide
a compact Games as the best means of fulfilling the Olympic
Charter (subsidiary venues should be for entire related events,
should be few in number and have fast and convenient transport
links to the Village). The fourth aim was to create any new
123
, t r a n s p o r tat i o n and infrastructure
facilities both to commemorate the Games and to be of lasting
benefit to the community. The final part of the strategy was to use
as much existing modern infrastructure as possible in order to
minimise capital spending.
Fundamental to the Bid was the ability to build the Olympic
Main Stadium and the Olympic Village at the NEC, which would
host the Olympic indoor sports including boxing, fencing, gym-
nastics, handball, judo, table tennis, volleyball, weightlifting,
wrestling and badminton. The NEC at that time comprised eight
separate but linked halls of more than 100,000m² gross area (with
clear heights of between 13.5m and 23m apart from Hall 8, clear
height 8m). The NEC’s flexible, fully serviced, air-conditioned
halls were supported by the main entrance concourse, permanent
refreshment points, toilets, offices and storage space. Within the
NEC’s landscaped grounds was permanent hard parking for
15,000 cars and 2000 coaches and a permanent infrastructure of
access roads with direct and dedicated links to the trunk road
and motorway system. Birmingham International Railway Station
was contiguous with the NEC buildings, Birmingham International
Airport lay within 1.5km (within a mile) of the NEC and there
was a Maglev link between the rail and air terminals. The NEC
directors, permanent staff and labour force were skilled and
experienced at running major international events such as the
Motor Show which ran continuously for 12 days, attracted up to
140,000 visitors per day and involved concurrent use of all the
available space.
The NEC was already planning to double its facilities in the
forthcoming 20 years. The first phase of this expansion, to provide
an additional 20,000m² by 1988, would house the Games
Technical Centre for the period up to and during the 1992
Olympics. Another 40,000m² of planned NEC expansion would
be created by roofing over the specially-built main Olympic
stadium after the event to form a giant clear span, covered exhibi-
tion and multi-purpose hall. The 40ha (88 acre) Olympic Village
for 14,000 athletes and team officials would be built using several
basic types of module to create quality demountable structures
(housing, restaurants, cinema, theatre, bank, shops) in a variety
of layouts. The structures would be designed so that, following
the Games, they could be relocated for reuse at urban renewal
sites, holiday camps or overseas development projects.
No single location can accommodate the wide diversity of
Olympic events but an attraction of the Birmingham Bid was the
exceptionally close planned correlation of most activities. Four
satellite multiple event centres were planned at Stoneleigh Park
facilities development
(equestrian events, shooting, archery and modern pentathlon),
Perry Park, Birmingham (basketball, hockey), Birmingham (new
centre for swimming, diving, water polo and synchronised swim-
ming) and Holme Pierrepont, Nottingham (rowing, canoeing,
kayaking). Three single event centres were planned at Edgbaston
Priory, Birmingham (tennis), Birmingham (new velodrome for
cycling) and Weymouth or Torbay (yachting). The Birmingham
area was already rich in facilities for football with the proposed
Olympic venues of Birmingham City FC, Aston Villa FC and West
Bromwich Albion FC each having stadium capacities exceeding
40,000 spectators with all the associated management, support,
transport, broadcasting and media infrastructure in place.
Some of the above-named locations are almost unbelievably
appropriate for hosting Olympic events. Stoneleigh Park, within
20km (12.5 miles) of the NEC is an 800ha (1,760 acre) estate
served by a road network inter-connected (by 1992) with the NEC
by the M42 and M40 motorway system. It incorporates the
National Agricultural Centre (NAC), the headquarters of the Royal
Agricultural Society of England. The NAC is a permanent estab-
lishment of 100ha (220 acres) comprising research, show, com-
pany and administration buildings, together with stock
accommodation. It is fully equipped with toilets, information
kiosks, restaurants, bars and first aid centres, with telephone and
radio paging. Included among the organisations which have their
permanent headquarters within the NAC are the British Equestrian
Federation, British Horse Society, British Show Jumping Association
and Grand National Archery Society. The NAC permanent staff
organises, administers and sets up events throughout the year.
These events include the Olympic-scale Royal Show, a seven-day
event attracting up to 100,000 visitors per day. The Grand Ring
and Collecting Ring at NAC cover 2ha (4.4 acres). For the
Olympics, the idea was to use temporary additional seating
(16,000 seats) on three sides of the Grand Ring to supplement
the 4000 capacity of the existing grandstand. Lord Leigh, owner
of the Stoneleigh Park estate, had already agreed that his wider
estate could be used for the endurance events which would
require a larger area than that available on the NAC site.
Another satellite multiple event centre was Holme Pierrepont,
planned venue for the rowing, canoeing and kayaking. This is the
National Water Sports Centre and was purpose-built to host these
sports. It had opened in 1973 and had already hosted the 1975
World Rowing Championships and the 1981 World Canoe
Championships (with the 1986 World Rowing Championships
due).
124
An example of a single event centre was Edgbaston Priory,
planned for the tennis. This is the home of Edgbaston Priory Tennis
Club, located 2km (1.25 miles) from Birmingham City Centre,
where 20 grass courts and 19 hard courts made hosting Olympic
tennis viable on either surface.
Capital costs of hosting the Games covered the costs of the
Olympic Village and the International Centre (£63.2 million) plus
local road works (£1.5  million) plus the new sports facilities
(£144.2 million). The latter figure included the Olympic Stadium
(£105  million), Swimming Centre (£20  million) and velodrome
(£6 million). Operating cost estimates included the expenditure
of the ITV/BBC broadcasting consortium and totalled £142 mil-
lion (the operating cost for the 1976 Montreal Olympics was £152
million, roughly consistent with Birmingham’s figure). Studies of
revenues and funding showed the Birmingham Olympics to be
self-financing not only on the median estimate assumptions
(which showed a surplus of over £300 million at 1985 prices and
over £400  million on an inflated basis) but also on the low
forecast.
On the basis of experience gained at Munich, Montreal and
Los Angeles, some 5,000,000 tickets would be printed for the
Birmingham Olympics, 30% of which would be distributed over-
seas. On average, each overseas visitor would have three tickets,
meaning that 500,000 people would visit the Games from abroad.
The remaining 3,500,000 tickets would be divided between UK
applicants such that 60% of total UK visitors were likely to reside
within 32km (20 miles) of the Games, 30% within 160km (100
miles) and 10% further out (staying overnight in the vicinity). It
was calculated that 164,000 bed spaces per night would be
required for visitors to the Games. Because the number of bed
spaces in the immediate vicinity was limited to 50,000 many
visitors would base themselves further out, dispersing the eco-
nomic impact of the Games over more of the country. In total,
approximately 4.25 million people were expected to visit the
Games.
The purpose of flagging up aspects of the Birmingham Olympic
Bid has been to give an impression of the challenges of master-
planning in terms of diversity of activity, complexity, sheer volume
of work and operating to tight deadlines. It is also a tribute to the
many participants in the Olympic bidding processes who put
everything into winning the big prize but do not get the oppor-
tunity to see their vision become reality.
 masterplanning , t r a n s p o r tat i o n and infrastructure

Olympian Games, Wenlock

It is a not so well-known fact that Baron de Coubertin, the founder
of the modern Olympic movement, made a point of visiting the
West Midlands in the autumn of 1890. He was there to see the
local annual ‘Olympian Games’ that had been established by Dr
William Penny Brookes (1809–1895) to ‘promote the moral,
physical and intellectual improvements of the inhabitants of the
Town and neighbourhood of Wenlock’. De Coubertin left suitably
impressed and later credited Brookes with inspiring him to form
the International Olympic Committee in 1894, which led to the
first Olympic Games of the modern era. Sadly, Brookes died just
four months before those Games were held in Athens in April
1896. Brookes’ enthusiasm for reviving the ancient Greek games
is, however, not only manifested in the modern Olympic move-
ment but also in the perpetuation of the Wenlock Olympian
Games, which were held for the 122nd time on 11–14 July 2008,
attracting athletes from all parts of the UK.

125
15.1
Harborough Leisure Centre: airdome and pitched roof (2008)
Chapter 15
Building form,
s t r u c t u re a n d f a c a d e s
Multi-sports halls
The sports hall is the core component of a sports facilities build-
ing. In the UK multi-sports halls are referred to, in terms of size,
as being able to accommodate 4, 6, 8, 9, 12 or more badminton
courts. Badminton is the yardstick, not only because it is a very
popular sport, but also because it has some of the most demand-
ing design criteria. It has the smallest court module, critical
lighting requirements and stringent background colour consider-
ations. So catering for badminton caters for some worst case
scenarios.
Design criteria derived from the ‘badminton courts’ principle
have general validity. They include the importance of clear height,
flush surfaces, consistent colours, columns and beams which run
between courts (to carry light fittings and division netting) and
external columns or columns within or partly within external
walls (never columns which project into the hall).
Different scales of sports hall provision will require corre-
spondingly different scales of ancillary accommodation incorpo-
rating changing rooms, fitness studios, equipment stores,
plantrooms, offices, meeting rooms and a foyer. Additional sports
and leisure facilities, such as swimming pools, may be provided
within the single building development or in an adjacent
building.
Building form
Sports facilities buildings, in common with other types of build-
ing, are designed using flat, pitched or curved forms. Curved
127
forms may be arches and domes, for example, and may be built
in concrete or steel or timber. The arch concept dates back more
than 4000 years, to the Babylonians who lived on the flood plain
of the River Euphrates. They cut mud into bricks and devised a
wagon vault brick arch form of construction to confer structural
strength. The Romans later built an empire using round stone
arches for vaults, bridges and connecting columns. If a very wide
arch or dome, say 200m+ (656ft+), is required then, today, steel
is the obvious choice of structural material. Steel is also the com-
mon choice for spans of 100m+ (328ft+), an example being the
10,000m² (108,000ft²) Manchester Velodrome which has a spec-
tacular 122m (400ft) main arch. If a more usual span of 100m or
less is required, then the client, architect and engineer have the
choice of using steel, concrete or timber. An appropriate criterion
of choice is economy of structural material. In the case of, say, a
dome of 100m or less, the material choices in terms of depth of
structure would rank steel above timber and timber above con-
crete. But the choice will be influenced by the relative costs of
the different materials, and alternative designs may narrow the
cost gap.
The point is that all things are possible for facilities of usual,
rather than unusual, dimensions. But the design solution should
always be a good one – one that creates value and gives pleasure
to facility users.
Roof structure
Selection criteria include foundation conditions, the necessary
spans, the nature and magnitude of the loads to be carried,
facilities development
15.2
Sports hall arch: diagonal on square grid, 90m span (1990)
lighting requirements, provision for building services, allowances
for future facilities alteration, simplicity and speed of erection
and – last-named but by no means least in importance – aesthet-
ics. John Hurst, managing director of Tubeworkers Limited, said
in the 1970s that he began selling tubular steel in construction
by offering a better-looking building for the same price as a design
in conventional steel sections (because, although the tubular steel
was more expensive, less of it was needed to fulfil the same func-
tion). So aesthetic issues are important and need not involve a
cost premium.
Short-span construction is the cheapest form of construction.
This is ruled out of sports building design because of the inherent
need for large column-free areas which offer flexibility in use.
Low clear internal height creates smaller enclosed volumes which
are cheaper to heat. This too is ruled out of sports building design
because restricting headroom restricts the sports that can be
accommodated. Lighting considerations affect, in particular, very
wide buildings, such as sports buildings, in which central areas
cannot be adequately lit from the side walls.
Within these constraints, the flat roof option offers advantages.
It restricts the enclosed volume to be heated to the minimum
commensurate with creating the requisite headroom. Minimising
the roof surface area minimises heat losses through the roof. These
considerations comply with the generally accepted point of view
that, as far as heating and lighting are concerned, the larger the
span of the roof, the lower should be the pitch of the roof.
For sports buildings, which require large roof spans and wide
column spacing, more expensive forms of construction may,
128
oddly, prove more economic in practice. For example, when rigid
frames are used to decrease the volume of the enclosed space it
is often advantageous to pitch the spanning members sufficiently
to enable the use of economic forms of sheet roof covering which,
for installation, require a fall of a few degrees.
For multi-sports halls in the UK, Sport England favours the use
of curved cellular beams as an economic form of roof structure
which provides an elegant and functional interior by avoiding a
ridge. Mill-finish standing seam aluminium is likely to offer the
best value for money for such an option.
Considerations relating to the building location may demand
a more traditional slate or tile roof. In such cases, quality pressed
sheet steel products can offer the same appearance without the
weight penalty of the genuine article.
Design development considerations
Because cost of structure is a relatively low proportion (less than
20%) of overall building cost, significant increases in cost of
structure may not significantly increase overall cost. However, in
larger buildings, such as sports facilities, an increase in cost of
structure may amount to a substantial sum of money, because the
overall cost of the building is substantial.
Many early sports halls were built as column and truss frames,
which are economic for spans up to around 30m (98ft). In such
cases, the space above eaves level is obstructed by the trusses
15.3
Colne Leisure Centre (1992)
and, over the wider spans, this represents a considerable addition
to the enclosed space.
For spans up to around 45m (148ft), ‘umbrella’ roofs or north
light roofs can be used. The north light option has lattice girders
in the plane of the ridge. Here the costs are similar, for similar
spans and support spacing, but the folded plate form does not
restrict space under the roof.
In beam effect, girder and truss type structures, economy in
material use can be achieved through increasing moments of
inertia by increasing depth of structure. But this increases building
volume, increasing capital costs (e.g. cladding) and operating
costs (e.g. heating). It may make affordable otherwise more
expensive (span for span) alternatives such as rigid frames or
arches, which delineate more closely the volumes that they
enclose. For these reasons, steel and reinforced concrete rigid
frames, square and arched, are often designed for smaller spans
even though more economic alternatives may be available.
Reinforced concrete rigid frames can prove economic up to
around a 30m span but, above that, rigid steel frames have the
advantage. Prestressed concrete may be competitive with solid
web steel designs but, as spans increase further, designers will
turn to the wider span capabilities of steel lattice girders.
Aluminium structures offer big weight savings over steel struc-
tures, and even more so over concrete structures, but only become
cost-competitive when very wide spans are involved.
The stiffness of timber, relative to its weight and cost, makes
it a valid choice for structures in which the load-carrying capac-
ity is determined by flexural rigidity (e.g. structures which are
129
large in relation to the load they carry). Such structures include
all types of roof, floors bearing light or moderate loadings and
single-storey buildings (particularly those of large height and
span). This clearly makes timber a viable option for the design
of many types of sports centre and most types of individual
sports halls and swimming pools. Timber lattice rigid frames
are effective up to and around 30m span and timber bowstring
trusses are among the options for wider spans. Laminated timber
can be used to produce very light structures in attractive forms,
such as hyperbolic paraboloid shells, elliptical domes and
vaults.
Shell concrete construction is sometimes used for sports facili-
ties buildings. It is economic in medium and wide-span roofs,
using long-span barrels of 30–45m. It may not be the equal of
steel in terms of cost and speed of erection but it is a superior
solution in terms of maintenance requirement. Shell vaults can
be prestressed and the advantage of prestressing increases with
the size of span required.
Beam effect structures (see above) include space frame sys-
tems. Sports buildings have demonstrated the potential of space
frame construction better than any other building type. Space
frames can be designed in steel, aluminium, concrete or timber.
However, it was the introduction of steel structural hollow sec-
tions which kick-started a trend of space frame construction for
sports and leisure buildings. This is because tubular sections are
more easily joined at any angle and their higher performance in
compression produces lighter structures, particularly over large
spans.
15.4
I M Marsh Sports Hall, Liverpool (1993)
Efficient and economic long-span roof structures for sports
buildings can be achieved using tubular steel and conventional
steel sections in combination, with the tubes acting as the com-
pression members and the conventional sections acting as the
tension members. Fixing is carried out more quickly in such cases
because steelwork erectors can walk on the flat surfaces of con-
ventional steel sections more easily than they can walk on round,
square or rectangular tubes.
Facades
One of the simplest, shortest and best definitions of a facade is
‘the exterior front or face of a building’. This definition incorpo-
rates facings, which require continuous background structure,
and claddings, which create weatherproof enclosures by spanning
between the elements of a building’s structure.
Facings include brickwork, which is better known in load-
bearing construction. Solid masonry walls have the strength in
130
compression to produce economic small-scale buildings of all
types where planning requirements are not limited by their use.
Reinforced masonry walls can additionally withstand tensile and
shear stresses, which has led to their successful use in seismic
zones. However, brickwork also has the weathering properties,
aesthetic appearance and range of colour to make it an appropri-
ate facing to structural materials such as concrete, in which case
the bricks need not be bonded and different types of straight
jointed patterns may be used. Apart from the brickwork option,
there are facing slabs of many different types, including natural
stone (available in a vast range of colours, finishes and strengths),
cast stone (made with a crushed stone aggregate and cement),
concrete, terrazzo, terracotta and faience. Further facing options
include hanging tiles and slates, permanent shuttering, timber
facings, metal facings, plastics and glass.
Claddings carry their own weight and eliminate the need for
continuous background structure. Examples include precast con-
crete panels, glass curtain walling and profiled sheeting in plastics
or metals. Precast concrete panels are kept down in weight by
casting the panel body with a slender profile and casting ribs at
15.5
Tipton Leisure Centre (1998)
the edges and, on larger panels, at intermediate positions. They
can be designed to span vertically between floors, from which
they obtain their support, or horizontally between columns. Glass
curtain walling, with stainless steel or non-ferrous metal fixings,
must be capable of resisting wind forces and of transmitting them
to the structure. Glass reinforced plastic (GRP) cladding panels
are lightweight, easily mouldable and capable of spanning large
areas one or two storeys high. Sheet metal cladding, generally
steel or aluminium, is profiled to confer the necessary stiffness
between fixing rails. The sheets can be fixed directly to the rails,
lined with insulating material or fabricated with internal and
external metal surfaces sandwiching insulating material.
Even the most modern of these materials has been with us for
longer than people might think. For example, the facades of the
1892-built Norrbotten-Kuriren newspaper office in Luleå,
Sweden, were handmade in sheet steel units to give the appear-
ance of brickwork. In the 1970s Swedish architect Bertil Franklin
designed Luleå University wholly in coloured sheet steel, dem-
onstrating to the world the wider, non-industrial, potential for
this type of construction. Franklin, also a sports centre designer,
wrote that:
131
‘Profiled sheet steel and its use on facades is characterised
by: deep or shallow profile; scale; harmony; contrast; sur-
face structure; colour. The pattern of the profiled sheet steel
looks either smooth or bold. Research has shown that bold-
ness is not only dependent on the depth of the section: the
width of the top is of equal importance. Horizontal profile
pattern strengthens the shadowing effects when the weather
is cloudy. On a facade observed from the side, the shadow
lines disappear on a vertical pattern but not on a horizontal
one. The facades change character depending on the direc-
tion of the light’.
The reason for dwelling on Luleå University is that, a decade
after its construction, sheet steel was being used in the UK for
the SASH centres (Chapter 7) making up the biggest sports facili-
ties development programme the world had known. Sport
England’s Design Guidance Note ‘Sports Halls: Design’ advises
that, when selecting materials for external walls, consideration
should be given to the following points:
15.6
Dalplex Arena, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia:
aerial view (1975)
• Successful external claddings can include colour-coated steel.
Where profiled metal is used this looks better when run
horizontally.
• Cedarboarding can be appropriate, is cheaper than metal
cladding and requires no maintenance.
• Metal cladding used above lower-level brickwork gives an
industrial appearance which may be inappropriate.
• External windows and door frames must be in powder-coated
aluminium or galvanised steel, UPVC or hardwood.
When selecting cladding materials, points to consider include:
range of profiles available; choice of colours available; consis-
tency of colour between batches; texture of finish; internal finish;
need for protection before installation; formability, for making
flashings; resistance to damage after installation; time to first
maintenance; anticipated service life; resistance to ultra-violet
light; chalking resistance; abrasion resistance; installed cost.
132
Air-supported structures
An example of innovation in stainless steel design is the Sports
Centre at Dalhousie University, Nova Scotia, which was built 35
years ago. Here a membrane of 1.6mm thick stainless steel covers
an area 73m × 91m (240ft × 299ft). The roof design eliminated
the need for roof trusses or internal supporting members. A mod-
est increase in air pressure circulated by ventilating fans supports
the dome-shaped roof, which rises by 3m (10ft) at the centre.
Advanced technologies
Computing power has had, and continues to have, a profound
effect on the visualisation and realisation of both traditional and
new forms of construction, including forms of sports facilities
construction. Technical developments include computer-aided
design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacture (CAM), leading
up to computer-integrated manufacture (CIM).
15.7
Palavela, Turin: Winter Olympics 2006 ice skating facility (2005)
Computerised design had been first used by the British con-
struction industry in the complex engineering design of the
Sydney Opera House in the 1960s. By the 1970s digital technol-
ogy had become the ‘giant step for construction mankind’. Its
potential fed out from design to fabrication and erection, and
back again, creating a new holistic process that would revolu-
tionise ways of working and open up vast new frontiers to building
designers.
Designers and fabricators began working in more integrated
ways to realise complex, challenging structures for traditional and
new markets: taller structures, wider span structures and new types
of structure. The enhancements and efficiencies gained were fed
back into the industry’s mainstream activities. One significant col-
laborative project was computer-integrated manufacture (CIM).
Steel is manufactured under highly controlled conditions. Steel
sections have precise dimensions and properties. They can easily
be machined, cut, folded, bolted and welded. These attributes
created massive potential for innovation in the digital era.
Complex building developments could be computer-modelled
and visualised because of both the predictability of the products
133
and their well-documented common attributes. Other building
materials such as timber and concrete did not necessarily lend
themselves so well to this approach.
Meeting mechanical retooling needs and the resultant demands
of economy of scale had hitherto been constraining factors on
production. Now the reprogramming of digital milling equipment
would incur only a modest cost premium, making viable the
production of short runs of standard components. It would make
feasible the construction of buildings based upon increasingly
complex Euclidean geometries and non-geometric, amorphic
ordering systems. The advantages would feed through to on-site
assembly processes.
The authors were privileged to see a demonstration of the UK’s
first computer-controlled steelwork fabrication system, as installed
at the Bristol works of Robert Watson & Co (Steelwork) Limited
in 1979. During the 1980s major steps forward were made in
computerising steelwork fabrication techniques. By the late 1980s
attention had turned to the potential for CIM.
At this time the European structural steelwork industry
amounted to around 10%, in money terms, of the European
facilities development
15.8
New English National Stadium, Wembley, London:
315m span main arch under construction (2005)
construction industry. It employed more than 200,000 people
directly and up to 600,000 people indirectly. The European market
for structural steelwork was estimated in 1988 to be between 7
billion and 9 billion Ecu. This represented approximately 5 mil-
lion tonnes of erected steelwork. The major consuming countries
were the UK (1.26  million tonnes in 1988), West Germany
(921,000 tonnes in 1987), France (700,000 tonnes in 1986) and
Italy (610,000 tonnes in 1988). The market share of structural
134
steel compared with in-situ and precast concrete varied from one
country to another; concrete held the dominant share in France
but effective marketing had gained steel the premier position in
the UK.
The Cimsteel (computer-integrated manufacture of structural
steelwork) project was undertaken to place the European struc-
tural steelwork industries in a world-leading position for the
1990s. It was developed and coordinated within the Eureka initia-
tive, a collaborative framework to promote research and develop-
ment projects between European firms.
In the late 1980s, computers were still being used principally
to generate paper output, which necessitated subsequent physical
transfer of the data between people and places. CIM’s aim was
to develop the techniques and systems to enable information to
be very efficiently generated on, exchanged between and pro-
cessed by computers. This would, for example, make possible
24-hour working on major, challenging, complex projects through
the electronic transfer every eight hours of project documentation
between members of the design team located in three different
time zones.
CIM Phase 1 took a little over 18 months and was completed
in December 1988. The project team used functional and data
analysis modelling techniques to break down the processes in
which structural steel was designed, fabricated and erected.
High-level functional analysis models were created and their
extension provided the basis of the necessary information stan-
dards. A complete product (structural steel) information data-
base was generated, commencing with the client brief and
expanding during design and fabrication. The collaborating
team members investigated standards, structural design and
analysis software, and computer-aided design (CAD). One detail
system, BOCAD, was used to prototype interfaces between
design and manufacture. BOCAD was chosen for its system of
macros, which was capable of automatically generating steel-
work connection details. The prototyping included the linking
of a design and analysis software package, FASTRAK, with
BOCAD to carry out the design, analysis and detailed design
of a two-storey steel structure in a fully-computerised manner,
with direct digital transfer of all information. The outcome was
the product information database, or ‘product model’ using
ISO-STEP (International Standards Organization – Standard for
the Exchange of Product Model Information) terminology. The
product model was the complete record of the steelwork struc-
ture to which, and from which, any appropriate information

could be added or retrieved during the design and construction
processes, and afterwards.
Fundamentally, CIM linked CAD with computer-aided manu-
facture (CAM). In CIM Phase 1 a mock-up of a CAD/CAM link
between BOCAD and computer-controlled machine tools, includ-
ing a welding robot, was successfully carried out. GRASP software
was used by the Welding Institute to simulate and program the
welding robot.
CIM Phase 2 involved producing improved design and analysis
software, compatible with the product model, and creating a
European environment in which standards and design models
were amenable to efficient computerised solutions. A key Phase
2 activity involved producing a modular manufacturing informa-
tion system (MIS). This incorporated improved computerised
management techniques, for planning and control of the manu-
facturing operation, and provided the mechanisms for integration
of CAD with the direct digital control of machine tools and their
associated production processes. The MIS was developed for
compatibility with the product model and to provide an essential
element of the future CIM system. As in design, the manufacturing
activities addressed wider issues, including the development of
a European quality assurance system and a European structural
steelwork specification.
CIM Phase 2 was completed in 1998. It improved the com-
petitiveness of the UK constructional steelwork industry and
generated a range of outputs including the MIS specifications,
business modelling and re-engineering publications. The work
was subsequently extended (with the Steel Construction Institute,
the British Constructional Steelwork Association and Mace Ltd)
to optimise solutions for steel framed multi-storey buildings.
CIM was necessary before other hugely important research
and development initiatives in the constructional steelwork and
building industries could take place. Prominent among these, in
2008, is Computational Design and Optimisation (CDO). CDO
involves formalising design tasks so that iterative computation,
both interactive and automated, can be used to find feasible and
performance-driven design alternatives that would be difficult to
arrive at using only conventional computing and design pro-
cesses. CDO builds on other emerging design technologies
including algorithmic design, three-dimensional parametric and
associative geometry, performance-based design and integrated
design tools.
An insight into the advantages of these processes was provided
by Mark Arkinstall, an engineer on the Beijing National Swimming
135
building form , structure and facades
Centre (the Water Cube) for the Beijing 2008 Olympics. He con-
sidered CDO essential in finding a feasible solution for this pool’s
complex roof system, which consists of 25,000 steel members.
Iterative search methods were employed to satisfy necessary
design constraints, according to the Chinese steel design code,
and to increase structural efficiency. This project demonstrates
the application of CDO to realise inspirational building designs
which are not possible using conventional design methods and
analysis.
Kate McDougall is an engineer working on stadium projects.
In April 2008 she said:
‘Stadia are all unique and they always incorporate complex
geometry. Coordinating their design, planning and con-
struction involves making many changes and updates
throughout the project’s life cycle. This process is enhanced
and facilitated through the use of 3D digital models. The
software allows us to save costs by developing a route to
manufacture early in the project and also by allowing us
to make use of standard components to improve quality
and make financial savings’.
MJ Long once said:
‘Much of twentieth century architectural experimentation
has used steel to make lighter and lighter buildings whose
weight, precision of manufacture, and assembly techniques
can be measured against other industrial products. This in
turn has led to the development of cooling systems, shading
systems, and sophisticated insulation and cladding materi-
als to counteract the loss of mass’.
MJ had pinpointed the way in which developments in steel con-
struction would stimulate developments in construction as a
whole. CIM and CDO are realising the vision.
16.1
Chaska, Minnesota: volleyball (2007)
Chapter 16

Indoor sports surfaces

Sprung floors • solid rubber;

• vinyl composition tile (VCT).
A sprung floor is a floor that absorbs shocks, so facilitating
dance and indoor sports by enhancing performance and reduc- Maple was the first choice material (Bookwalter, 1947) for the
ing injury. Athletes and acrobats have for centuries understood performance surfaces of the early dance studios and sports halls,
the advantages of sprung take-offs and landings. Regarding and is still a favourite. Basketball floors, for example, are highly
dancing, those of you who’ve seen the John Ford film engineered surfaces made of three-quarter inch (19mm) thick
Wagonmaster (1950) may recall a scene in which the settlers tongue-and-groove northern hard maple laid on plywood and
dance to fiddle music on timber planks laid on the sand, en supported by sleepers. (Northern hard maple is produced from
route to their destination in the San Juan River country, south- trees grown north of the 35th parallel, where shorter growing
eastern Utah territory, in 1849. The first sprung floor (that the seasons and longer winters produce maple with a closer, more
authors know of) was installed in the ballroom incorporated in uniform grain.)
the prime ministerial residence in Wellington, New Zealand,
circa 1872. Subsequently sprung floors were installed for dance
halls in embassies, hotels and private members’ clubs in the
USA and Europe. With the 1920s came a surge of enthusiasm
for music and dancing which led to the construction of large
public dance halls and the widespread installation of sprung
floors. This form of floor construction was then adopted for
indoor sports facilities, initially for sports halls associated with
the Berlin Olympics of 1936.
The top layer of a sprung floor is known as the ‘performance
surface’ and the remainder is often referred to as the ‘sub-floor’
(although, confusingly, the term sub-floor may also be used to
refer to the concrete or other material beneath a sprung floor).
Performance surfaces include:

• resilient pure vinyl;

• wood;
• poured urethane; 16.2
• polypropylene interlocking tile; Gymnasium: footwear and sports surface interaction

137
16.3
Western High School, Washington DC (circa 1899)
The earlier sprung floors were cushioned mechanically (some
still are, principally for acrobatic and cheerleading applications).
Most modern sprung floors are, however, supported by foam
backing, rubber mounts or neoprene pads. Features include: an
optimum amount of ‘spring’ to return energy when lifting feet;
absorption of the energy of falls; appropriate traction; elimination
of sideways movement; area elasticity (rather than point elastic-
ity); appropriate colour (to enhance participation in dance or
sport, and viewing of these activities); imperviousness to liquid
spillages and other incidents which present dangers to dancers
or sports participants. The requirements are complicated by the
fact that, nowadays, relatively few sprung floors are activity-
specific. Most have to cater for multi-purpose usage and have to
be able to accommodate temporary seating and individual heavy
objects (such as a piano or loaded mats trolley).
Sports halls designed with sprung floors in mind have required
an allowance in depth of at least 100mm (approximately 4in) for
the floor. This need has been a major constraint to laying a sprung
floor in a hall not designed for it, impacting not only on the hall
itself but also on door clearances and the levels of adjacent rooms
and access ways. Designs have been developed to enable a sprung
floor to be installed in a shallower depth of 50mm (approximately
2in) and some sprung floors developed for refurbishment projects
have as shallow a depth as 30mm (1.2in approximately).
138
EN 14904: 2006 –
indoor sports surfaces
EN 14904 ‘Surfaces for sports areas – indoor surfaces for multi-
sports use. Specification’ was published in April 2006 by the
Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) on behalf of the
27-nation European Union (EU). The first part of the new European
Norm covers safety and the second part covers technical require-
ments. It contains definitions, describes test methods and gives
minimum or maximum criteria. Previously, companies could
quote different standards for different countries, which was com-
plicated and confusing for customers. By setting a minimum and
consistent standard for sports halls in the EU, wherever they are
located, EN 14904 makes it easier to compare different types of
sports floors in terms of their compliance with minimum safety
and performance standards.
In June 2006 EN 14904: 2006 superseded DIN 18032-2, the
German athletic surface standard, with which many indoor sports
surfacing manufacturers in USA, Canada and Europe had been
complying. Its application was demonstrated that year in sports
hall developments associated with World Cup Germany 2006.
All the EU countries and Iceland, Norway and Switzerland now
use the European Norm.
In the UK from 30 June 2006, BS EN 14904: 2006 superseded
BS 7044 part 4, which had been supported by the UK insurance
industry as embodying a minimum specification for sports hall
16.4
Sports surfaces
floors from which causal claims for sports injuries could be
defended. Sports floors which had met BS 7044 part 4 as a mini-
mum standard now have to comply with the EN 14904 standard,
which defines a sports floor in terms of its:
• vertical deformation < 5mm (to reduce the risk of injuries
sustained by diving and falling);
• force reduction/shock absorption > 25% (to reduce injuries
such as shin splints, caused by jarring and vibration);
• uniform friction to optimise grip/slip performance across the
surface;
• vertical ball bounce which is true and consistent across the
floor;
• resistance to indentation, rolling loads and impact (especially
when the floor is used for sporting and non-sporting activities,
and where bleacher seating may be used);
• abrasion resistance, to ensure durability and performance;
• correct light reflection, for sighted and visually-impaired sports
participants who need to see line markings while moving at
speed.
Sport England advises designers also to refer to CEN 217 for the
design of some sports floors (particularly where higher level
competition such as badminton is anticipated) and acknowledges
that a sprung floor may require an alternative solution where
indoor cricket is to be catered for (in which case ECB Technical
Specification TS-6 should be referred to).
139
Conformity with EN 14904 is demonstrated by an initial type
testing and a factory production control (FPC). The FPC requirement
is deemed to be met by manufacturers that are ISO 9001 certified.
Products meeting the essential requirements (ERs – see Chapter 11)
are permitted to use the CE mark. In this case the ERs relate to:
• friction;
• durability;
• reaction to fire;
• shock absorbency;
• the release of dangerous substances.
DIN 18032-2
The idea of quality assurance for sports surfaces originated in
Germany in the late 1970s. DIN standards were developed by
the Otto Graf Institute, affiliated with the University of Stuttgart,
Germany. Using the ‘Artificial Athlete Berlin’ apparatus, which
simulated the response of a typical athlete’s interaction with a
sports surface, tests were applied to point elastic (synthetic), area
elastic (wood), combination and mixed flooring systems. The
German initiative led to the DIN Standard 18032 Part II (1991)
and the DIN Pre-Standard 18032 Part II (2001); the pre-standard
replaced the 1991 version of the standard within Germany but
was not universally accepted outside Germany.
facilities development
Table 16.1  Test area elastic systems: requirement to
which each test point must comply without averaging
(source: DIN 18032-2 standard)
Test Requirement
Force reduction Min. 53%
Vertical deformation Min. 2.3mm
Behaviour under rolling load 1500N
Ball rebound Min. 90%
Sliding coefficient 0.4–0.6
Extent of deformation trough Max 15% (4 directions)
DIN 18032-2 has now been superseded by EN 14904: 2006
but the DIN standard remains important because it has been used
for sports surfaces which will be with us for years to come and
it embodies well-developed test methods and requirements for
indoor sports surfacing that promote resilience and durability. The
DIN 18032-2 standard requires testing of the characteristics in
Table 16.1.
Force reduction quantifies the ability of a designed surface to
cushion impact. This ‘shock absorption’ value is expressed as a
percentage of the value resulting from the same impact on a
concrete surface. So the higher the figure the softer the surface,
with a minimum 53% quoted in the DIN standard. Correct shock
absorption reduces fatigue and lowers the risk of injuries to knee
joints and ankles.
Vertical deformation is a measurement of the vertical deflec-
tion or bending of a surface at the point of impact. The higher
the figure the softer the surface, with a minimum 2.3mm quoted
in the DIN standard. Inadequate energy return in an aerobic floor
causes sore ankles and unsafe conditions for strenuous exercise.
Conversely, excessive energy return increases injury risks due to
trampoline-type effects.
Behaviour under rolling load is a pass or fail test, which verifies
the ability of a surface construction to withstand a heavy load roll-
ing across it. A loaded wheel is used to perform the test and a
minimum 1500N (33.75lbf), representing a pass, indicates foot
stability adequate to reduce foot roll-over and associated injuries.
Ball rebound is the measurement of the rebound height of a
ball that has been dropped from a set height onto the surface.
This test result is expressed as a percentage of the rebound height
of the same ball dropped on to a concrete surface. A higher
140
percentage means a higher rebound, with a minimum 90% quoted
in the DIN standard.
Sliding coefficient is a test of the finishing product applied to
the surface system. A leather-lined test foot dummy is rotated
down onto the surface and the ‘drag’ curve recorded. The result
is expressed as a decimal figure and the higher the figure, the
more resistant the surface is to sliding. The DIN standard quotes
a range of 0.4–0.6 because both too little and too much slide can
cause problems of rotational and pivoting motions which strain
human joints. Aerobic flooring at the median figure of 0.5 pro-
vides for the demands of platform and other high-impact
routines.
Extent of deformation trough is a measure of the vertical
deflection or bending of a surface system recorded in multiple
directions at a distance of 50cm (19.7in) from the point of impact.
This value is expressed as a percentage of the vertical deformation
at the point of impact. The higher the percentage the greater is
the spread of the trough to the surrounding area. An ideal sports
surface reduces the spread of the trough to 15% or less in any
direction. This is because, without proper impact isolation, sports
participants’ movements can interfere with each other, increasing
the possibilities of injury.
Sports hall floor coverings
Sports halls can rarely be reserved exclusively for athletic or
dance activities. They are of a size and flexibility of use which
gives them amenity value or revenue-earning potential for public
or private assemblies, social events and cultural and entertain-
ment purposes. It would, however, clearly be counter-productive
to use a sports hall for such other purposes if the additional rev-
enue generated were to be offset by damage, and hence cost,
caused to the valuable performance surface.
Sports hall coverings date back to the late 1960s. They are
used to prevent slip and fall accidents while at the same time
protecting the underlying performance surface from damage
caused by the movement of people or heavy objects. Types of
floor covering material include carpeting, linoleum, vinyl, poly-
ethylene and polyester. Typical material attributes include colour,
filament size, weave count, weight, tear strength, tensile strength,
adhesion, coefficient of friction, slip resistance, hydrostatic resis-
tance, and fire resistance.
Sports floors life cycle costing
Due to the variety of floors and floor coverings available, sports
facilities owners, operators and managers should consider life
cycle costing when deciding what flooring to have installed. The
installed cost for each floor option under consideration is capital
cost + installation cost + floor covering cost + any equipment cost.
The maintenance cost is maintenance materials cost per annum
+ labour cost per annum (average labour rate per hour × total
hours worked per annum) × anticipated life in years and fractions
of years of floor. Whole life cost (installed cost + maintenance
cost) is divided by anticipated life in years for each floor option
under consideration to give a comparative cost per annum.

Specifying indoor sports surfaces

For the life cycle costing calculation to be capable of validation,
manufacturers must quote to a common specification. An indoor
sports surface materials specification will include some, even all,
of the following for the floor and, if appropriate, the floor cover-
ing: dimensions (width, length, thickness); texture; colour; weight;
abrasion resistance; static load limit; dynamic load limit; chemical
resistance; compression set; dimensional stability; fungus resis-
tance; critical radiant flux; hardness; sound insulation; ball
rebound; force reduction (shock absorption); area deflection;
coefficient of friction; light reflection; line paint; adhesive. The
sports facilities design team, incorporating its facilities owner
representative(s), may also require that the indoor sports surface
system under consideration has been on the market for a specified
number of years, will be manufactured in ISO 9001/ISO 14001
certified plant and is supplied/installed by a contractor/distributor
approved by the system manufacturer and experienced in similar
constructions over a specified number of years.
16.5
Sutton Arena, Surrey: indoor pole vault (2003)
cleaning processes themselves. In the sports facilities that the
authors use, the cleaning is excellent but the cleaners themselves
are never seen, except in an emergency. This is because they
always try always to clean the different parts of the building dur-
ing those times when people are not using them. They plan not
only to carry out their work with minimal disruption, but also to
ensure that surfaces are dry before they are in use again. Cleaning
staff can always be usefully consulted in any attempt to optimise
the cleaning process because they work closer to the building
than anybody else.

Cleaning indoor sports surfaces
Certain generalisations are applicable to sports surfaces, as to any
indoor surface area in public use: people rarely slip on clean, dry
floors; the principal cause of trip injuries is floors in poor condi-
tion and/or bad housekeeping; hazards can be introduced by the
Gym mats
Gym mats are manufactured in all sorts of materials, linear dimen-
sions, thicknesses and colours to suit a wide variety of sports-hall
activities including gymnastics, aerobics, cheerleading, physical
education, Pilates and yoga. They may be water-resistant, fire-
retardant and have anti-bacterial properties.

141
16.6
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:
the Scottish Exhibition and Conference Centre (SECC)
The wider and thicker (non-folding) gym mats are heavy and
awkward to carry, and may be distributed around the sports hall
using a gym mat trolley. Such trolleys often have a welded tubular
steel frame, to eliminate sharp edges, with a wooden platform for
the mats. They may use wheels, fixed castors and swivel castors
– braked as appropriate.
Indoor pole vault
Pole vault beds need about 50m³ (1766ft³) of space. Their soft
landing mattresses contain foam filling, which is a fire hazard.
These should be stored within 1.5m (4.9ft) of fire sprinkler nozzles
or, better still, in separate, fire-resistant steel containers or out-
houses. Storage requirements for pole vault stands are 4m (13.1ft)
minimum ceiling height and 30m² (232ft²) of floor space, if
stacked horizontally. Units must be fastened for storage in accor-
dance with manufacturers’ recommendations. Specialist mobile
142
covers are available but, when the pole vault is in progress, these
covers must always be completely clear of the landing area. In
the USA in 2002 the National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) made padding around the base of the standards holding
the cross-bar mandatory, to improve safety. This padding had
previously been recommended but not required. If spectators are
present in the sports hall where the pole vault is taking place
then, in common with other field events, the performance area
should be distanced from the spectator seating.
Boxing rings
The boxing ring is a raised, square platform with a canvas surface
overlying approximately 1in (25.4mm) of padding. Flexible ropes
are secured to steel posts at the four corners of the ring. The
dimensions of the ring depend on the organisation under whose
auspices the boxing contest is staged. Rings range in size from
16.7
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:
Kelvinhall International Sports Arena
16ft × 16ft (4.8m × 4.8m) for smaller rings up to 20ft × 20ft (6m
× 6m) Olympic standard and above – to approximately 25ft ×
25ft (7.6m × 7.6m).
Wrestling rings
Wrestling rings generally comprise an elevated steel beam and
wood plank stage, covered by foam padding and a canvas mat.
The sides are then covered with an ‘apron’ to prevent spectators
from seeing underneath. Around the ring are three cables, the
‘ring ropes’, encased in tubing (e.g. rubber hosing) and held up
by turnbuckles. Ring dimensions range from approximately 14ft
× 14ft (4.25m × 4.25m) up to 20ft × 20ft (6m × 6m), with the
18ft × 18ft (5.5m × 5.5m) version being regarded as standard in
the USA and Canada. The apron area of the ring floor extends
1– 2ft (30–60cm) beyond the ropes and the ring floor is generally
3–4ft (90–1.2m) above the ground. Rings may have a suspension
143
system with a large coil spring underneath the stage to reduce
the impact of a fall. Softer springs are safer for the competitors
but stiffer springs provide a more realistic visual experience for
spectators. A newer style of ring construction uses a ‘flexi-beam’,
instead of a spring, to transfer impact forces to the steel beams.
The term ‘squared circle’ is often used to refer to the wrestling
ring. This originates from Greco-Roman wrestling, where the
action takes place on a square mat with a circle painted on it.
This format is still used in amateur wrestling.
Velodromes
A velodrome will normally be among the new sports facilities
built for an Olympic Games or Commonwealth Games. An
example is the Dunc Gray Olympic Velodrome built for Sydney
2000 which, with its 130m × 100m span steel grid shell roof, is
one of the largest structures of its type in the world. It was also
16.8
Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games:
Chris Hoy Velodrome
a world’s first in terms of construction sequence, erection being
completed in record time without using temporary falsework or
props (leaving the interior free for ongoing construction). Other
achievements included sustainable design, the integration of
acoustics and noise control into a naturally-ventilated building
and a state-of-the-art stormwater environmental quality control
system featuring a water ‘polishing’ pond.
Modern velodromes have steeply-banked oval tracks of two
180° circular banks connected by two straights. Outdoor tracks
may be constructed of timber trusswork surfaced with rainforest
wood strips. Indoor velodromes are usually built with less expen-
sive pine surfaces. An alternative is the type of synthetic surface,
supported on steel frames, that was introduced for the 1996
Atlanta Olympics. Tracks may range from 133m (436ft) to 500m
(1640ft). Olympic standard velodromes may only measure
between 250m and 400m, and the length must be such that a
whole or half number of laps gives a distance of 1km. The smaller
the track, the steeper is the banking – a 250m track banks around
45° and a 333m track banks around 32°. Shorter, newer and
Olympic standard tracks tend to be in wood or synthetic materi-
als. Longer, older or less expensive tracks may be in concrete,
144
macadam or sometimes cinder. The track infield (the ‘apron’) is
separated from the track by a blue band (the côte d’azur). A 5cm
(approximately 2in) wide black line, 20cm above the blue band,
has an inner edge which defines the length of the track. The
outside edge of a 5cm wide red line (the ‘sprinter’s line’) is located
90cm above the inside of the track. The zone between the red
and black lines is the optimum route around the track. A rider
leading in this zone cannot be passed on the inside – other riders
must pass on the longer outside route. Design challenges include
the fact that, although a cyclist and bike may have a combined
weight of less than 100kg (220lb), allowance has to be made for
motor pacing which may involve four cyclists trailing four motor
cycles at 85kmh (53mph). This will create massive centrifugal
force through, say, a 24m radius curve, such that even a sprint
cyclist can be subject to a 4g force through the final curve, which
equates to half a tonne on the wheels.
 indoor sports surfaces

16.9
Tomb of Kheti, Beni Hassan, Egypt: carving (2100–1900BC)

Back to the future

Among the carvings in the tomb of Kheti at Beni Hassan (Egypt’s
Middle Kingdom, approximately 2040–1640bc) there is a depic-
tion of two boys sitting back-to-back with arms intertwined and
legs outstretched. The point of their game seems to be either to
move the opponent from his position or to stand up from the
sitting position. Archaeologists have referred to the boys as ‘sitting
on the ground’. This is not so – it is clear to the authors that one
boy is seated on the ground and the other is seated on a slightly
raised surface. Could the raised surface be a ‘gym mat’, in use
well before the gymnasium was invented in ancient Greece
(1100–146bc)? Could the difference in seated height of the two
boys, created by the mat, be fundamental to the rules of the game
being played?

145
17.1
Harborough Leisure Centre: Spinning Hall ceiling (2008)
Chapter 17

Heating, ventilating
a n d a i r- c o n d i t i o n i n g

Introduction Ventilation strategy

Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) are means by Many ventilation strategy options are available from within the
which a controlled thermal environment is created within a build- three categories of totally natural, totally mechanical and mixed
ing. In the case of sports facilities, the aim is not only to achieve mode (a combination of natural and mechanical). Natural ventila-
comfortable conditions for the building users but also conditions tion, which uses the pressure differential of the external and
which enhance user performance. Thermal comfort depends on internal environment, requires little or no energy input. Mechanical
the temperature of the air surrounding the human body, the tem- ventilation can be provided by a fan system designed to meet
perature of adjacent surfaces, the relative humidity of the air and specific air-change requirements, occupancy levels and user
movement by the air. It is a complicated business because it has
to take into account the building users, building contents and the
building fabric.
Additional complications of achieving thermal comfort for
sports buildings arise because many very different activities take
place within them. Even similar types of activity may demonstrate
differences in appropriate thermal comfort. For example, the
American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommends a
temperature of 60–68°F (15.5–20°C) for court sports but a tem-
perature of 60–65°F (15.5–18.3°C) for squash courts (with, in
each case, relative humidity of 60% or less and 8–12 air exchanges
per hour for enclosed courts). Appropriate temperatures for dif-
ferent types of general activity pursued within sports buildings
range from circa 68°F (20°C) for heavier-clothed winter activities
to circa 70°F (21°C) for lightly-clothed summer activities, circa
72°F (22°C) for all-year-round sedentary activities and circa 78°F
(26°C) for bathing and showering (a temperature that would
otherwise cause drowsiness).
A further complication is the fact that the rate of heat flow
through most media between points of different thermal potential
is slow. Account has therefore to be taken of ‘thermal lag’ or 17.2
‘thermal inertia’. Barnsley Metrodome (1993)

147
17.3
Barnsley Metrodome (1993)
activities (associated heat recovery systems can reduce the cost
of cooling or heating incoming air by recovering energy from
cool or warm exhaust air). Mixed-mode ventilation uses natural
ventilation but with air-conditioning, operated at part-load, to
heat or cool as demand increases or climate changes.
Designing heating and
cooling systems
Heating and cooling plant is needed to achieve and maintain a
constant and desirable internal temperature, balancing out heat
gains and losses by transferring heat between airstreams, from
building areas of heat gain to building areas of heat loss. Plant
148
sizing is based on the characteristics of the building fabric, the
building orientation, data collected on the extreme external
temperature variations and solar conditions, and data collected
on the building’s internal sources of heat gain and loss.
Variations in heat loss throughout the day can, assuming a
constant warm indoor temperature, be calculated from the exter-
nal temperature data by applying an equation of thermal transmit-
tance for the building fabric. Internal heat gains can be computed
from the heat output of the various activities taking place within
the building together with the outputs of heat-emitting fittings,
devices and equipment in use. The other inputs to the calculation
(building fabric and building orientation/solar gain) suggest that
HVAC issues need to be considered at early stages in the planning
and design processes.
Criteria determining the sizing and selection of the ventilation
system include:
17.4
Airdrie Leisure Pool (1997)
• introduction of adequate quantities of fresh air for building
users;
• removal of impure air and odours;
• control of humidity levels;
• control of summertime internal temperatures;
• control of temperature throughout the year, where the ventila-
tion system is also used for space heating;
• sports-driven requirements such as the need to maintain low
air movement in playing zones (e.g. air velocity of less than
0.1m/sec for badminton);
• acoustics, noise and vibration.
Adequate indoor air quality (IAQ) cannot be achieved without
adequate ventilation. Poor IAQ leads to sick building syndrome.
HVAC systems incorporate filters to clean air but, if the filters
are dirty or damp – or if there is uncontrolled moisture in ducts
149
or drip pans – then the HVAC system can itself become a source
of pollution. This flags up the crucial importance of systems
maintenance, through efficient facilities management, which will
not only maintain IAQ but will also decrease operating costs
(because properly-maintained equipment operates more
efficiently).
Multidisciplinary team approach
When the HVAC engineering of sports facilities is considered,
clear benefits can be seen from deliberate joining up of the plan-
ning, building design and facility management processes.
Fundamentally, user demands established in the planning stages
determine the size of building required, and the requisite size
facilities development
can be provided in ways which optimise the layout of the facilities
contained and the cost of servicing them.
For example, rate of heat transfer is proportional to surface
area (Chapter 15: Building form, structure and facades). The layout
of sports facilities within a building envelope, and location of the
spaces which need to be heated and cooled, are therefore of
fundamental importance to the control of the building’s running
costs because the heating load in a building of given volume will
be greater if the facilities are dispersed in layout than if they are
of compact layout. The compact layout also reduces the distance
of the primary heating or cooling source from the spaces to be
heated and cooled, and user demands (for building services),
together with user distance (from primary heating or cooling
source), are determinants in the sizing calculations of ductwork
and pipework. These criteria impact on both spatial and cost
considerations. However, if a building is so compact that excess
internal heat gains cannot be dissipated, then an excessive cool-
ing load will be generated, which will be costly to manage. These
issues are best addressed holistically in an interdisciplinary team-
working approach.
Energy efficiency
Global warming and rising energy costs are rapidly and irrevers-
ibly raising the importance of excellence in HVAC design. For
example, in England and Wales in 2006 Building Regulations
required, for the first time, energy-efficient systems in buildings
that are air-conditioned or mechanically ventilated. Part L2 of the
Building Regulations 2006 addresses the performance of air-
conditioning and mechanical ventilation systems that serve floor
areas of more than 200m² (2150ft²) by:
• targeting reductions in load (and therefore emissions) by
improving building materials and building design;
• targeting improved efficiencies and performances in energy-
using devices such as chillers and fans;
• promoting the use of energy-recovery devices.
These are major changes in the Building Regulations, neces-
sitating that the carbon footprint of a new building must better
the 2002 standard by up to 28%. Improvements have to be dem-
onstrated at planning application stage, by calculation, and when
150
the building is completed, by air-tightness testing. With specific
regard to air-tightness, the leakage allowance is reduced from
12m³/h/m² to 10m³/h/m² at 50Pa (significantly reducing energy
loss through leaks and thereby significantly reducing the amount
of energy required to ventilate).
Calculations of improvements in energy efficiency are also
needed for the asset rating of existing buildings for sale or rent.
Aspects of ‘improving building materials and building design’
are certain to include the reduction of solar gain by the use of
materials and glazing with better thermal transmittance proper-
ties. There is also scope for improving mechanical handling
because many existing systems are simply over-designed – loads
greater than 120W/m² (38Btu/ft²h) are excessive and, with current
best practice, could be reduced to about 80W/m² (25Btu/ft²h).
Examples of improved efficiency targets for ventilation include
the setting of a maximum specific fan power (SFP = the total
power consumption of all fans in a system, in watts, divided by
the volume flow of the system, in litres). For central systems
providing heating and cooling without energy recovery, the SFP
targets are 2W/litre/sec in new buildings and 2.5W/litre/sec in
refurbishments. In buildings with energy recovery, the SFP targets
are 2.5W/litre/sec in new buildings and 3.0W/litre/sec in refur-
bishments. Mechanical ventilation systems should be capable of
achieving an SFP at 25% of design duty flow rate which is no
greater than that achieved at 100%. The targets should be achiev-
able with most speed-control systems, especially EC drives and
variable-frequency drives. There are fixed losses in motors and
drives that would remain the same at lower speeds. While some
motors become less efficient at reduced speeds, this is offset by
the power fan law that impeller shaft power varies as the cube of
the speed (so that, at one-quarter of the full speed, the fan shaft
power will be 1/64th of the full-speed fan power, or less than 2%).
Motors should be EFFI type high-efficiency motors.
Humidification
A dry indoor environment causes headaches, skin rashes and sore
throats. It leads to eye irritation by evaporating the thin layer of
moisture on the cornea of the eye and by depositing dust and dirt
on contact lenses. Sports building users are not as immediately
sensitive to these effects as they are to the effect on the body of
heat or cold. One sure sign of dry air is electrostatic shocks, which

occur below 40% relative humidity (RH) but are absent above
that figure. The optimum indoor RH is 40–60%.
Problems associated with dry air are readily eliminated by the
incorporation of a humidifier within the building’s air-condition-
ing system. Points to consider when choosing the right humidifier
include energy use, Legionnaires’ disease legislation, water sup-
ply, cold water or steam, gas or electric, evaporative or spray,
humidifier location, control compatibility and maintenance
requirements.
Energy recovery devices
Devices used in air-handling units for air-to-air energy recovery
include thermal wheels, plate heat exchangers and run-around
coil systems. Thermal wheels are a standard 500mm long, what-
ever their height and width, and can recover up to 90% of the
energy in extract air (typical performance is 75–85%). Plate heat
exchangers recover 50–65% of the energy in extract air. Run-
around coils recover 45–55% but are popular because they pres-
ent no risk of transfer between extract and supply airflows.
HVAC system components
Pipes may be in aluminium, or in nickel–copper alloy or copper
(with solder-type or brazed fittings) or in steel, with cast-iron
screw-type fittings up to 73mm (2.5in) pipe and steel butt-welded
fittings for pipe sizes of 88.9mm (3in) and over. Galvanised steel
may be used, and iron or steel couplings where permitted. Pipes
of dissimilar metals should not be used in the same pipe run.
Ancillary equipment includes hangers, sleeves, escutcheons,
roller supports, expansion joints, access doors, anchors to struc-
ture, valves, traps and strainers.
Ducts may be in traditional or newer materials ranging from
galvanised iron or steel, or black iron, to stainless steel, copper,
polyurethane duct board (pre-insulated aluminium), fibreglass
duct board (pre-insulated non-metallic) or flexible tubing (flex).
Gauge depends on application, unsupported length and fire resis-
tance requirements. It should be noted that flex, typically flexible
plastic over metal coil wire (to create the tubular shape), is con-
venient for attaching supply air outlets to rigid ductwork but has
151
h e at i n g , v e n t i l at i n g and air -conditioning
a greater pressure loss than the other types of duct. Designers and
installers try to keep their installed lengths (runs) of ductwork down
to around 5m (around15ft) and to minimise turns.
Additional HVAC system components include return and
exhaust registers, ceiling and linear supply diffusers, linear return
and transfer grilles. Ventilation equipment includes filters (e.g.
panel, cartridge, roll-type, grease and activated carbon), heating
and cooling coils, fans (axial, filter and blowers), thermal manage-
ment devices (enclosure heaters, thermostats and hygrostats),
air-handling units (AHUs) and fan-coil units. Accessories include
fan guards and belt drives.
HVAC systems control
The natural, mechanical and mixed mode ventilation strategies
described at the beginning of the chapter can be made increas-
ingly energy-efficient by matching the flow rates delivered to the
demand for them and by controlling the operating times. There
is scope for changing ventilation rates in sports facilities, in line
with changing patterns of use throughout the day. For example,
increases in levels of carbon dioxide or pollutants can be used
to trigger variable damper opening, by which more or less air can
be introduced into the building.
Controls are used to operate plant when, where and as
required. A familiar example is the time switch, which effectively
controls processes that occur at regular intervals.
Optimisers are more advanced types of time switch, for use
in buildings which are heated intermittently. They are connected
to internal and external temperature sensors which determine the
appropriate time for the building heating system to switch on, in
order to reach the desired internal temperature at the start of
building use. As the building approaches ‘closing time’, opti-
misers can switch off the heating at the earliest time from which
the internal temperature will stay above or at the comfort level.
A humidistat measures the humidity of the air, activating ven-
tilation when humidity exceeds a predetermined threshold and
turning it off when levels fall below that threshold (it is an essen-
tial component of a pool hall energy-efficient ventilation system,
where it should be reset depending on the temperature of the
coolest surface, where condensation is most likely to occur).
Other controls devices include weather compensators (which
control the flow temperatures of radiator water according to
17.5
Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin (1999)
external temperatures), zone controls (which heat or cool different
parts of a building at different times according to user needs and
local solar gains), room thermostats (which regulate temperatures
in individual spaces to prevent overheating and wasted energy)
and thermostatic radiator valves (which control output from indi-
vidual emitters).
Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin
The competition pool at the Schwimmsporthalle is probably the
first in the world to have an air distribution strategy based on the
use of low-velocity air from beneath the tiered seating. Air is
extracted both at high level and via overflow ducts at the edge
of the pool. The pool water temperature varies between 26°C
(78.8°F) for competitions and 28°C (82.4°F) during normal use.
In spectator areas, levels of temperatures and humidities are
critical. International Swimming Federation (FINA) standards
stipulate that spectator areas are kept at 1K (1°C, 1.8°F) above
pool water temperatures. Significant technical issues had to be
addressed, including the tendency of air to cascade from specta-
tor areas towards the pool, causing discomfort and unpredictable
water evaporation. The normally available computational fluid
152
dynamics (CFD) tools were unsuitable for resolving combined
heat and water evaporation issues, so a series of bespoke algo-
rithms was developed. The CFD analysis also helped to test ways
to prevent air cascading towards the pool, including the introduc-
tion of a heated floor around the pool. Evaporation rates were
also reduced to avoid condensation and achieve savings in heat-
ing and treating pool make-up water. With spectator-level air
supply, substantial savings against high-level supply were pos-
sible in both capital and running costs. Air is supplied at 26–34°C
(78.8–93.2°F), rather than the 18–20°C (64.4–68°F) of a conven-
tional high-level mixing system.
Only the occupied zones were treated, rather than the whole
space, so chillers and ventilation plant capacities were reduced.
Further energy savings were achieved by using outside air for
‘free cooling’. The risk of winter condensation is very high, so
condensation on the glazed roof and facades is prevented in
several ways. The Schwimmsporthalle’s relative humidity is lim-
ited to 55%RH, while the cold but very dry air of Berlin is
exploited to absorb the moisture-laden air of the pool halls. To
achieve this economically, outside air is brought in and re-heated
using reclaimed heat from exhaust air, before being introduced
into the building. Internal moisture contents are controlled by
sequentially increasing the proportion of dry outside air and
increasing the supply air accordingly. When the target moisture
17.6–17.8
Schwimmsporthalle: (top) overall ventilation strategy;
(left) underseat air supply; and (right) main electrical distribution
content can no longer be achieved, the supply air nearest to the
glazed areas is heated further to raise the dew-point and avoid
condensation.
The technique adopted for air distribution gives both lower
running costs and smaller air-handling plants, chillers, and boil-
ers. Using combined heat and power (CHP) to generate on-site
electricity and heat yielded further energy savings. Pool water
pre-heating for the competition, training and diving pools is
achieved by using heat rejected from the refrigeration plant. This
is supplemented, as and when necessary, by the Berlin district
heating system (via two plate-type heat exchangers). Heat is
recovered from the showers to preheat domestic hot water. Fabric
heat losses and gains are greatly reduced because the building is
153
below ground and has well-insulated roofs, slabs and walls. The
resulting energy savings are appreciable, given Berlin’s climate,
with aggregate savings in plant costs estimated at about £750,000
(DM2.376  million = €1,214,829). This figure does not include
the cost of the space saved to accommodate otherwise larger
plant. Savings in running costs are heavily dependent on use, but,
on average, are estimated at around £230,000 pa (DM730,000
= €373,242). The brief from the client was to design a world-class
Olympic water sports competition venue where records could be
broken. In addition to meeting the brief in terms of pool water
quality, the design maximises cleanliness, increases efficiencies
and reduces maintenance requirements.
18.1
Beijing 2008 Olympics: Technology Operations Centre
Chapter 18
Electrical installation
Electrical engineering
and the regulatory context
Key drivers in electrical engineering include:
• safety and reliability of installation and operation;
• versatility to embrace multiple equipment changes;
• flexibility to cater for future IT and electrical technological
advances;
• minimal possible visual intrusion; and
• execution to the prevailing standards for sporting venues and
public buildings.
Electrical work must be undertaken within the regulatory frame-
work of the appropriate country. In the UK work is carried out to
BS 7671: 2008, which is also known as the IEE Wiring Regulations
17th Edition and is virtually a European document. Many of the
changes to the superseded 16th Edition have been made because
of the formal incorporation of CENELEC drafts required to achieve
European harmonisation.
Power and plant
Electricity is used in sports facilities developments to power fixed
equipment (e.g. elevators), portable equipment (e.g. vacuum
cleaners) and critical functions such as lighting, cooking, space
heating, communications and automation. Principal plant areas
that may be needed are: intake rooms for water, gas, electricity
155
and communications; transformer chambers and switchrooms;
tank rooms for water and oil; standby generator rooms; boiler and
calorifier rooms; sewage pump rooms; lift motor rooms; air-
handling and air-conditioning plantrooms; building management
system control rooms. These make up a significant proportion of
the building’s floor area and enclosed volume.
Electricity demand
It is important to calculate maximum electrical demand charac-
teristics at an early stage because this affects electrical design
and enables the electricity company to confirm that a supply can
be made available. There are two methods of calculating maxi-
mum electrical demand: summation of individual connected
loads with application of diversity factors (whereby, in any given
installation, some of the connected loads will not be running
concurrently with other loads) and comparison with a table of
norms for similar installations. In practice, a combination of both
methods is often adopted.
Demand for electricity in buildings grows, often dramatically,
over time. While traditional electrical loads such as lighting have
become more efficient, overall electrical supply to buildings has
increased because of computing and data processing loads. Most
of the sports and leisure buildings that came into use in the 1980s
are still operating, but it is hard to look back 20 years and imagine,
for example, their gymnasiums without plasma screens or interac-
tive training equipment.
The established trend of increasing demand for electricity
within buildings gives owners and their design teams the

18.2
The Dollar Mountain Lodge, Sun Valley, Idaho:
high-end electrical installation at ski resort (2004)
opportunity to consider from the outset the potential implications
on installed electrical plant capacity and distribution cabling.
Alternative strategies that might be considered include initial
oversizing of plant and incremental addition and planning for
future replacement. The latter two options will be more attractive
if there is a lack of confidence in continual year-on-year increase
in the volume of building users. Because of the significance of
the plant in terms of volume and area, the relative spatial char-
acteristics need to be considered.
Electrical system design
Designing an electrical system involves, sequentially:
• identifying and quantifying loads;
• visualising and sketching the system and considering the loca-
tion of components, such as main switchgear and risers;
156
• final circuit design, using ‘nominal’ parameters for volt
drop;
• designing and sizing protection of conductors of sub-mains,
checking discrimination with final circuits if necessary;
• designing and sizing protection of conductors of main switch-
gear and coordinating with size of incoming supply.
The latter is informed by the maximum demand established during
the identification and quantification of loads. When carrying out
a design in practice, adjustments will be made at the various
stages.
Electrical installations are divided into circuits to:
• avoid hazards and minimise inconvenience in the event of a
fault;
• facilitate safe inspection, testing and maintenance;
• take account of potential danger due to the failure of an indi-
vidual function (e.g. lighting);
• reduce tripping of residual current devices (RDTs) due to
excessive protective conductor currents produced by equip-
ment in normal operation;
• reduce the effects of electromagnetic interference;
• prevent indirect energising of a function intended to be
isolated.
Electrical distribution
The electricity supplied to a sports facilities development, via
armoured cable, has to be distributed to locations of very different
demand within the building. Distribution cables are usually:
• PVC insulated, in conduits of steel or plastic;
• PVC insulated, PVC sheathed;
• mineral insulated copper or aluminium conductors.
Cables for the supply of specific currents at specific voltages must
be appropriately sized, while ensuring that the voltage drop over
the cable is not so great as to adversely affect the functioning of
facilities and equipment being supplied.
As with HVAC demand (Chapter 17) cost of distribution
increases as the distance of demand point from supply point

increases. Therefore, locating facilities of relatively high electrical
demand adjacent to the main distribution board makes sense in
terms of controlling running costs. The benefit of positioning the
incoming electricity supply point close to the load centre of the
installation is another reason for early discussion with the elec-
tricity company.
Electric wiring
In the UK, wiring systems design complies with the Codes of
Practice issued by the British Standards Institution and the Home
Office. They specify that all wiring should be enclosed by suitable
protection against physical damage (i.e. steel wire armoured or
mineral insulated cables and steel or PVC conduit). Unprotected
sheathing may only be used for extra-low voltage non-emergency
circuits.
Unenclosed cables should be untangled before extensive clip-
ping can be applied. One solution to the problem of cable fixing
is to carry groups of sheathed cables through trunking which must
be sufficiently large to handle the bulk without overcrowding.
Surface-run cable drops down walls to heaters and sockets must
be enclosed in conduit or mini-trunking for both protective and
aesthetic reasons.
The best method of protecting electrical cables is to locate
them along safe routes. Conduit and trunking are best sourced
from the same manufacturer, to ensure compatibility of appear-
ance and fit.
157
18.3
Buntingford Sports Pavilion,
Hertfordshire: power, lighting,
window, shutter and shower
controls (2004)
Cable protectors
Electrical installation products include cable accessories. An
example of this type of product is the floor-laid rubber cable
protector which safeguards dangerous loose cables from damage
and prevents tripping and falling. It is safe and easy to use simply
by snapping open the membrane in the base, pushing in the
cables and laying them flat. For purposes of illustration we have
chosen to show a general workplace image, but these types of
cable protection are commonly used in sports facilities and
especially gymnasiums, where they can render safe and tidy the
wiring to the individual training items in groups of cardiovascular
and resistance equipment. Another type of cable protection is
the temporary traffic-calming cable protector, which may be used
in access road and car park areas around sports facilities. This
comprises two products in one, controlling the speed of traffic
and at the same time covering heavy duty cables or cable looms
up to 50mm in diameter. The yellow hazard strips on both sides
of the black profile give early warning of the danger of speed in
confined areas.
Electrical equipment
Electrical equipment includes any item used for generation,
conversion, transmission, distribution or use of electrical
energy, such as machines, transformers, apparatus, measuring
instruments, protective devices, wiring systems, accessories,
appliances and lighting. Selecting equipment involves
considering:
facilities development
• compliance with the appropriate product standards;
• suitability for the anticipated operational conditions;
• suitability for the anticipated external influences;
• provision for adequate accessibility for maintenance.
Equipment may be manufactured to BS, EN, IEC, USA or other
standards.
Ingress protection (IP)
Many enclosed electrical and other products used in the sports
industry have IP ratings. Protection categories to EN 60 529/IEC
529 (degrees of protection provided by enclosures) are expressed
in an IP code based on numerals which indicate the degree of
protection afforded to the equipment from the ingress of foreign
bodies such as tools, dirt and fluids. The indicative numerals fol-
low the IP prefix and may precede letters which give supplemen-
tary information.
Following the IP prefix, the first numeral indicates protection
against solid foreign objects: 0 – not protected; 1 – objects with
diameter 50mm and greater; 2 – objects with diameter 12.5mm
and greater; 3 – objects with diameter 2.5mm and greater; 4 –
objects with diameter 1mm and greater; 5 – dust-protected; 6 –
dust-tight. Following the first numeral, the second numeral
indicates protection against water: 0 – not protected; 1 – vertically
falling water drops; 2 – vertically falling water drops when the
enclosure is tilted up to 15°; 3 – spraying water; 4 – splashing
water; 5 – water jets; 6 – powerful water jets; 7 – effects of tem-
porary immersion in water; 8 – effects of continuous immersion
in water.
Examples abound: a 30mm (1.2in) long LED panel indicator
may be dust-tight and temporary-immersion proofed to IP67,
while a 1240mm (48in) light diffuser may be rated IP44, with
protection against solid foreign objects of 1mm diameter or
greater and splashing water. Electric fans may be, say, dust-pro-
tected and splash-proof to IP54 or dust-protected and water-jet
proof to IP55. The facility inspector (see below) may carry his or
her electronic and electromechanical testing and measurement
instruments in a case which is dust-tight and water-jet proof to
IP65.
158
18.4
Floor-laid rubber cable protector (2005)
Part 7s
Part 7 of BS 7671: 2008 covers electrical installations in ‘Special
installations or locations’. Six new ‘Part 7’ special locations are
introduced. Two of these are of particular interest to sports
industry professionals: bathrooms containing a fixed bath or
shower and swimming pools and other basins. In each case,
zoning principles of the previous edition of the Regulations are
perpetuated but Zone 3 is eliminated, meaning that equipment
can now be installed at the boundary of Zone 2. Locations
containing a fixed bath or shower include sports buildings and
sports clubhouses: Zone 0 is the bath or shower tray; Zone 1 is
the area where a person bathes or showers, or the area where
water is likely to be directly sprayed; Zone 2 is the area beyond
Zone 1, extending a further 600mm. The zoning concept applied
to swimming pools and other basins has to accommodate per-
mutations of swimming pools above and below ground and
fountain basins. In all cases, however, it is the safety of the
unclothed or minimally clothed facility users which is of para-
mount importance.
Ingress protection ratings apply, i.e. swimming pool equipment
in Zone 0 is protected against immersion to IPX8, in Zone 1
splash-protected to IPX4 and in Zone 2 water-jet protected to at
least IPX5 (sometimes, as here, one or other of the numerals in
the IP rating are not specified, in which case an ‘X’ is shown).
Socket outlets are not permitted in Zone 0 or 1 of a swimming
pool and are normally only permissible in Zone 2 if they are
supplied either by separated extra low voltage (SELV) from a
source outside the zones or by the application of electrical sepa-
ration (with the transformer outside the zones) or protected by a
30mA residual current device (RCD). Pool cleaning equipment
at mains voltage or special equipment should only be brought
into the pool area when it is empty of swimmers and supplied
from sockets outside the zones.

Inspection and testing
In the UK, the Electricity at Work (EAW) Regulations require that
all electrical installations at workplaces be designed, constructed
and maintained in such a manner as to be safe to use at all times.
It is the duty of the employer to ensure that electrical systems are
safe. The definition of an employer includes those charged with
managing the workplace. Employees have a duty to cooperate
with the employer/manager.
Public buildings, including sports and leisure facilities, are
inspected and tested every year, or as required by the local author-
ity conditions of licence. Establishing safety in the context of
sports and leisure facilities means identifying any damage to, or
defects in, an electrical installation which may give rise to damage
to people (e.g. electric shock or burns) or to property (e.g. heat,
fire and smoke effects).
Inspection and testing must be carried out by a competent
person with technical knowledge and experience appropriate to
the type of installation, testing methods and requirements. Because
the inspector has to make judgements on the levels and frequency
of testing required, he or she must have an understanding of the
use of the premises concerned, the operating environment and
any relevant safety standards or licensing requirements that may
apply. The correct instruments must be used for the testing. In the
UK, members of the Electrical Contractors Association offer an
‘Inspection and Testing Contract’ and a ‘Maintenance Contract’
which they have registered with the Office of Fair Trading. They
159
18.5
Temporary traffic calming cable
protector (2005)
can also advise on planning programmes to maintain the effi-
ciency and safety of electrical systems and equipment.
Combined heat and power (CHP)
The authors have been involved in only one CHP scheme, but
CHP is nonetheless worth mentioning because the technology
has been with us for more than 100 years. It has been successfully
applied to industrial processes and to urban areas for district
heating schemes including sports facilities and multi-purpose
community halls.
The electricity generation efficiencies of conventional power
stations may be as low as 35%, taking into account the loss to
atmosphere or water of low grade heat and grid transmission losses
from power plant to end user. Although CHP plants generate
electricity at slightly lower efficiencies than conventional power
plants, their overall efficiency can be as high as 75% because
waste heat from the generator is recovered and used. CHP can,
in this way, increase the energy efficiency of an individual building
served by up to 35%, with a corresponding decrease of energy
costs and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Traditionally, CHP has
been used for large area developments. It is now being adopted,
with smaller reciprocating engines, for a growing number of,
principally public, buildings including hospitals, care buildings,
hotels, housing and sports facilities developments.
19.1
School of Physiotherapy and Exercise Science, Gold Coast Campus,
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia (2007)
Chapter 19
Facilities management
Introduction
People will not use a sports facility if they can’t find it, can’t park
their car at it, have to queue unduly to get in, turn up for events
that don’t happen, have less-than-positive encounters with staff,
feel that environmental conditions are uncomfortable, try to use
equipment which doesn’t work or to use facilities which aren’t
operational or experience low standards of cleanliness and
hygiene. These issues are generally addressed in job descriptions
for sports centre staff. The key tasks for a duty manager position
may, for example, be summarised as being to: maintain daily
operations to required standards; maintain customer care stan-
dards; monitor and plan the use of daily staffing resources; moni-
tor and maintain cleanliness, environment and safety; maintain
a visible presence to staff and customers; keep the line manager
advised of any important issues; act as a responsible supervisor
of staff and facilities; constantly check standards during periods
of duty; maintain check sheets; identify failures and initiate cor-
rective actions; prepare works defects reports and pass these to
technicians; act as a focal point for the building owner’s monitor-
ing staff. In the following sections we take a customer’s perspec-
tive of a few key criteria that fall within the remit of the sports
manager or the sports facilities manager: comfort, communication
and cleanliness.
Comfort
The British Institute of Facilities Management defines facilities
management as the integration of multi-disciplinary activities
161
within the built environment and the management of their impact
on people and the workplace. In the UK, some 50% of national
energy consumption is attributable to buildings. Because of the
environmental and economic consequences of this, increasing
numbers of building services engineers work in the field of facili-
ties management. Their opportunity to ‘make a difference’ is
demonstrated by the fact that, in the UK, only some 2% of build-
ing stock is replaced or refurbished each year. The general aim,
therefore, is to optimise energy use in existing buildings, so that
appropriate levels of comfort for users are provided while energy
costs are kept to the minimum commensurate with achieving this
aim. In a building as multi-functional as a sports centre, there are
plenty of opportunities to cut energy costs (e.g. using low-energy
light sources, using sensors to activate/de-activate energy-inten-
sive functions, introducing energy reclamation or recycling mea-
sures). It is not necessary to be able to balance the valves to be
able to achieve energy efficiency in buildings. What is required
is that people with authority and responsibility are aware of and
committed to the cause, making use of in-house or external
technical resources as appropriate.
An example of the need for awareness is that, in the UK, 100%
first-year Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) allow the full cost
of an investment in designated energy-saving plant to be written
off against the taxable profits of the period in which the invest-
ment is made (the general rate of capital allowances for spending
on plant and machinery is 20%, on the reducing balance basis).
Qualifying technologies are included on the Energy Technology
List (ETL) which was expanded on 11 August 2008 and covers:
• air-to-air energy recovery;
• automatic monitoring and targeting (AMT);
 1 Anti-bacterial cleaner
2 Shatter-resistant fluorescent lamps
3 CCTV kit
4 Emergency exit signage
5 Mop bucket
6 Broom
7 Mop
8 First Aid kit
9 Insect killer lamps
10 Fire alarm system
11 Fridge thermometer
12 Hot food thermometer

19.2
Sports facilities restaurant

• boiler equipment; days or even weeks then it gives a bad impression not only to
• combined heat and power (CHP); existing gym users but also to prospective new gym members.
• compact heat exchangers; One communication that we like is the ‘Gym Etiquette’ notice
• compressed air equipment; reproduced as Box 19.1. We like it because few people are aware
• heat pumps for space heating; of all the ‘right things to do’ in a gym and it pulls people together
• heating, ventilating and air-conditioning zone controls; in a common cause, which makes the gym a better place to be,
• lighting; for the benefit of all users. This is a Serco notice. All Serco signs
• motors and drives; and induction forms are taken from SLIMS (Serco Leisure Integrated
• pipework insulation; Management Systems) so that every Serco-run Isospa gym will
• refrigeration equipment; feature identically formatted documentation containing the cor-
• solar thermal systems; rect information.
• warm air and radiant heaters.

Within these 14 groups there are 54 sub-technologies such as

speed motors or variable speed drives (see References).
Communication
An essential aspect of good sports management is the creation of
conditions in which rewarding relationships can be forged
between sports centre staff and the customers they serve.
Comfortable environmental conditions help in this but commu-
nication is fundamental. However, communication is full of pit-
falls. For example, if an item of gym equipment is faulty then it
makes sense to place an ‘out-of-service’ notice on it. Such a notice
should be dated and signed by the member of staff identifying or
being made aware of the problem, who should initiate remedial
action (by, say, phoning the equipment supplier or maintenance
contractor). If, however, such a notice remains on a machine for
Cleanliness
Sports centre surfaces and equipment must be kept clean or
people will not want to use the facilities on offer. Dirty floors are,
in any case, a safety hazard. Surfaces contaminated with, say,
water, oil, food debris or dust must be cleaned before they cause
accidents. However, floor cleaning itself is a significant cause of
slip and trip accidents to cleaning staff and to others. The most
effective approach to the problem is to design slip and trip hazards
out of buildings. If, ideally, the operations manager is involved
at the outset of a building development then he or she will be
able to exert the appropriate influence at the optimum time. All
too often, the operations manager is not involved from the outset
but, once the building is operational, he or she can address the
issue and perhaps introduce significant enhancements during
subsequent upgrading or refurbishment works. Control measures
to prevent slips and trips comprise:

162
 Box 19.1  Gym etiquette

Welcome to our gym. We hope you enjoy working out here. To help things run smoothly and maintain a good
environment there are a few ground rules that you need to be aware of.
All gym users must fill in a Par Q form and have an induction before using the gym.
All casual users may be required to produce a receipt as proof of payment.
Under 16s are only permitted to use the gym during the allocated time slots (max. sessions for 11–15 year olds).
Please use the changing area and lockers downstairs for all your personal belongings.
Mobile phones should be on silent and calls taken outside the gym.
Everyone please sign in at the desk when you arrive. It gives us a chance to say ‘Hello’ and keep a record of how
many people use the gym.
Always wear clean appropriate clothing and footwear for working out. Trainers should be free of mud and grass.
During busy periods please limit your time on each piece of CV equipment to 20 minutes.
Paper towels and antibacterial spray are provided to wipe down equipment and floor area after use.
A water fountain and water cooler are provided for your convenience. As an environmental consideration we
recommend you bring your own water bottle and wash it regularly.
Drink plenty of fluids before, during and after your workout.
Please dispose of any cups and paper towels in the bins provided. There are recycle bins for plastic bottles,
situated around the gym.
We try to play music suitable to the majority of users during each session. The channel and volume will be set by
the gym staff. Please feel free to use personal music systems.
The passage from the gym to the dance studio is a FIRE ESCAPE route. Please keep this area clear – otherwise you
are potentially endangering the lives of others.
Please refrain from eating or chewing gum in the gym.
Glass and breakable containers must not be taken into the gym at any time.
The windows in the gym must be closed at all times unless otherwise instructed by a member of staff.
Please return equipment to its allocated place after use.

Thank you for your cooperation.

The gym staff

• management systems; a cleaning efficiency advantage to be gained through locating the

• contamination control (preventing contamination control;
• choosing the right cleaning method;
• making sure cleaning does not introduce an additional slip
risk;
• obstacle removal.
Identification and implementation of appropriate actions should
be undertaken in collaboration with the cleaners, who will be
acutely aware of the existing problem areas.
One of the most sensitive areas of a sports facilities develop-
ment, from the point of view of cleanliness, is the restaurant or
canteen. It is one of the best examples of the value of having the
manager on board at the outset of the building design. This is
because an architect will often favour locating the restaurant to
overlook the other facilities, whereas the manager will usually
prefer to locate it adjacent to reception, where it will be more
easily accessible. The second option will produce a larger turn-
over and therefore a larger contribution to the business. Regarding
cleanliness, any litter or floor contamination emanating from the
restaurant is less likely to get strewn throughout the building if
the eating facility is located by the reception area. Also, a restau-
rant, like a reception area, is a highly trafficked area so there is
two high-maintenance areas together. The eating area is a logical
principal location for food and drink vending machines and this
too fits in well with the idea of co-locating high-maintenance
amenities.
An interesting debate arising out of the incorporation of eater-
ies in sports developments concerns the degree to which the
facilities operator should be involved in the provision of ‘healthy’
and ‘junk’ foods. Recognising that most sports facilities users are
not dedicated athletes, the answer is probably to provide reason-
able choice. An interesting initiative in this field is the Swimmingly
Good Foods programme started in Australia in 2008 by the
Queensland Association of School Tuckshops Inc., working in
partnership with Queensland Council of Parents and Citizens
Associations, Brisbane City Council City Life Branch, Education
Queensland District South Office and Austswim. The Association
saw that children and young people were snacking at public
swimming pools and learn-to-swim sites but that there were no
recommendations to guide consumers on the foods supplied at
such venues. Information packs and fact sheets were produced
on healthy eating and smart food choices. These were distributed
to canteen managers, canteen management support staff, swim-
mers, parents, coaches and teachers. Outcomes have included

163
19.3
North Berwick Leisure Centre: restaurant (1997)

the introduction by some venues of healthy snack packs (yoghurt,

fruit juice, cheese and crackers) and ‘green, amber, red’ labelling
to assist venue users in making smart food choices. (We may have
digressed from our cleanliness theme but will justify it by saying
that we’ve moved on to ‘inner cleanliness’.)
Where sports equipment cleaning is concerned, Tables 19.1
and 19.2 were produced 20 years ago, by the Heart Healthy
Fitness Center, but still provide a useful basic guide.

19.4
Harborough Leisure Centre: restaurant (2008)

164
Table 19.1  Sample preventive maintenance schedule – cardiovascular equipment

Equipment Daily Weekly Monthly

Rower
(n.b. monitor batteries
should be replaced biannually)
Arm/leg ergometer
Computerised bike
Mechanical stairclimber
Treadmill
Windtrainer
Recumbent bike
Clean monorail with
non-abrasive pad
Wipe off seat and console with
100% cotton cloth using water and
mild detergent (dilute)
Wipe off seat and console with 100%
cotton cloth plus water and mild
detergent. Rinse
Clean seat and console with 100%
cotton cloth and mild soap with
water (dilute)
Clean housing with same materials
Clean console and housing with
cotton wool and water with mild
detergent
Wipe and clean pedals and grips
with solution from above
Clean console and housing with
cotton cloth and mild detergent
solution
Clean bike frame and housing
with mild detergent and cotton cloth
Clean seat with same materials
Calibrate (consult manual)
Check mounting screws
Clean housing, console and seat
with cotton cloth and mild soap
Charge battery overnight
Clean and lubricate chain using Inspect chain links
100% cotton cloth and lightweight oil
Clean pads with vinyl protectant Adjust seat rollers
Inspect chain handle
Tighten shock cord
Clean and lubricate chain with Inspect bolts
cotton cloth and lightweight
machine oil
Clean seat with vinyl protectant
Clean and lubricate chain with Inspect bolts and screws
cotton cloth and lightweight
machine oil
Clean pedals and lubricate
Wax seat post with auto wax
Clean shroud and seat with vinyl
protectant
Clean and lubricate all bushings Inspect housing, belts and electrical
with lightweight machine oil components and repair as needed
Clean machine with vinyl protectant
Clean belt with cotton cloth and Inspect electrical components and bolts
mild detergent solution. Must run – calibrate if needed (consult manual)
belt at 2mph (3kph) while cleaning
Clean and lubricate bike chain with
Teflon spray
Check tyre pressure and fill if necessary
Inspect chain and lubricate if needed
Inspect all bolts and chains and adjust
as needed

Table 19.2  Sample preventive maintenance schedule – resistance equipment

Equipment Daily Weekly Monthly

Selectorised Clean upholstery with cotton cloth
and mild soap solution
Clean frames with cotton cloth and
either warm mild detergent or all-
purpose liquid cleaner
Extra
Clean off dumbbell rack with
warm mild detergent or all-purpose
liquid cleaner
Pneumatic Clean upholstery with cotton cloth
and mild soap solution
Wipe off frames with cotton cloth
Release air pressure
Lubricate guide rods and linear Wash grips in mild soap and water
bearings (wipe clean with dry cotton
cloth, then wipe entire length with
medium-weight oil)
Inspect and adjust: cables, nuts/bolts,
torn upholstery
Apply vinyl upholstery protectant
Extra
Wipe off dumbbells and barbell plates.
Check bolts on bars
Polish chrome with cotton cloth Lubricate cylinder rods with dry cotton
and automotive chrome polish cloth and lightweight machine oil
Clean seat belts with mild soap Lubricate pivot bearings
Every two weeks, switch the Wash rubber handgrips in mild soap
compressor pump and water
Apply vinyl upholstery protectant

165
20.1
Harborough Leisure Centre:
reception area – Quest certificate displayed (2008)
Chapter 20
C o n t i n u o u s i m p ro v e m e n t
Introduction
Sport is generally associated with a healthy outdoor lifestyle. So
it is a conundrum that it took the Industrial Revolution, division
of labour and urban development to create the conditions in
which sports facilities development would happen. In the second
half of the 20th century, in both the USA and the UK, increasing
leisure time led to increasing demand for, and increasing use of,
sports facilities in schools, school-and-community, community
(public sector) and then commercial (private sector) locations.
With the establishment of valuable sports building assets came
the beginnings of education and training in their management
and use. This brought about initiatives aimed at achieving con-
sistencies and common standards, continuous improvement and
validation by periodic external inspection or monitoring. Facilities
planning, design, project management, construction, operation
and maintenance are now becoming essential multidisciplinary
elements of education, continuing professional development and
services/facilities accreditation courses in the sports business as
a whole.
Sports courses accreditation
North America has traditionally taken the lead in the sport and
exercise field. In 1989, the North American Society for Sport
Management (NASSM) and National Association for Sport &
Physical Education (NASPE) agreed that there was a need to
provide some level of quality assurance to students enrolling in
sport management courses and to employers hiring graduates of
167
the courses. From these discussions came the creation of the
independent Sport Management Program Review Council (SMPRC)
to act on behalf of both NASSM and NASPE for the purpose of
reviewing sport management courses. Following the formation of
SMPRC, standards used for course approval evolved. In 2004 East
Carolina University’s Sport Management degree became the 26th
master’s degree course in the USA to meet standards set nationally
by SMPRC.
By now much discussion was taking place about moving
towards a coordinated accreditation process, a more recognised
approach within academia. In June 2005 the NASPE and NASSM
leadership met to discuss the proposed direction of SMPRC,
including movement toward accreditation. From this meeting
came the formation of two task forces: the Accreditation Task
Force and the Standards Task Force. These task forces comprised
members from each association and were charged with investigat-
ing sport management accreditation from a process and policies
perspective, as well as a standards perspective.
Around the same time, the International Assembly for Collegiate
Business Education (IACBE) was pursuing the institution of an
accreditation process for sport management courses/departments
(IACBE is a specialised business accrediting body that promotes
and recognises excellence in business education in colleges and
universities at the undergraduate and graduate levels).
In September 2006, a meeting was held to discuss whether a
sport management accreditation model involving NASSM, NASPE
and IACBE was feasible. This meeting and subsequent discussions
led to the proposal for the formation of a sport management
accreditation body, the Commission on Sport Management
Accreditation (COSMA) with the following characteristics and
aims:
facilities development
• independent accrediting body, with a board of commissioners
formed from its membership (member institutions);
• provider of accreditation and related services for sport man-
agement courses in colleges and universities;
• outcomes-based assessment and accreditation body, in which
excellence in sport management education is evaluated based
on the assessment of educational outcomes, rather than on
prescriptive input standards;
• flexible and innovative in applying its philosophy of
accreditation;
• recognises that sport management education exists within a
dynamic, complex environment that requires innovative
approaches to achieving quality educational outcomes (in
other words, regardless of where the sport management course/
department is housed, e.g. school or college of education,
kinesiology, business, physical education, the COSMA will
focus on the mission and learning outcomes that are
achieved).
Sports facilities content in higher
education courses
The development and diversification of sports studies in higher
education has led recently to the incorporation of facilities plan-
ning, design and maintenance modules. In 2008, for example,
the University of Ulster offered for the first time a BSc Hons in
Sports Technology:
‘This new and innovative course has been developed to
provide graduates who can make dynamic contributions to
a wide range of professional roles, within the growing
sports technology sector. This will include design and
consultancy in relation to new advanced sports equipment
and facilities, together with contributions to the manage-
ment aspects of sport and fitness facilities, within the local
economy and beyond. The delivery is collaborative, involv-
ing the School of Electrical & Mechanical Engineering in
a lead role, with significant modular content from the
School of Sports Studies. At the core is the ethos of provid-
ing a creative and innovative environment to enable the
development of the following areas within the sports sector:
168
design and manufacture of exercise equipment, sports
products and monitoring/enhancement apparatus; facility
design and implementation; sport and leisure services
management and maintenance.’
Courses within Ulster’s School of Sports Studies are accredited
through the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) and/
or the Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE). New courses
such as ‘Sports Technology’ cannot be accredited until there is a
throughput of students.
One of your authors (JP) studied at Newcastle upon Tyne
Polytechnic as a teenager in 1970/71, so is particularly pleased
that his former college, now the University of Northumbria, is
also at the forefront of the sports revolution in higher education.
Northumbria’s latest addition to its sports courses is its BSc (Hons)
in Sport Management. The curriculum reflects staff expertise and
research interests, key trends in the associated professional body
(the Institute of Sport, Parks and Leisure – ISPAL) and relevant
national benchmarks. Students benefit from the type of vocation-
ally-oriented placements that the author enjoyed during his time
in the North-East. Graduates in Sport Management at Northumbria
have gone on to careers in the public, commercial and voluntary
sectors including facilities management, event management, sport
marketing, sport manufacture and retail, sports media and sports
development.
Continuing professional development
(CPD), standards and accreditation
Professional development, in any field, is about learning basic
skills, developing expertise and staying abreast of current devel-
opments. A professional membership association may offer struc-
tured training, ad hoc events participation and networking
opportunities. Members may be required to obtain a certain
number of points per annum, from participation in CPD schemes,
in order to maintain their professional status. Because of the fast-
moving, fast-changing character of sport, involvement in sports-
related CPD can deliver huge advantages. Professional associations
which administer CPD schemes internationally include the
Institute of Sport Management (ISM) in Australia, UK and Europe,
New Zealand, Nigeria and West Africa.

20.2
Harborough Leisure Centre:
induction, instruction, advice (2008)
In the UK the Institute of Sport and Recreational Management
(ISRM) promotes, at a national level, professionalism in the provi-
sion, management, operation and development of sport and
recreation services. Its objectives are to:
• identify and promote professional best practice throughout the
sport and recreation sector;
169
continuous improvement
• establish and maintain high-quality professional qualifications
and continuous professional development which are current
and for which there is industry recognition and demand;
• provide a comprehensive support and information service for
its members through direct communications and regional
networks;
• provide courses and qualifications which help people employed
in the sector to improve their skills, and which develop and
advance their professional careers;
• develop strategic alliances and partnerships to promote the
benefit of sport, recreation and physical activity to the popula-
tion as a whole;
• engage with like-minded organisations beyond the UK to col-
lectively improve standards of professionalism in the manage-
ment of sport and recreation.
Also in the UK, the British Association of Sport and Exercise
Sciences (BASES) sets, maintains and enhances the professional
and ethical standards of its members who are actively involved
in sport and exercise science. High standards are achieved
through mandatory adoption of the BASES code of conduct by all
members and through a system of BASES accreditation, which
serves as a quality assurance mechanism. The aim of accreditation
is to ensure that the level of service received by a client is based
on the best available knowledge and practice. There are two
categories of BASES accreditation – scientific support and research
– and four disciplines: biomechanics, physiology, psychology,
interdisciplinary. An interdisciplinary approach has been described
(Burwitz et al., 1994) as ‘more than one area of sport and exercise
science working together in an integrated and co-ordinated man-
ner to problem solve’. In terms of the content of this book, sports
surfaces are good examples of subjects requiring an interdisciplin-
ary approach. This is because their performance is based on a set
of functionally interlinking variables and because knowledge of
how the different variables interlink is imperative and under-
researched (and often in practice relies on the application of
experiential knowledge). Interdisciplinary skills include:
• ‘bridge building’ – the coming together of specialist knowledge
from different disciplines;
• restructuring – methodologies, theories and practices from one
discipline are borrowed and transposed into another discipline
to restructure the approach to a challenge;
• integration – the application and combination of different
disciplines.
Table 20.1  Quest accreditation raw scores for facilities
4 = EXCELLENT: Yes, we do this and there is nothing or very little required to improve it
3 = GOOD: Yes, we do this but there are still some areas for improvement
2 = FAIR: Yes, we do this but it is not fully implemented across all services, activities and facilities
1 = POOR: No, we don’t do this at all
Sports Facilities Standards: NIRSA
In the USA the National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association
(NIRSA) runs the annual Outstanding Sports Facilities (OSF)
awards. These recognise creative, innovative designs of new,
renovated or expanded collegiate recreational facilities. Each
winner is considered a standard or model by which other colle-
giate recreational facilities should be measured, and from which
others can benefit. The awards are presented at the conclusion
of NIRSA’s Annual Conference and Recreational Sports Exposition
which, in 2008, was held in Austin, Texas. The 2008 winners
were: the Student Recreation and Fitness Center at California State
University, San Bernardino (HOK, Architect); the Student
Recreation Center, College of William and Mary (Moseley
Architects and Hastings & Chivetta, Architects); Recreation
Activity Center/MC Anderson Park, Georgia Southern University
(Lyman Davidson Dooley and Hastings & Chivetta, Architects);
Student Recreation and Fitness Center, University of Maine
(Cannon Design, Architect); Weinstein Center for Recreation and
Wellness, University of Richmond (Worley Associates,
Architect).
Sports facilities accreditation: Quest
Quest is the UK quality scheme for sport and leisure, measuring
and rating facility operation, service development, staffing and
customer relations. It is used by the sports and leisure industry
as:
• an assessment of performance against recognised industry
standards;
• a method of auditing operational procedures, auditing quality
and benchmarking against other facilities;
• a means of encouraging the application and development of
industry standards and good practice in a customer-focused
management framework.
It enables facilities to recognise their strengths, identify areas
for improvement and draw up action plans to raise standards of
service delivery to customers. Benefits of this include a structured
approach to achieving best value, a framework for continuous
170
improvement, the optimisation of financial performance (through
a planned approach to improving effectiveness) and the encour-
agement of staff ownership and development.
The assessment process for ongoing Quest accreditation for a
facility operates on a two-year cycle which incorporates a self-
assessment process, two mystery customer visits, a minimum
two-day on-site external assessment and a one-day on-site
assessment.
The overall ‘raw’ Quest score is derived from each best prac-
tice principle (of which there are 176) under 22 different manage-
ment issues being scored on a 1 to 4 basis (1 = poor, 2 = fair, 3
= good, 4 = excellent). The raw score is then converted into a
score out of 10 for easy benchmarking. Quest approval is awarded
if a facility achieves an overall score of 60–67% during the full
(two-day) assessment. Facilities achieving 68–74% are rated ‘com-
mended’, 75–83% ‘highly commended’ and those achieving 84%
or more are rated ‘excellent’. At the end of each two-year accredi-
tation period, the centre is re-assessed using the two-day on-site
visit.
Quest is endorsed by all four home country Sports Councils
in the UK. It is recommended by the British Quality Foundation
for Self Assessment in Sport and Leisure Operations (BQF). It is
also supported and endorsed by the UK’s major sports and leisure
industry representative organisations including the Local
Government Association (LGA), Institute for Sport, Parks and
Leisure (ISPAL), Institute of Sport and Recreation Management
(ISRM), Sports and Recreation Industry Training Organisation
(SPRITO) and Fitness Industry Association (FIA).
The authors also advocate Quest because it places operation
and maintenance of the building and building services at the heart
of its assessment. An interesting but as yet under-applied logic is
that, once the basic Quest criteria are met, enhancements to the
building and its environmental systems present the potential for
increasing the facility score to achieve a higher rating. Innovations
in building management, process control and automation, energy
efficiency and environmental controls further the cause of con-
tinuous improvement and impress accreditation assessors. The
third part of this book covers some of the exciting possibilities in
sports building use and reuse.
Table 20.2  Quest best practice in facilities operation

Key area: facilities operation Quest best practice

FOP1 Services are planned to deliver a safe and enjoyable experience for all customers
Standards, systems and monitoring Documented systems are in place to ensure that the key elements of service are under control and
promote quality
Systems are up to date, available to and known by all relevant staff
There is a sensible and adequate level of monitoring of quality standards and inspection to meet
statutory requirements

FOP2 The level of cleanliness is visibly acceptable, taking due account of customer expectations
Cleanliness There are high standards of hygiene in critical areas
Customers are not put at risk or inconvenienced as cleaning takes place

FOP3 The facilities are presented in a fit and tidy state, reflecting general pride in the provision by the
Housekeeping and presentation organisation, and the staff signage, accessibility and security are all effective

FOP4 Maintenance is based on an effective preventive approach to ensure customer enjoyment and safety
Maintenance Repair requests are actioned promptly within an effective system
The facilities are well-maintained within the constraints of their age and structure

FOP5 Suitable, sufficient and well-maintained equipment is available for use

Equipment A range of equipment is provided to allow and meet programme variety
Safety in use is achieved

FOP6 Planning ensures that environmental factors in customer/staff-sensitive areas are managed and controlled
Environmental management Reasonable temperatures, lighting and ventilation for sporting, social and staff areas are achieved
Use of utilities is managed and reduced where possible as part of an overall environmental
management approach
Sensible initiatives contribute to lessening the impact of the facilities on the environment

FOP7 Changing rooms and toilets are comfortable, appropriate and clean
Changing rooms and toilets They are regularly inspected, cleaned and stocked
They are equitable, accessible and family-friendly
FOP8 The centre has an up-to-date and specific health and safety policy and management programme
Health and safety management Management and the workforce are aware of and undertake their responsibilities in health and
safety proactively
Customer and staff safety is a priority in all facilities

Table 20.3  Quest best practice in customer relations

Key area: customer relations Quest best practice

CR1 Quality standards of customer service are defined and delivered consistently by all staff
Customer care Staff are trained to provide customers with information and assistance, and to sell services proactively
All staff are empowered to make on-the-spot decisions about customer service
Customers have equal access and opportunity to services and facilities
CR2 Customer comments and feedback are actively encouraged by all staff and acted upon. They are seen
Customer feedback as an opportunity to improve and help drive improvements for customers
CR3 Proactive research is conducted to identify potential customer and current customer requirements
Research There is an understanding among the team of the target market, the facility users, competition and
local and national trends
CR4 Strategic and planned marketing activity is documented, which the centre uses to identify, plan and
Marketing cost all marketing activities
Accurate, attractive and up-to-date information is provided for the local community/target markets
through a variety of methods
A variety of promotional methods is used within the budgetary constraints of the facility to increase
income and usage
The organisation operates to a clear pricing policy which seeks to ensure that subsidy is targeted
effectively and is reviewed regularly
CR5 The administration system for bookings is customer-friendly and provides a range of opportunities
Bookings and reception for one-off (non-casual) bookings, and effective regular bookings
Customers’ needs are fully clarified and actioned through to completion of booking
The reception service operates in a smooth manner with skilled, knowledgeable staff providing
prompt attention to customers and first-time visitors

171
facilities development

Table 20.4  Quest best practice in staffing

Key area: staffing Quest best practice

STAF1 Staff are appropriately trained, qualified and in sufficient quantity to deliver the standard of
Staff supervision and planning service promised to customers and staff
plans ensure that staff absences can be covered and facilities/activities are not restricted
through staff absence
Shift patterns include time off-shift for meetings, training and personal development of staff
All employment legislation and statutory regulations are adhered to
STAF2 All staff involved in service delivery, whether paid or voluntary, are seen as critical to the
People management delivery of a quality service
Training and development are ongoing for individuals and teams, with the aim of
continually improving standards of service and achieving the organisation’s objectives
All employment legislation and statutory regulations are adhered to
STAF3 There is a management style that demonstrates the ability to communicate with and
Management style motivate staff across all levels
The management processes skilfully balance business goals with customer needs and staff
involvement
There is a culture of continuous service improvement through the empowerment and
involvement of staff

Table 20.5  Quest best practice in service development and review

Key area: Quest best practice

service development and review

SDR1 The centre has clearly identified its purpose, established overall strategies and set specific
Business management objectives and targets to achieve them
The centre has developed and uses a ‘business plan’ to map out its objectives and targets
SDR2 The programme of activities is designed to meet the facility’s aims and objectives
Programme development The programme is dynamic, innovative and responsive to the requirements of customers and
potential customers
Activities contribute to sports development, active health, education, safety and security
within the community
The programme considers the various types of user and use to ensure that it is balanced and
promotes equality of access
SDR3 Partnership arrangements are designed to meet the centre’s aims and objectives
Partnerships Partnerships are positively managed to meet local, regional and national agenda
Community engagement is undertaken
SDR4 Performance indicators are used to measure and improve the service and management of
Performance management the facilities
Financial management is controlled and appropriately communicated
SDR5 Information and communication technology is managed legally and safely
Information and All information and data are used, managed and stored/recovered securely
communication technology
SDR6 Performance measurement, feedback and process reviews are used as a basis for continuous
Continuous improvement improvement
Improvement planning forms the basis for ongoing and actual continuous improvement

172
 continuous improvement

Table 20.6  Sample questions extracted from the Quest self-assessment questionnaire

FOP3: Housekeeping and presentation:

BPP1 Are both standards of, and responsibilities for, known by staff?
BPP2 Do all staff take responsibility for keeping the facilities well-presented?
BPP3 Are there regular and continuous checks of the presentation of the facilities?
BPP4 Are customer areas generally clean, tidy and safe to use?
BPP5 Are staff areas generally clean, tidy and safe to use?
BPP6 Is the external signage effective at directing customers to the centre?
BPP7 Are the arrangements for getting to the centre and parking of vehicles meeting customers’ needs?
BPP8 How effective is the internal signage at directing and informing customers and staff?
BPP9 Are the security arrangements for the customers, facilities and staff effective?

FOP4: Maintenance:
BPP1 Has a competent survey of the condition of all the buildings, plant and equipment been done in the last 5 years?
BPP2 Have the long-term upkeep requirements of the centre been planned?
BPP3 Is there a planned approach to preventative maintenance to ensure the building, plant and equipment work
effectively and efficiently?
BPP4 Is a defect reporting system used which is effective for all areas?

BPP5 Is it clear who is responsible for the maintenance of all buildings, plant and equipment?
BPP6 Is all maintenance work carried out by competent and qualified personnel?
BPP7 Does all plant and equipment used by staff and behind the scenes work effectively and efficiently?
BPP8 Are all the facilities within the centre well-maintained?

FOP5: Equipment:
BPP1 Is there sufficient equipment to meet the demands of the programme?
BPP2 Are opportunities taken for resale and hire of equipment?
BPP3 Are set-up plans for activity equipment documented?
BPP4 Is equipment for customers stored, set up/down and used safely?
BPP5 Is equipment used by customers kept in a good condition and replaced when required?
BPP6 Are customers provided with instructions to use equipment (with records kept where appropriate?
BPP7 Is coin- and token-operated equipment available and working for customers?

173
 Part THREE

Technologies
21.1
New English National Stadium, London: the Wembley Arch (2005)
Chapter 21

Materials

Materials inertness, sound insulation properties, low maintenance require-

ments and resistance to water, wind and fire.
Sport is a great driver of materials technology. The most dramatic Bricks are made from clay, extracted from the earth by extru-
examples are to do with athletic performance. The pole used in sion or soft mud moulding, with or without ‘frogs’ (indentations
the pole vault famously went from the ash or hickory of the 19th in one or more than one bed surface). They are dried to prevent
century to bamboo at the start of the 20th century, light metal bursting when they are subsequently fired at, depending on clay
alloys in the late 1940s and fibreglass from the early 1960s. type, 900–1200°C (1650–2200°F). The firing forces together clay
The authors recall speculation in the 1980s of the effect on particles and impurities to produce a hard weatherproof material.
athletics performance that replacement carbon fibre knee joints Bricks shrink during firing and this must be taken into account
would have. Thankfully, carbon composite materials were intro- when determining the mould size.
duced into prosthetics instead. In the 2004 Paralympic Games in Until masonry walls were calculated on a scientific basis, great
Athens, German athlete Wojtek Czyz won three gold medals and heights required great thickness of wall. The development of
set two world records wearing an artificial leg. More recently, the
double amputee Oscar Pistonius, ‘the blade runner’, has run a
phenomenal 10.91 seconds in the 100m on carbon fibre ‘blades’
(Oscar self-deprecatingly calls himself ‘the fastest thing on no
legs’). Materials technology enables disadvantaged athletes to
aspire and to realise their aspirations. It is the same for the design-
ers of sports facilities who are taking materials such as high
strength steels, glulam timber beams and aluminium sheets, and
are working their own kind of magic with them.

Bricks
There is a wide range of colours available in bricks. This, together
with the availability of different mortar colours, textures and lay-
ing patterns, creates a wide diversity of design opportunities. Brick 21.2
is often chosen to complement and integrate with surrounding East Midlands International Swimming Pool, Corby:
buildings. It combines aesthetic appeal with impact resistance, structural steelwork and glulam beams (July 2008)

177
technologies
design methods raised considerations, including the choice of
suitable building plan form, maintaining a proportion of height-
to-width appropriate to minimising wind stresses and running the
connecting floor through the outer face of the external walls to
reduce eccentricity of floor load. A suitable plan form is one in
which the floor area is divided into rooms of small to medium
size, with the floor plan repeated on each storey. This arrangement
does not lend itself to the kind of spaces contained in a sports
centre, but it does lend itself to the hostels or other types of
athletes’ accommodation which may be associated with interna-
tional sports venues. If, for argument’s sake, the sports facilities
are steel framed then an option is to use brick infill for the sports
facilities and key it to the choice of brick for the hostel-type
accommodation. If the accommodation is associated with a one-
off event (such as the Olympics or World Student Games) then
the brick solution also enables such accommodation to be readily
sold on for post-Games housing.
The strength of a masonry wall depends on the strength of the
bricks, the mortar used and the quality of the workmanship. Badly
mixed mortar and imperfect bedding of the bricks can reduce
wall strength by up to 35%. However, little advantage is gained
in ultimate wall strength by increasing the strength of mortar
beyond a certain point for a particular grade of brick. Appropriate
mortars to confer maximum strength with different grades of brick
are:
• low strength bricks (10.35N/mm², 1500psi) = 1 cement:
2 lime:9 sand;
• medium strength bricks (20.7 to 34.5N/mm², 3000–5000psi)
= 1 cement:1 lime:6 sand;
• high strength bricks (48.3N/mm², 7000psi, or more) = 1
cement:3 sand (lime may be added up to one-quarter volume
of cement).
Concrete
Concrete is made from a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse
aggregate and water, which sets to form a hard stone-like material.
It is important that the particles are of many different sizes so
that, on mixing, the smaller particles fill the gaps between the
larger ones, giving a dense concrete with an economical amount
of cement. A concrete much used in buildings is the nominal
178
1:2:3 mix (by volume one part cement, two parts sand, three parts
gravel). Concrete strength depends on many factors but the most
important one is the water:cement ratio.
Concrete surfaces are particularly suitable for court games that
require a fast, uniform surface. A 100mm (4in) reinforced slab is
appropriate for play areas of single-course construction for tennis,
handball and badminton courts, and ice skating and roller skating
rinks. The slab should be reinforced with steel bars or wire mesh
at the centre of the slab depth. Concreting should be continuous
until at least one full section, such as one-half of a tennis court,
is completed. Concrete is popular for its high light reflectance
(ratio of reflected radiation to incident radiation). Sometimes
darker surfaces may be required for tennis or other courts to cut
down on the sun’s glare, by absorbing light and reducing reflec-
tion, and/or to provide better contrast between the playing surface
and light-coloured balls or other projectiles. Colouring is achieved
by chemical stain, applied after the concrete has hardened, or by
mixing mineral pigments with the concrete ingredients. Shades
of brown, tan and green have been used. Black gained predomi-
nance for tennis courts in California in the 1950s.
Concrete surfaces can be painted using Portland cement paints
or organic paints, as appropriate, and by following precisely the
paint manufacturers’ instructions. In applying paint to coarse-
textured concrete, a brush with shorter, stiff fibre bristles is used.
In applying paint to smooth concrete, whitewash or Dutch-type
calcimine brushes are used.
The infrastructure requirements of the 1964 Tokyo Olympics
were partially responsible for Japan’s national switch out of timber
construction and into concrete construction, in the early 1960s.
The new sports-led choice of material enabled Japan to take a
lead in concrete design and construction technologies, which
expanded massively when the Japanese government pumped 430
trillion yen (US$3.6 trillion) into its public works projects in the
1990s. However, concrete buildings in Japan tended to be demol-
ished after 25–30 years because of exposure to acid-laden air,
cracking in exteriors and discolouration. Now polymer surface
coatings can extend building life. These are being continuously
developed to achieve safety in the environment, fire resistance,
imperviousness and resilience to cleaning chemicals.
The largest manufacturer of acrylic polymer cement com-
pounds for resurfacing new or worn concrete surfaces is Quality
Systems Inc. of Nashville, Tennessee. The company began life in
1990 by producing surface coatings for protecting or restoring
swimming pools. It has since expanded its activities to cover most
21.3–21.5
Willink Leisure Centre, Reading: (top) RHS column (1996);
(right) positioning the concrete pourer; and (above) concrete filling RHS
aspects of the built environment. Typically, a polymer surface
coating is applied by brush or spray in layers of 3.2mm (⅛in) to
50.8mm (2in). The new surface can be made to carry colour and
texture and/or to offer special levels of hardness, clarity, resistance
to heat and cold, and resistance to damage from mould, abrasion
(sand), chemicals or oils.
Timber
Wood is visually attractive in construction and liked by building
users. Timbers are historically divisible into two classes – soft-
woods and hardwoods. This is confusing because some softwoods
are harder than some hardwoods, and vice versa. It is useful to
note that softwoods are produced by conifers and, usually, ever-
green trees, while hardwoods are produced from broad-leafed
trees. But, however you look at it, examples of both categories
of timber may be heavy or light, variable in strength and resistance
to decay, and light or dark in colour. A timber specification should
179
therefore name the required characteristics or, ideally, name the
species required (together with purpose of use, situation in which
it is to be used, whether preservative treatment is required and
any standards or codes of practice that apply).
All timber products are affected by moisture and are classified
for use under specified environmental conditions. Exposure to air
reduces the natural moisture of timber and causes the wood to
shrink in width and thickness (though not significantly in length).
In due course, the amount of moisture in the wood equates with
that in the surrounding atmosphere, i.e. the ‘equilibrium moisture
content’ is reached. Subsequently, any significant alteration in
the amount of moisture in the surrounding air will produce a
response in the wood. For use in heated buildings, timber should
be kiln-dried and prevented from reabsorbing moisture during
transportation and erection. Sample timbers, with thermal con-
ductivity values and densities at 15% moisture content,
include:
• western red cedar (0.77 W/m°C, 338kg/m³);
• Douglas fir (1.00 W/m°C, 528kg/m³);

21.6
Airdrie Leisure Pool (1997)
• pitch pine (1.65 W/m°C, 690kg/m³);
• mahogany (1.65 W/m°C, 705kg/m³).
Fire safety design criteria include fire resistance and spread of
flame. Timber provides its own natural fire resistance in the form
of charcoal and the rate of charring (that is, rate of loss of section).
For most timbers the rate is 0.6mm/min. In conditions of fire,
timber does not crack, soften, melt or collapse, and the uncharred
part retains its strength.
The wide range of wood products available includes laminated
timber, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), plywood, particleboard,
fibreboard and Thermowood. Laminated timber, for example, can
be manufactured to any transportation size, typically 30m (98ft),
although spans greater than 50m (164ft) are feasible. Its strength-
graded timber sections are continuously glued with resin adhe-
sive, using scarf or finger jointing within the laminates. A structural
steel beam may be 20% heavier and a concrete beam 600%
heavier than an equivalent glulam timber beam.
Architectural membranes
Architectural membranes are used for tensile structures and there
is one tensile structure which exemplifies the genre. It is a sports
facilities development – the main stadium for the 1972 Munich
Olympics. In the 1960s, architect Frei Otto developed a building
design theory using well-curved surfaces of opposing curvatures
and minimal surfaces, with equal tensions under stress. Together
with Günter Behnisch & Partners (architects) and Leonhardt &
Andrä (consulting engineers), Otto developed a lightweight ten-
sion concept for the Munich stadium that was adopted in prefer-
ence to more than 100 design submissions. At 85,000m2
(915,000ft²) Munich would be, when built, the world’s largest
covered stadium. Its transparent Acrylglas roof membrane is car-
ried by a steel net made up from 410km (256 miles) of steel wire
180
rope suspended from 436km of cable weighing 2286 tonnes.
Support is by main steel masts 12–80m (39–262ft) tall, weighing
up to 320 tonnes, and supplementary masts which rise above the
heads of the spectators. One reason for adopting such a bold and
unprecedented structure was the requirement in the design brief
for a maximum light differential of 3:1 for colour television cam-
era coverage of the Games. The Munich structure led to huge
advances in lightweight structures design, not only for sport but
also for the wider fields of leisure, tourism and commerce.
Essentially, tensile structures, when stressed, naturally assume
minimal surfaces of maximum efficiency. The membranes form
both the structure and skin of the building. Because of their great
strength, they are capable of immense spans. Because they can
also be transported to site in pre-assembled sections of 1000m2
(10,764ft²) or more, they are the most rapid form of construction
available. Their curvature confers maximum structural efficiency,
and their translucent glow is aesthetically pleasing when viewed
from within or outside the building.
Today, the materials choice for tensile roof structures is usually
made between PVC-coated polyester fabric and PTFE-coated
woven glass fibre. PVC-coated polyester is available in a variety
of colours and has a lifespan of 10–15 years. White PTFE-coated
glass fibre material is more expensive but is self-cleaning and
non-combustible, with a lifespan of 25 years plus.
Glass
Several types of glass are used in building structures:
• annealed float glass (silicon, soda ash and recycled broken
glass);
• toughened glass (produced by heating and rapidly cooling
annealed glass);
• laminated glass (produced by bonding two layers of glass with
a layer of acrylic resin).
The safest option is laminated glass, which will not shard on
impact.
Glass makes for terrific buildings. Advances in glass technol-
ogy, and reductions in cost of the material, made possible the
switch from introverted buildings in the 19th century to outward-
looking buildings in the 20th century and beyond. However, glass
facades cause extremes of temperature within buildings – making
occupants too hot in summer and too cold in winter. So buildings
with glass facades need air-conditioning, at a time when UK
buildings are responsible for 50% of UK carbon emissions.
Innovations in nano-engineering – hydrophobic, hydrophilic,
photovoltaic and electrochromic – are currently leading to more
active glass surfaces, energy conversion, variations in reflection
and the use of glass for colour and translucency, texture and
opacity. Coating glass with dye can, for example, cut the cost of
solar power by boosting the efficiency of solar-powered devices.
A ‘solar concentrator’ can harvest photons and funnel them into
photovoltaic devices, enabling relatively small solar cells to har-
ness rays from a much larger area. Mirrors that track the sun are
already used to deliver extra light into solar panels, to maximise
electricity output. But such mirrors have been expensive to install
and maintain, and their use has led to solar cells overheating. A
team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is currently
working on an alternative. Essentially, a mixture of dye molecules
is used in a thin film coated onto the glass, with each type of dye
molecule absorbing light of a different wavelength to take maxi-
mum advantage of sunlight’s spectrum. Team leader Marc Baldo
believes that the new technology could ultimately double the
efficiency of 90% of the solar cells in use in 2008.
Iron and steel
For most of humankind’s time on Earth, only timber and stone
have been available for beam construction. Cast-iron was invented
in ancient China and used for small-scale applications such as
farm implements and weapons. It was manufactured on a large
scale in the 18th century and thus became available for beam
construction in buildings. Cast-iron beams with spans up to 41ft
(12.5m) were used in the development of the British Museum
which, between 1825 and 1850, was Europe’s biggest building
site. The economy and efficiency of cast-iron beams resulted from
trial and error rather than mathematical calculation. Hodgkinson’s
beam was of the shape generally used after 1830. This is of ‘I’
configuration comprising top flange, web and bottom flange. The
top (compression) flange is narrower than the bottom (tension)
flange because cast-iron is much stronger in compression than
tension. The web tapers from bottom flange to top flange. From
the 1840s cast-iron began to be superseded by wrought-iron,
181
21.7
The Dome, Doncaster (1989)
which is ductile (cast-iron is brittle) and has a higher strength in
tension than cast-iron. Some designers used wrought-iron for
beams and cast-iron, because of its strength in compression, for
columns.
Steel is as strong in tension as in compression, leading to equal
widths of top and bottom flanges in beams. Introduction of the
Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes for manufacturing steel
led to Dorman Long and Co., in 1885, rolling mild steel joists up
to 16in (406.4mm) deep. In the 1950s ‘universal beams’ were
being manufactured in steel to depths of 36in (9144mm) and with
flange widths up to 16½in (419mm). Steel is, by far, the metal
most widely used for building structures. It is not only stronger
in tension and compression but also many times stiffer (less
deformable) for its bulk than other common structural materials
(e.g. timber, reinforced concrete and brick). So a steel element
will resist more load than other materials of comparable size. This
makes it a material of choice for creating large load-bearing
frameworks that can be erected quickly to achieve a complete
weatherproof building at the earliest opportunity. Steel-framed
buildings can be more easily altered than other buildings, after
completion, using bolted or welded connections. Wartime needs
to join metals efficiently brought about the post-World War II era
of modern welding techniques including shielded metal arc, gas
metal arc, submerged arc, flux-cored arc and electroslag. Research
and development in the field of structural steelwork, benefiting
from the advances in welding technology, led to innovations in:
• composite design of beams;
• composite metal decking floors;
• friction grip fasteners;

21.8
Goodwood Racecourse (1990)
• high-strength bolts;
• high-strength steel;
• plastic design of frames;
• stressed-skin construction;
• structural hollow sections;
• yield line analysis of joints.
Additionally, profiled sheet steel cladding was developed from
‘corrugated iron’ type products to modern deep profiles capable
of spanning greater distances and generally coated with a coloured
protective and decorative finish. Also, advances in corrosion
protection of structural steelwork made possible many more
applications of steel in building including, for example, the
increased use of thin cold-formed sections for purlins.
The above-listed structural steelwork developments include
the structural hollow section, which is more efficient in compres-
sion than any other steel section. For example, the permissible
loadings for the circular and rectangular hollow section over a
typical column height of say 2.5m to 3m (8.2ft to 9.8ft) may be
twice those of the universal column for a similar weight per metre
(or foot) of material. This explains why there are plenty of tubular
steel columns to be seen in the pages of this book. Uniquely
among steel sections, the hollow section has a fully enclosed
space that can be put to use by building designers for purposes
such as services conduit and protection. One interesting develop-
ment in ‘using the hole’ is concrete-filling. Remembering that the
hollow section is already the most efficient steel section in com-
pression, the permissible load of a 2.6m tall hollow section
182
column 200 × 200 × 5mm (yield 30kg/mm², weight per metre
30.01kg) can be dramatically increased from an unfilled 110
tonnes to a concrete-filled 192 tonnes (420 bars). Thus, a 150 ×
150 concrete-filled column can replace a 250 × 350 conventional
column and a 300 × 300 concrete-filled column can replace a
550 × 650 conventional column. This increases usable floor space
on every floor of a building. Furthermore, the concrete core
increases the fire life of the column and enables external fire
protection requirements to be reduced or eliminated, according
to conditions of service.
Stainless steels
Stainless steels possess enhanced corrosion resistance because
of the addition of chromium to alloys of iron and carbon. They
are familiar for their uses in cooking utensils and cutlery, fasten-
ers, architectural hardware, mechanical equipment, and health
and sanitation installations. In comparison with mild steel, they
have greater corrosion resistance, cryogenic toughness, work-
hardening rate, strength, hot strength, hardness and ductility. They
also have a more attractive appearance and a lower maintenance
requirement. Worldwide demand for stainless steels is growing
at approximately 5% per annum and new applications are con-
tinuously being discovered or invented for them.
Stainless steels are available to the construction industry in
the forms of plates, bars, sections, sheet strip and tubes. They are
widely used by architects and engineers in North America, Japan
and western Europe (but traditionally less so in the UK).
Stainless steels are commonly divided into five groups:
• martensitic;
• ferritic:
• austenitic;
• duplex (ferro-austenitic);
• precipitation-hardening.
For exterior applications the most appropriate grades of austenitic
steels are type 304 and the molybdenum-bearing types 315 and
316. For interior applications, ferritic stainless, which contains
little or no nickel, may be used (commonly as types 430 and 434).
Standard finishes for architectural applications range from semi-
dull to mirror.
Aluminium
The most common source of aluminium is the ore called bauxite
which was discovered in 1821 near the village of Les Baux in
France. Aluminium on its own is too soft for structural purposes
but it can be alloyed effectively with copper, magnesium, silicon,
nickel and zinc. Alloying can produce tensile strength equivalent
to that of mild steel. Because such alloys weigh about 2800kg/
m³ (175lb/ft³), compared with around 7850kg/m³ (490lb/ft³) for
steel, lighter structures can be designed in aluminium alloys than
is possible in mild steel.
More significantly, perhaps, aluminium is regarded as a non-
combustible material. It will melt at about 620°C (1148°F), but
it does not burn, ignite, add to the fire load or spread surface
flame. Its thermal conductivity is four times that of steel and its
specific heat twice that of steel. Because heat is conducted away
more quickly in aluminium than in steel, a greater heat input is
necessary to bring aluminium up to a given temperature. These
qualities make it a leading choice for roof coverings, including
many roof coverings for sports facilities.
Aluminium sheeting is transported to site in coils and is passed 21.9
continuously through a machine to form standing seams in situ. Royal Commonwealth Pool, Edinburgh:
This ‘long strip’ system removes the need to form joints transverse stainless steel diving platform (1972)
to the standing seams up to a maximum of 7m (23ft). The standard
thickness for long strip aluminium roofing is 0.8mm (0.03in) and
the recommended maximum width of 450mm (17.7in) produces Mackie Ramsey & Taylor selected a light-coloured flat wall panel
standing seams at 375mm (14.8in) centres. A minimum fall of and natural-coloured aluminium roof sheeting to complement the
1.5° is recommended. traditional granite of the neighbouring buildings. In that same
In the 1980s Ron Taylor, who inspired us to write this book, area, at Aberdeen Grammar School, a Kalzip aluminium standing
designed the roof structure for Norway’s first international-stan- seam roof was chosen for the new School Sports Centre, with an
dard indoor football hall (120m × 90m × 20m high) at Østfold. acoustic build-up to eliminate reverberation within the building
Ron liked simplicity and here he used a tubular steel three-pin during use.
arch structure without the purlins or bracing that would normally The Eynsham Joint Use Sports Centre in west Oxfordshire
be incorporated for lateral support. Instead, Ron achieved the opened in September 2007. This has a steel frame structure with
appropriate support with double-layer Plannja aluminium deck- blockwork, brickwork and an aluminium roof. The top layer of
ing, which enhanced stability during erection and in the finished the aluminium roof sheets had to be formed in a radius to match
roof. Half arches were built and clad at ground level, lifted in the curve of the roof exactly. Such an operation requires a large
pairs at the centres of the span and joined at high level. Imposed area in which to roll the roof sheets to the correct profile and is
loading catered for uniformly distributed snow or heavy accumu- often undertaken off-site. Because of the narrow site access and
lations of snow up to 6.2kN/m² (124lb/ft²) at the outer ends of restricted working area, a 100 tonne crane was used to suspend
the arch. a rolling machine and roll of raw sheeting material within a steel
A good example of the use of aluminium for visual appeal is container at roof height, some 10m (33ft) above ground level.
at the Gordon Barracks, Bridge of Don, where a new sports facility The sheets simply rolled out of the container, across the roof and
was required to fit in with the existing buildings. Here, architects into place. The procedure was completed within a day.

183
21.10
Swansea Leisure Centre (2008)
Titanium
Titanium was discovered in 1791 by Cornish clergyman and
mineralogist William Gregor (1761–1817). It had to wait a long
time for practical application but the first uses were very high
profile: Douglas Aircraft’s X-3 jet plane (1952) and Nasa’s X-15
rocket (1959). One of the authors (JP) began wearing a titanium
watch in the 1990s, in preference to the lightweight plastic
watches that are the more usual option for runners. The metal is
now used in many sporting goods including tennis rackets,
lacrosse stick shafts, bicycle frames and helmet grills for sports
which include American football (since 2003) and cricket.
What is not so readily appreciated is that titanium sheet (0.3–
0.4mm) can be used as roofing and cladding for buildings. The
99% pure material used in construction has a density of 4510kg/
m3 (281.5lb/ft³), which is between that of steel and aluminium. It
also has a low coefficient of expansion (8.9 × 10-6°C). The natural
oxide film can be thickened by anodising to a range of colours
between blue and cream, or a textured finish may be applied.
Lead
Rolled lead sheet is exceptionally resistant to atmospheric corro-
sion and, when specified and fitted correctly, can provide a
184
maintenance-free weather shield for more than 100 years. Lead
has a high coefficient of linear expansion so due allowance must
be made for thermal movement in design, layout, sizing of panels
and fixing details. It is incombustible but melts at 327.4°C
(621.3°F) and it is fully recyclable. Applications include flashings
and weatherings, damp-proof courses, cavity trays, linings to
parapet and valley gutters, coverings to flat and pitched roofs,
vertical cladding, cappings to parapet walls and sound attenua-
tion. Lead is widely used for both new and refurbishment works
at sports centres. It is clear, however, from the list that lead is
appropriate for remedial work to existing and historic buildings.
This is particularly so, in the UK, for ecclesiastical buildings.
Copper
The most famous copper dome in the UK is also part of a place
of worship – the London Central Mosque at Regent’s Park. Sheet
copper is available in thicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 1mm (and
up to 3mm for curtain walling). Standard thicknesses for roofing
are 0.6 and 0.7mm. Sheet widths range from 500 to 1000mm,
with 600mm being standard for roofing. For long-strip roofing
hard temper strip is necessary to prevent buckling with thermal
movement. At University College School, Hampstead, the rede-
velopment Phase1 (Sports Centre) was completed in October
21.11
Swansea Leisure Centre: glass walls (2008)

2006 and incorporated a high-quality copper roof to complement
adjacent listed buildings. More recently, a copper-clad curved
roof has been used for the redevelopment of Swansea Leisure
Centre, Wales, to link with the city’s industrial heritage. The
original building had opened in 1977 and was one of the widest-
span buildings of its type in the UK. The redevelopment includes
Wales’s largest fitness centre with cutting-edge technology gym
equipment, aerobic studios and fitness centre facilities for the
under-16s. The new multi-purpose sports hall also hosts concerts
and accommodates a synthetic ice rink.
Zinc
Zinc sheet is now rarely used for roofs because more durable
materials are available. Zinc–copper–titanium alloy is used as a
standard product (0.6mm minimum thickness) or with organic
coatings including acrylic, polyester and silicon-polyester paints,
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), plasticised poly-vinyl chloride
(PVC-P) or a chemical pre-weathering treatment.
The prize material
A discus is (Collins English Dictionary: Millennium Edition), ‘a
circular stone or plate used in throwing competitions by the
ancient Greeks’. In Homer’s Iliad, Book 13, Achilles proclaims
that funeral games will be held in honour of his slain friend
Patroklos and instigates chariot racing, boxing, wrestling, duel-
ling, weight-throwing, archery and javelin competitions. Prizes
are awarded to the victors. The weight-throwing contest features
a projectile which is also the prize – a highly-valued ingot of iron.
The mould used in the smelting process, to separate metal from
ore, is a round hole in the ground which produces a lentil-shaped
ingot. Because of this, the ancient Greeks continued to compete
at throwing this strangely-shaped object for more than 1000 years
– and the practice continues today.

185
22.1
Ballet Rambert, Chiswick, London (circa 1970)
Chapter 22
Acoustics
Introduction
Emitted sound travels in waves until it reaches a wall or other
obstacle. Here the sound is partially absorbed and partially
reflected. The absorbed sound is dissipated as heat energy and
the reflected sound travels in a new direction until it reaches
another impediment.
Sports facilities have hard walls, floors and ceilings for resil-
ience against impacts. This accentuates the echo and reverbera-
tion of sound within the building enclosure, resulting in poor
acoustics. But sports facilities house functions which require good
acoustic performance. Examples include dance instruction, music
and public address. Even more importantly, no building can be
expected to be popular with recreational users unless it facilitates
clear, comfortable conversation.
Reverberation
Noise is generally measured with sound-pressure meters that
record sound in decibels (dB). The reverberation time of a room
is the time it takes for sound to decay by 60dB once the source
of the sound has ceased. Reverberation time is the basic acousti-
cal property of a room which depends only on its dimensions
and the absorptive properties of its surface and content.
Reverberation impacts on speech intelligibility.
In England and Wales, the Building Regulations state that
‘each room or other space in a building shall be designed and
constructed in such a way that it has the acoustic conditions and
the insulation against disturbance by noise appropriate to its
187
intended use’. Sample requirements for reverberation times (in
seconds) are <2 (swimming pools), <1.5 (indoor sports halls and
gymnasiums), <1.2 (dance studios) and <0.8–1.2 (multi-purpose
halls for physical education, drama, assembly, occasional music).
By comparison, the outdoors reverberation time is 0, that of
Glyndebourne Opera House is 1.3 and that of St Paul’s Cathedral
is 13 (a long reverberation time can make musical notes blend
together too much, making it difficult to pick out individual notes
in fast, complex passages).
Absorption coefficient
The amount of sound energy that can be absorbed by a surface
is given by its absorption coefficient ‘α’, which takes values in
the range 0–1. A totally reflective surface (one which absorbs no
sound) has an absorption coefficient of 0 (0%) and a totally
absorptive surface (that absorbs all sound incidents on it) has an
absorption coefficient of 1 (100%).
One of the biggest reflectors of sound (noise) is the plastered
masonry wall, which has a sound absorption coefficient of 0.02.
This compares with 0.03 for a glass window, 0.08 for a timber
door, 0.59 for heavy carpet on concrete, 0.70 for heavy fabric and
0.80 for cloth seats. Commercially-available noise control prod-
ucts include hanging banners and baffles, acoustic screens, wall
panels, ceiling tiles, acoustical doors and windows, acoustical
foams and sound diffusers. Acoustic timber wall panels, for exam-
ple, are available with sound absorption coefficients up to 1.00.
Sound absorption materials should be planned into the design
of sports facilities. They can also be added as retrofit applications,
22.2
Garnerville Police Training College, Belfast: Gymnasium (2006)
as the need for noise reduction within existing sports buildings
is addressed.
Coincidence effect
With some materials, stiffness combines with mass to produce a
resonance effect, known as the coincidence effect. This is caused
by flexural waves in the partition. For a brick wall the effect may
occur at an insignificant 100Hz (the human ear is most sensitive
to frequencies between 1kHz and 3kHz – a 1kHz tone will sound
much louder than a 100Hz tone of the same pressure level).
However, window glass has coincidence frequencies in the upper
audible range (windows are usually the weakest part of the build-
ing envelope for sound insulation).
Noise criteria curves
The Handbook of Facilities Management defines the noise criteria
(NC) as a single numerical index commonly used to define design
goals for the maximum allowable noise in a given space. It is
commonly used for noise produced by a ventilation system but
may be applied to other noise sources. The NC consists of a family
of curves that defines the maximum allowable octave-band sound
pressure level corresponding to a chosen NC level. The curves
provide a convenient way of defining ambient noise level in terms
188
of octave band sound pressure levels. They consist of a family of
curves relating the spectrum of noise to an environment. Thus
higher noise levels (measured in decibels) may be allowed at
lower frequencies because of the fact that the ear is less sensitive
to noise at lower frequencies. Any measuring of loudness must
take this frequency sensitivity into account. Typical NC levels in
sports facilities developments are 35–40 (gymnasiums, racquet
courts, indoor swimming pools).
Sound transmission class
Minimum acceptable standards for safe noise levels have been
established in the USA by federal regulatory agencies the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). According to OSHA,
5–10 million Americans are at risk from noise-induced hearing
loss (NIHL) because they are exposed to sounds louder than 85dB
on a sustained basis in the workplace. Also, 48 million Americans
engage in shooting sports, the most common cause of non-
occupational NIHL (socioacusis). More males than females have
NIHL – it is believed that 1.8% of American males have handicap-
ping NIHL.
Regarding buildings, and depending on the cause of the noise,
excessive noise levels can be reduced to acceptable levels by
specific action. The two primary sources of unwanted sound –
high noise levels and excessive reverberation – can be dampened
by adding acoustical absorbents in the affected areas.
22.3
Sports centre car park:
planting reduces noise and visual intrusion (2008)
In the USA, the degree of insulation of airborne sound pro-
vided by a given material is indicated by its Sound Transmission
Class (STC) rating. This is widely used to rate partitions, ceilings,
floors, doors, windows and exterior walls. The STC number is
derived from sound attenuation values tested at 16 standard
frequencies from 124–4000Hz. These transmission-loss values are
then plotted on a sound pressure level graph and the resulting
curve is compared to a standard reference contour. Acoustical
engineers fit these values to the appropriate transmission loss (TL)
curve to determine an STC rating.
For sports facilities the STC rating falls between 40–60, for
example the guidelines for gymnasiums, squash and racquetball
courts and indoor swimming pools is 45–55 (these facilities are
also subject to a measured reverberation time guideline of 0.8–1.4
seconds). The higher the STC rating, the better is the level of sound
absorption.
Sound reduction index
Outside the USA the Sound Reduction Index (SRI) ISO standard
is used. This too is a measure of decibels lost when a sound of a
given frequency is transmitted through, say, a partition. It should
be noted that doubling the mass of a partition does not double
the STC or SRI. Doubling mass, for example by going from two
sheets of drywall to four, typically adds 5–6 points to the STC. The
‘mass law’ (a general rule) implies that doubling the mass per unit
of a partition increases transmission loss by 6dB (in practice this
189
is generally below 6dB). Transmission loss can be achieved more
effectively by decoupling the panels from each other than by add-
ing mass to a monolithic wall, floor and ceiling assembly.
Sound reduction
The reduction in sound pressure level between adjacent rooms
in a building depends not only on the sound reduction index of
the separating wall but also on its area, the acoustic absorption
present in the receiving room and the amount of transmission by
flanking paths (indirect transmission routes). As general sound
reduction measures are implemented, flanking paths become
more important considerations. It may be difficult to better 60dB
sound level difference without special measures, such as struc-
tural discontinuities, to reduce the flanking transmission.
Methods of reducing the effects of unwanted sound include
eliminating the sound, introducing acoustical absorbents, chang-
ing the shape or layout of an area, applying background sound
or isolating the source of the sound and/or vibration. Acoustical
treatments include the use of walls and other barriers, soft acousti-
cal materials and air space (the larger the space, and the further
sound travels within it, the more it is absorbed). Extending walls
beyond dropped ceilings can give better acoustical control than
stopping internal walls at the dropped ceiling height.
Structural insulation materials are commonly in the form of
sprayed coating, applied directly to the surface, or of laminated
or monolithic (low density) boards. These are used to provide
technologies
thermal insulation, fire resistance, acoustic insulation (spray and
board) and sound reduction (spray). Acoustic ceiling tiles reduce
echo within a hall or room and reduce sound transmission
between rooms. They may form part of a suspended ceiling or be
attached directly to the underside of the ceiling. A common mate-
rial for acoustic ceiling tiles is open-cell melamine-based foam
which may have a Hypalon-coated surface.
Sound may not only emanate from within an enclosed space
but may also be introduced into the space through walls, floors
and ceilings. In conventional wall construction, alternate studs
can support the sides of the wall in such a way that through con-
nection from one wall surface to another is eliminated (this is
sometimes known as double-wall construction). Reductions in
the passage of sound between the wall surfaces can also be
achieved by filling the space within the walls with sound-absorb-
ing material. Other options include introducing approximately
75–100mm (3–4in) of sand into the walls at the baseboard and
laying sound-absorbent fabric over the partitions in suspended
ceiling construction.
Unwanted sound or noise may be transmitted into halls or
rooms by ventilating ducts, pipes or spaces around pipe sleeves.
Transmission of sound through ducts can be reduced by the use
of baffles or by lining the ducts with sound-absorbent (and, logi-
cally, also fire-resistant) materials. The ductwork connections may
also be designed to incorporate fabric or rubberised material to
interrupt sound transmission through the metal. Pipes can be
covered and pipe sleeves filled. Insulation products may be
textile-based or of magnesia or calcium, potassium or sodium
silicate bound by fibres and compressed into blocks or sections
(for pipe lagging) or powdered for application in plastic form.
Keeping noisy spaces separate from those intended to be free
from noise is much easier to achieve at project outset. The issue of
plantroom-generated noise and vibration should be addressed early
in the planning and design process, to eliminate or minimise sound
effects on activities taking place within the sports facilities develop-
ment. Chillers and large boilers can present severe noise problems,
particularly at low frequencies where corrective measures are dif-
ficult to achieve. Enclosures can be used to suppress the noise from
a stationary machine or item of plant such as a diesel generator. For
them to be effective, they should have few or no openings. Where
this is not possible because of the need to ventilate, properly
designed attenuated air routes are required. The effectiveness of
such enclosures is enhanced by lining internally with an acoustical
absorbent. Machinery vibration can be reduced by installing
190
equipment on floating or resilient mountings or bearings. A buffer
zone formed by a corridor or storage area around the plantroom is
a useful noise control measure. Otherwise double walls and double
doors may be needed between areas that are noisy and areas that
must be quiet. Single doors having a sound insulation greater than
35dB are expensive and difficult to install. Seals are necessary
around the edge, to prevent sound leakages, and these may make
the door hard to open and shut (a better option is often two mod-
erately insulating doors separated by an absorbent-lined ‘sound
lock’). All window and door locations must be considered in the
light of acoustic, noise and vibration criteria at project outset.
Maintenance considerations
Acoustical materials have their own special maintenance needs.
Tile fractures or fabric tears clearly require urgent attention
because damaged acoustical materials cease to carry out their
function. It should be noted that oil-base paint reduces the sound-
absorbent qualities of most materials. The most common treat-
ment of acoustical fibre is with a lightly brushed coating of
water-base paint. Most acoustical materials lose their efficiency
after several applications of paint.
External acoustics
Sports facilities usually have adjacent walkways and surface car
parks, where a great deal of user-noise may be generated with
the hard surfaces acting acoustically like the hard surfaces within
the building. Ameliorating elements include shrubbery, trees and
grass.
Clouds
Perhaps the most dramatic acoustical device for sports facilities
is the fabricated ‘cloud’. Continuous jets of air are used to form
an ‘air roof’, tent-like in shape, over a large open arena. This can
not only eliminate the need for a membrane or pneumatic roof
but can also be used for sound control.
22.4
Sportcity, Manchester: B of the Bang (2005)

B of the Bang
At its time of erection in 2004 this 56m (184ft) tall sculpture,
adjacent to the City of Manchester Stadium, was the tallest in
Britain. It takes its name from Linford Christie’s comment that he
started his races not just at the ‘bang’ of the starting pistol but at
the ‘B of the Bang’. This explosion of sound was captured by
Thomas Heatherwick in weathering steel with 180 tapering hol-
low steel sections – spikes – radiating from a point 22m (72ft)
above ground, where they are supported by five 25m (82ft) taper-
ing steel ‘legs’. The sculpture weighs 165 tonnes and has 20m
(65ft) deep foundations weighing more than 1000 tonnes. In 2009
the future of the sculpture was placed in doubt, but the image of
the sculpture is a truly dramatic representation of coruscating
sound.

191
23.1
Western High School, Washington DC:
when do we get Electric Lights? (circa 1899)
Chapter 23

Lighting

The Electric Light Orchestra lamps are economic to buy and easy to change, with individual
fittings capable of holding different sizes of lamp. They do, how-
In 1879 there was the beginning of a global lighting revolution ever, have excessively high spot brightness and give off consider-
orchestrated by competition between inventors including Thomas able heat, which can cause problems when high levels of
Edison, William Edward Sawyer and Philip Diehl (USA), Henry illumination are necessary. Lighting innovations have been moving
Woodward and Mathew Evans (Canada) and Joseph Swann (UK). towards enhanced illumination at lower cost. Fluorescent lamps
The first public building in the world to use Edison’s new incan- offer longevity and at least two-and-a-half times the amount of
descent lamps was the Mahen Theatre in Brno, Moldavia (now light of incandescent lamps, for the same electrical current usage
Czech Republic). Francis Jehl, Edison’s assistant in the invention (the latter advantage led to their introduction into many old build-
of the lamp, supervised the installation at Brno in 1882. In the ings in order to raise the illumination level without installing new
following year the Czech National Theatre in Prague became the
most technically advanced building of its type in the world, with
the installation of electric illumination and a constructional steel
stage. These buildings accommodated dance and ballet training
and performance, placing sports-type facilities at the heart of the
electric light revolution. The lamps were the first that would last
a practical length of time – 13.5 hours initially.

Types of electric light

Electric lighting types were developed to include incandescent,
fluorescent, mercury-vapour, metal halide, quartz and sodium-
vapour. The first known attempt to produce an incandescent light
bulb was made by the British astronomer and chemist Warren De
la Rue in 1840. He enclosed a platinum coil in an evacuated tube
and passed an electric current through it. The design was efficient
but the cost of the platinum made it impractical. The incandescent 23.2
light is instantaneous, burns without sound and is not affected by Secondary Modern School, Hunstanton:
the number of times the light is turned on and off. Incandescent along main block towards gymnasium (1954)

193

wiring). Mercury-vapour lighting is relatively expensive to install
but, in life cycle terms, is cheaper than incandescent. Its bluish
colour is not always appropriate but very satisfactory lighting
systems can be achieved by its use in combination with incandes-
cent lighting. Mercury-vapour lights have, however, been super-
seded by metal halide lights which do not last as long but operate
more efficiently, without the blue tinge. Metal halide high-intensity
discharge (HID) lamps emit five times the light of incandescent
lamps without producing intense heat. Because of their superior
colour rendition, metal halides are a particularly appropriate
choice if a venue is to host televised events.
Quartz lights and high-pressure sodium lights are outdoor
lights which have, in recent years, been used indoors too. Quartz
lights are similar to incandescent lights but have a slight bronze
colour and are a little more efficient. High-pressure sodium lights
are highly efficient and give the best output of the types described.
Their drawback is a yellow-bronze hue which is not always
appropriate.
General sports lighting is usually achieved through a regular
arrangement of luminaires. A luminaire is a complete light fitting
including lamp or lamps, optical components and control gear.
Height and design of the sports facilities ceiling determine the
choice of luminaire. Options include recessed (for mounting in
cavities or ceiling voids, often flush with a ceiling), surface-
mounted (for mounting directly on the ceiling, with the luminaire
housing visible) and pendant, or suspended. Luminaires are dif-
ferentiated on the basis of type (e.g. incandescent, fluorescent,
discharge), number of lamps (e.g. single, twin, cluster), intended
location (interior, exterior), degree of protection (against damp,
dust), type of construction (open, enclosed, reflector, specular
reflector, louvred, diffuser, floodlight) and application (technical,
decorative). A manufacturer’s specification might include:
194
23.3
Highgate Wood School sports
hall, Haringey, London
(circa 1970)
• IP classification;
• light output ratio;
• flux fraction ratio;
• polar curve and/or intensity distribution data;
• spacing-to-height ratio;
• utilisation factors;
• glare index table.
Measuring illuminance
The foot-candle (fc, ft-c) is a non-SI measure of the amount of
light generated at a distance of 1ft from the light source. Therefore
100fc = 100 candles of light at 1ft from a lamp. A lumen (lm) is
a metric measure of the amount of light reaching the object to
be illuminated (1fc = 1lm/ft2). Candlepower, or candela (CD), is
a non-SI measure of the amount of light that a bulb or LED pro-
duces, measured at the bulb or LED (1CD = 1lm/m2).
The SI-derived unit of illuminance is the lux (an abbreviation
of lumens per square metre). Because 1fc = 1lm/ft2 and 1lux =
1lm/m2, and because 1ft2 = 0.0929 m2, then 1 lux = 0.0929fc
and 1fc = 10.76 lux. In the lighting industry this is typically
approximated to 1fc = 10 lux.
Recommendations for illumination of sports activities have
during the past 60 years included 5fc (skating, dance), 10fc (swim-
ming), 20fc (bowling, volleyball), 30fc (badminton, gymnasium
exhibitions, handball, squash), 50fc (basketball, ice hockey), 200fc
(professional boxing). Today, the required illumination levels for
sports activities are usually within the range 30–150fc. Using the
above-quoted conversion factor, North American foot-candles can
quickly be converted into European lux, and vice versa.

The glasshouse
The biggest source of illuminance is, of course, the sun. In the
UK, between 1944 and 1954, the British government built 2500
schools. Hunstanton School, constructed 1949–54, was designed
by Peter and Alison Smithson and epitomised the Modernist
architectural experiment of post-war Britain. The steel frames and
glass walls of its school buildings and gymnasium allowed natural
light to flood in, as intended. But glass is a poor insulator and
caused the buildings to heat up (like a greenhouse) in the summer
and to cool down too much in the winter. Despite this, Norfolk’s
resilient pupils of the 1950s liked ‘the glasshouse’, as it was
known locally, and it became something of a blueprint for sub-
sequent British school building design (today the school is largely
as initially designed but with some black panels introduced to
mitigate the solar gain). Glazing is similarly integral to the North
American learning experience, with states such as Washington,
Oregon, Montana and Idaho recommending daylight as the pri-
mary source of illumination in classrooms and school
gymnasiums.
The Blind Box
The award-winning Highgate Wood School Sports Hall was com-
missioned by the London Borough of Haringey in the early 1970s.
It was designed by Chapman/Lisle Associates, working with
Anthony Hunt Associates (in what must have been one of Tony
Hunt’s earliest sports facility projects). By way of complete con-
trast to Hunstanton, this building design was driven by the then
current view that only artificial lighting offered the control neces-
sary for optimising playing conditions for indoor sports. The brief
was for an artificially lit sports hall of standard dimensions with
changing rooms and ancillary facilities. The design team’s response
was to include all the accommodation in a single, simple form.
Design of the structure and fabric became a giant exercise in
packaging, with the 36.8m × 23.2m × 8m (120ft × 76ft × 26ft)
high building delineated by its elegant and contrastingly-painted
RHS frame. Within the building, the lighting was integrated with
the RHS purlins and ‘fish bellied’ RHS trusses which span the
23.2m.
195
lighting
The importance of lighting
in sports facilities
In the UK, preparation of the Sports Council’s 1984 design note
on sports hall lighting (see the References) was preceded by a
survey covering technical aspects, costs and user opinion of light-
ing in small multi-purpose halls. The purpose of the survey was
to aid understanding and ensure the relevance of recommenda-
tions. Of all responses stating that the hall characteristics were
liked, 15% related to lighting. Of all the hall characteristics dis-
liked, 35% related to lighting. Of all reasons given for preferring
one hall to another, 22% concerned lighting. This feedback
flagged up to owners, operators and designers the importance of
lighting to sports building users.
The Sports Council stated that existing recommendations
concerning lighting standards for recreational play in indoor
sports halls were not satisfactory. It considered it ‘impossible to
meet the lighting requirements of users in both a daylit hall with
roof lights and a blind box’. A principal recommendation was
that:
‘the design of small multi-purpose sports halls should aim
at the provision of average illumination levels at badminton
net height of at least 400 lux. Also consideration should
be given to the achievement of even illumination through-
out; lighting type, layout and hall decorations are crucial
to this’.
Incident lighting
Incident lighting is expressed in terms of probable sunlight hours.
These are the total number of hours per year when the sun would,
under typical cloud conditions, shine directly onto a given point.
In any new building in the UK in which sunlight is desirable, two
Building Research Establishment (BRE) recommendations for
incident lighting should be met: one principal window wall
should face within 90° of due south; along this window wall,
every point on the standard 2m (6.55ft) reference line (i.e. 2m
above ground level) should be within 4m (measured sideways) of
a point exposed to at least one-quarter of the annual probable
hours of sunlight on an open site (these hours of exposure should

23.4
Harborough Leisure Centre: uplighter (2008)
include at least 5% of probable hours of sunlight in the six winter
months between 21 September and 21 March).
Sports facilities lighting
Lighting design for sports facilities is about producing good visibil-
ity which meets the requirements of the sports being played.
Natural lighting has to be considered from the earliest planning
stages of a sports facilities project. This is because glazed areas
of the building must be correctly positioned and sized to achieve
uniform natural illumination which avoids glare, reflections,
unwanted solar gain and heat loss. The lighting designer has to
take into account the prospective background (tone, colour and
variation), roof configuration and any planned storage (e.g. gym
equipment). Associated considerations at the early stages include
screening (blinds, planting) and protection to low-level glazing
(use of safety glass). External shading devices include reveals,
horizontal and vertical overhangs, vertical sun-screen, rotating
panels, rollershades with vertical slide bar, awnings, sliding or
rotating shutters, vertical or horizontal fixed or moveable louvers,
lightshelves, trees, shrubs and vines. Additional shading devices
include Venetian blinds, roller blinds and prismatic elements
(interpane and internal) and lightshelves, reflective blinds, cur-
tains, tilted and/or reflective surfaces (internal).
Lighting design for sports facilities is holistic and incorporates
the daylight system, artificial system and control system.
Maximising the use of natural light promotes energy efficiency,
but it cannot eliminate the need for artificial lighting and associ-
ated controls. Evaluating artificial lighting options involves con-
sidering quality of light, visual comfort, uniformity of illumination,
lighting type, position (ceiling mounted uplighters and/or down-
lighters, and/or wall/track-mounted lights), energy efficiency,
length of life, radiation of heat, initial and ongoing costs, and
ease of cleaning and replacement.
Achieving uniformity of illumination necessitates eliminating
dark areas. Uniformity can be measured as a ratio of the brightest
196
to the darkest area of a sports surface: the lower the number the
better is the uniformity of illumination. Using different lighting
patterns, including combinations of wide and narrow beams,
decreases dark areas. Advances in reflector technology are also
leading to the replacement of traditional standard symmetrical
reflectors with new generation reflectors of shapes that redirect
off-field spill light. Computer programs have been developed to
aid the design process.
Lights in arenas, sports halls and other high-ceiling activity
spaces should be a minimum of 7.3m (24ft) above the playing
surface so that they will not interfere with mandatory clearance
heights for indoor sports. Indoor lighting systems are generally
direct or indirect. Direct lighting systems are overhead and face
down to the floor. Indirect lighting systems face some other direc-
tion, such as side walls or ceiling, reflecting light to reduce glare
(e.g. for volleyball, to protect against glare to eyes following
high-flying balls). Indirect lighting is more expensive to provide
because with each reflection the amount of travelling light is
diminished. Therefore more energy is consumed in indirect light-
ing than in direct lighting, to achieve the same area illumination.
Both direct and indirect lighting must be designed to achieve the
required illumination without causing glare or shadows on the
playing surface. Certain indoor sports have specific lighting
requirements, for example lighting should not be positioned
within a 4m (13ft) radius of a basketball basket.
In general, sports involving small balls and fast movement call
for higher lighting levels of at least 300 lux (27.9fc). Also, some
sports may require special lighting. Examples include the use of
high illuminances for TV broadcasting, vapour-proof fittings in
appropriate areas of facilities and underwater lighting in swim-
ming pools. Apart from such special requirements, consideration
should be given to standardising the light fittings as much as
possible in order to reduce the quantities and varieties of spares
that must be stored on site.
Consideration should be given to the shielding of fittings and/
or the use of impact-resistant covers. If struck by a ball, then a
luminaire must withstand any damage that might otherwise cause
component parts to fall to the ground. Care must be taken that
the grid dimensions of the lamp enclosure are substantially
smaller than missiles which may be used, so that, say, balls or
shuttlecocks cannot lodge in the fitting or its protective grille.
The need for emergency lighting provision raises the issues of
a generator or batteries, automatic changeover devices and the
use of a separate circuit to light strategic routes and exits.
Table 23.1  Power conversion for typical white light sources

Incandescent (100W) Fluorescent (linear CW) Metal halide White LED

Visible light (%) 5 21 27 15–30

Infrared (%) 83 37 17 0
Ultraviolet (%) 0 0 19 0
Total radiant energy (%) 88 58 63 15–30
Heat: conduction and convection (%) 12 42 37 70–85
Total 100% 100% 100% 100%

Provision must be made for access to the lighting and to glazed lamps that reach the playing surface, the room proportions and
areas, such as rooflights, for cleaning, maintenance, repair and the ability of room surfaces to reflect light; LLF = light loss factors,
replacement. multiplier values used to estimate overall performance at different
Flexibility of the lighting system (i.e. various switching pos- times during the life of the lighting system (e.g. performance of
sibilities) should be considered where multiple uses of space are light and luminaire, maintenance level of system).
the norm. Dimmer switches may be incorporated for, say, lighting
to spectator areas.
Automation of lighting systems enables switching to be pro-
grammed to illuminate specific areas for specific purposes for The second lighting revolution
specific durations of time. This opens up huge cost-saving oppor-
tunities because, apart from the different lighting requirements of The electric lighting revolution of 1879 changed lifestyles forever
different sports, practice sessions – which do not require the same but came to be taken for granted as electric lighting became
quality of light – can account for more than five times as much widespread. There would be little change in its technology until
use as spectator events. Automated systems can optimise lighting Nick Holonya Jnr invented the first practical light-emitting diode
to shared facilities to meet the needs of different activities in the (LED) in 1962. Light in an LED is emitted from a solid object – a
most energy-efficient way. Lighting control considerations include block of semiconductors – rather than the conventional vacuum
the physical location of the central control point (e.g. reception, or gas tube, as in incandescent light bulbs and fluorescent lamps.
office). The first LEDs (which were red) became commercially available
in the late 1960s. Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation, Japan,
D N  R  built a prototype brilliant blue light LED in 1993. Sport took a
C R
DT leading role in LED technology use, notably in stadium and arena
Dirt depreciation high-profile signage and display applications in North America.
In 1995 Alberto Barbieri developed a transparent contact made
In the late 1990s the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) by indium tin oxide while investigating the efficiency and reli-
funded a three-year study of luminaire (lighting fixture) dirt depre- ability of high-brightness LEDs at Cardiff University, Wales.
20,000mm
ciation 365mm
undertaken  6,000mm
by the 
interNational Association of Lighting Subsequently, Nakamura would develop a phosphor coating to
C  6,000mm
20,000mm  800mm
Management Companies (NALMCO). Luminaire dirt depreciation mix yellow light with blue to produce a light that appears white.
(LDD) factors used at the time derived from the 1950s, when In 2006 Nakamura was awarded Finland’s Millennium Technology
20,000mm  6,365mm

smoking was the norm and  6,000mm
air-conditioning was provided by Prize for his invention of high brightness blue and white LEDs.
20,800mm
opening windows. Analysis of the results of the study indicated The ‘solid state lighting’ revolution had begun in earnest.
that 127,300mm
existing light 6,000mm
loss factors relating to dirt and dust build-up
  120mm
on fixture 20,800mm
surfaces overestimated the extent of light loss. This
offered the opportunity, in lighting designs, to reduce the number
of fixtures required to maintain light levels while achieving initial Solid state lighting (SSL)
and operating cost savings. For new installations the number of
fixtures required is: The term ‘solid state lighting’ derives from the fact that light in
an LED is emitted from a solid object. SSL uses light-emitting
diodes (LEDs), organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) or polymer

N
 lighted area   desired light level   product  lumens
fixture  CU  LLF
In the above equation: CU = coefficient of utilisation, a derating
factor which shows the percentage of lumens produced by the
light-emitting diodes (PLED) as sources of illumination. These
sources provide light to be seen rather than light to be seen by.
The brightness levels of the newest devices are now viable for a
wide range of applications and further improvements will make
LEDs competitive on performance and cost with traditional
sources for general purpose lighting. Principal advantages of using

197
technologies

LEDs include design choice, energy-efficiency, reliability, tough-

ness and durability, reduced maintenance requirement, fast start-
up, good low-temperature performance, digital control and
low-voltage operation.
Using the latest drivers and controllers, LEDs provide almost
limitless choice of light – colour, intensity and distribution –
beyond anything possible with traditional light sources. Because
they are typically much smaller than conventional light sources,
LEDs can combine unobtrusiveness with a wide colour range for
dramatic lighting designs, including dynamic and complex three-
dimensional effects.
Lighting consumes approximately 25% of all electrical energy
used globally. SSL can be 20 times more efficient than incandes-
cent lights and five times more efficient than fluorescent lighting.
Because LEDs use low DC currents, small exterior installations
can be powered by solar cells, so taking advantage of ‘free’
energy. Widespread changeover to LED lighting technology will
deliver substantial energy savings plus environmental benefits
including reductions in CO2 emissions, acid rain and hazardous
waste (such as mercury).
23.5
Unlike light bulbs, LEDs dim gradually over time and do not
Stairway: Marl CreativeArc LED architectural lighting (2008)
‘blow’. Manufacturers specify LED ‘life’ as the time for the light
output to dim to 70% of its initial value, typically 50,000 hours.
In reality, most single colour LEDs (e.g. red, green, blue) will
exceed this, with 100,000 to 150,000 hours of use possible if the announcements, queue management, gambling, entertainment,
device operates within maximum ratings and adequate heatsink- retailing and advertising.
ing is provided. Being a newer, less mature technology, the best An example of the possibilities of the technology is demon-
white LEDs have a life of around 35,000 hours (four years of strated by rock band Massive Attack’s world tour of 2006, which
continuous operation). took in venues ranging from theatres and ballrooms to stadiums
Because they are solid-state devices, LEDs are highly resistant and arenas. United Visual Artists (UVA) used 240 Chroma-Q™
to vibration, making them ideal for applications in which this can Color Blocks to create a hemispherical, curving LED screen of
cause the early failure of conventional light sources. Their long high-impact lighting and video effects. These ranged from scroll-
life expectancy makes them suitable for encapsulating into weath- ing text statistics for ‘Safe from Harm’ to organic, warm patterns
erproof housings for outdoor use. for ‘Teardrop’, blue-and-white point-sources for ‘Inertia Creeps’
Once installed and working, LEDs should seldom need replac- and bold audio-driven looks for ‘Karmacoma’.
ing. They can therefore eliminate costly and/or potentially danger-
ous maintenance work. These attributes make them particularly
suitable in inaccessible or awkward applications.
The above-named advantages have brought about a steady GaN LED lighting
increase over recent years in the use of LED displays to provide
people with dynamic information and messaging. The capability On 28 January 2009 it was announced that Cambridge University
to display instant real-time messages, coupled with low power researchers at the Cambridge Centre for Gallium Nitride (CCGN),
and low maintenance, makes LED signage a cost-effective solu- with funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research
tion for many applications, including travel information, warning Council (EPSRC), had found a new way of producing LEDs which

198
23.6
Muncaster Castle Sports and Activities Centre, Cumbria:
Marl CreativeArc LED architectural lighting (2008)

can bring their cost down by up to 75%. This new technology

uses Gallium Nitride (GaN), an artificial semiconductor which
emits a bright light but uses very little electricity. Colin Humphries,
Head of the CCGN and Professor of Materials Science at
Cambridge University, said, ‘Gallium Nitride is probably the most
important semiconductor material since silicon. It emits brilliant
light as well as being the key material for next generation high
frequency, high power transistors capable of operating at high
temperatures’.
GaN-based lighting is not in itself new but has, to date, been
expensive to produce. The new technique grows GaN on silicon
wafers, which brings down manufacturing costs by 90% (UK
company RFMD is setting up production in Durham). The new 23.7
technology also offers a 50% boost in efficiency over previous GaN-based LED lights (February 2009)
methods which used GaN grown in laboratories on expensive
sapphire wafers. The current prototype was found in tests to be
12 times more efficient than traditional tungsten and three times
more efficient than fluorescents. Scientists anticipate that switch- (100,000 hours), environmental friendliness (no mercury content)
ing to GaN could cut the proportion of UK electricity used for and operational efficiencies (instant response, no flicker,
lighting from 20% to 5%. Additional advantages include long life dimmable).

199
24.1
Road direction sign: to leisure centre (2008)
Chapter 24

Communications

Communication and sports facilities exciting possibilities in video-streaming, covering corporate

identity, match-scoring, forthcoming events and commercial
Physical exercise is the most obvious defining activity of a sports advertising.
facilities development but communication is also a defining char-
acteristic. It starts with directions from the highway and local road
networks and with the building’s name, which is usually displayed
at high level outside the reception area. If these basic communica-
tions are unsuccessful, then the sports facilities development will
be unsuccessful. Within the building there is staff-to-staff, staff-to-
user and user-to-user communication on just about anything. Voice
enhancement and communication systems range from the simple
microphone to sophisticated PA systems and from the land-line
telephone to the cell phone. There is interactivity between user
and gym equipment. Signage is not only important but, in some
cases, mandatory, covering health and safety issues, directional
advice, instructions and information. There is broadcasting to LCD
or plasma screens installed in gyms, studios, restaurants and public
areas. There is also the personal wiring for sound that enables
exercisers to work out while listening to their own choice of music
or, say, a language-learning course.
Solid state lighting (see Chapter 23) enabled companies in
the computer industry to start building text and graphic displays
using standard computer graphics cards and PC hardware. The
mass market consumer electronics industry is now making pro-
grammable digital signal processing (DSP) chipsets intended for
HDTV and digital TV set-top boxes, streaming media encoders
and flat panel LED projectors and desktop/laptop computer
displays. The new LED technologies have brought into the every-
day sports facilities environment ultra-wide screen video dis-
plays, electronic fascia signage, round and curved video displays 24.2
and exterior building animation. They have opened up new and Harborough Leisure Centre: gym – health and safety notice (2008)

201
Table 24.1  Text viewing ranges (approximate) – emboldened values are acceptable exposure times

Maximum viewing time Maximum viewing

(seconds) Character size distance
5 mph 15 mph 25 mph 35 mph 45 mph 55 mph 65 mph 75 mph In mm ft m
8 km/h 24 km/h 40 km/h 56 km/h 72 km/h 89 km/h 105km/h 121km/h

13.7 4.6 2.7 1.9 1.5 1.2 1.1 0.9 2 51 100 30

41.1 13.7 8.2 5.8 4.6 3.7 3.2 2.7 6 152 300 91
61.6 20.5 12.3 8.8 6.8 5.6 4.7 4.1 9 229 450 137
89.0 29.7 17.8 12.7 9.9 8.1 6.8 5.9 13 330 650 198
123.3 41.1 24.6 17.5 13.7 11.2 9.5 8.2 18 457 900 274
164.4 54.8 32.8 23.4 18.2 14.9 12.6 10.9 24 610 1200 366
246.6 82.2 49.2 35.1 27.3 22.3 18.9 16.4 36 914 1800 549
328.8 109.6 65.6 46.8 36.4 29.8 25.2 21.8 48 1219 2400 732

Table 24.2  Appropriate pixel pitch for display application (based on traffic speed and desired display content)

Speed Pixel pitch

7.6mm (0.3in) 12mm (0.47in) 20mm (0.78in) 34mm (1.33in) 46mm (1.8in) 89mm (3.5in)

5 mph T&G TO TO
8 km/h
15 mph T&G T&G TO TO
24 km/h
25 mph T&G T&G TO TO
40 km/h
35 mph T&G T&G T&G TO
56 km/h
45 mph T&G T&G T&G TO
72 km/h
55 mph T&G T&G TO
89 km/h
65 mph T&G T&G
105km/h
75 mph T&G
121km/h

T&G = text and graphics recommendation

TO = text only recommendation

Effective communication
Table 24.3  Closest approximate distance when light emitted
from pixels begins to blend into a continuous picture Some aspects of communication are quantifiable. To understand a
message, a viewer must have sufficient time to read the message
Pixel pitch Minimum viewing distance
content. This necessitates considerations of maximum and minimum
12mm (0.47in) 20ft (6m) viewing distances, mode of travel of the viewer (on foot or bicycle,
20mm (0.78in) 45ft (14m) or in a car) and the speed at which the viewer is travelling. Tables
34mm (1.33in) 75ft (23m) 24.1 to 24.3 are used by Daktronics, LED display designer and
46mm (1.8in) 105ft (32m) manufacturer, for clients specifying its products and, in particular,
89mm (3.5in) 200ft (61m) for those specifying its Galaxy ® text and graphics displays.

Signage
In the 1980s the International Standards Organization (ISO) tested
symbols for signage with a multilingual audience. ISO developed
the symbol of a running man and a door, indicating both the

202
24.3
Harborough Leisure Centre:
reception information sign – poolometer (2008)
direction of egress and the way in which the door opened at the
point of exit. This safety symbol, the first to be based on compre-
hensive communications research, was in 1987 incorporated in
ISO 6309. Three years later BS 5499: Part 1 dealt with safety signs,
means of escape and fire-fighting equipment identification. By
drawing on the ISO standard, this British Standard helped to
establish an international standard of recognition.
In the UK, following the principles and practices of British
Standards goes a long way towards meeting the requirements of
the UK Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations
(No. 341). This legislation was formed from, and satisfies, the
European Community Safety Signs Directive EEC/92/58. The
Regulations offer design criteria which can be adapted within
sensible limits, and the EC Directive offers guidelines as opposed
to a code.
The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations
were introduced to create a standardisation of signs so that a
given symbol would instantly convey a given message using a
combination of geometrical shape, colour and picture element.
The Regulations did not specify the circumstances in which signs
should be displayed because this was considered to be the respon-
sibility of the building owner and/or operator, working with
professional advisors and the appropriate certifying authority.
While neither the Safety Sign Regulations nor British Standards
specified requirements for the cleaning and maintenance of safety
signs, any sign must be kept clean and be repaired as necessary
to convey its message effectively. It is also important to ensure
203
that directional and safety signs are never obscured by advertising
or information displays.
BS 5499: Part 4 (BSI 2000), Safety Signs was published in
September 2000. This included ‘Fire Safety Signs, Code of
Practice for Escape Route Signing’. In the Code, maximum view-
ing distances were devised by Dr G M B Webber using a Japanese
visual acuity study of normal-sighted people based on the use
of Landolt rings. (A Landolt ring is an optotype, a standardised
symbol used for testing vision, which consists of a ring with a
gap and looks like the letter ‘C’. The gap can be at various posi-
tions – usually left, right, top bottom and at the 45° positions in
between these points. The task of the tested person is to decide
on which side the gap is.) All signs conforming to BS 5499: Part
1 and BS 5499: Part 4, used in conjunction with a formal risk
assessment, are deemed to satisfy all requirements under Building,
Fire Precaution and Health and Safety at Work Regulations and
Legislation.
The Research Group for Inclusive Environments at Reading
University developed a proposal to assess the influence of a range
of criteria on the legibility and conspicuity of emergency escape
signs for use in the built environment and the production of
emergency escape route signage (EERS) design guidance suitable
for all building users. There are substantial advantages to be had
by developing a range of emergency escape signs that encompass
the needs of the visually impaired. For example, achieving accept-
ability for the visually impaired means achieving acceptability
for everyone and the cost of then manufacturing signs for
24.4
Beijing 2008 Olympics: the Water Cube, broadcasting (2008)

24.5
Beijing 2008 Olympics: Lenovo Main Press Centre i-lounge (2008)

204
24.6
Wicksteed Park, Northants:
Olympic Closing Ceremony broadcast to UK regions
(24 September 2008)
everyone need be no greater than producing signs for normal-
sighted people only. Components of the proposed study
included:
• luminance and luminance contrast of the graphical symbol
and of the background;
• uniformity of the luminance across the surface of the sign;
• angular size of the graphical symbols and the text;
• text style, where mixed case and upper case legends are
examined for internally illuminated signs;
• format of graphical symbols, including arrows;
• sign technologies including internally-lit fluorescent, elec-
troluminescent and LED types, and externally-illuminated
types;
• assessment under normal lighting and emergency lighting
conditions;
• viewing distance considerations.
The phone revolutions
Sports businesses are as phone-dependent as any other busi-
nesses. For example, sports centre staff need to keep in touch
with fitness instructors who may operate out of different venues
and across various sites, and sports centre users need to phone
in to check session times and make bookings.
205
The ‘talking telegraph’ was invented in 1849 by Antonio
Meucci, an Italian immigrant into the USA. In 1871 Meucci filed
a caveat – an intention to patent – on his invention but did not
renew the caveat. In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell filed a patent
for his version of the ‘telephone’, which he had developed
through researching into ways of helping deaf and mute people
communicate by recording speech vibrations. The earliest tele-
phones used telegraph lines or open-wire, single-wire earth return
circuits. The advent of electric trams in the 1880s induced noise
into the circuits and the telephone companies converted to bal-
anced circuits, which were themselves quickly superseded by
wire transposition, using twisted pair cables to cancel out interfer-
ence. The twisted pair cabling technology was adapted to handle
not only voice communication but also data communication such
as telex, fax and – in more recent years – the Internet.
In 1921 the AT&T Bell company began experimenting with
one-way phone systems between the Detroit Police Department
and its patrol cars. This objective was achieved by 1928, so the
first mobile phones were car phones. Within 20 years, wireless
telephone service had been achieved in almost 100 North
American cities. Reception was not always of the highest quality,
but the achievement was remarkable.
In 1978 AT&T Bell developed ‘cellular’ technology through test-
ing a mobile telephone system based on hexagonal geographical
regions called ‘cells’. As a caller’s vehicle passed from one cell to
another, an automatic switching system would transfer the call from
one cell to another without interruption. From 1983 the cellular

24.7
Garnerville Police Training College, Belfast: Gymnasium (2006)
telephone system began to be used nationally in the USA. The
mobile phones themselves were developed from the original brick-
like instruments into compact, elegant, lightweight accessories. In
addition to performing the standard voice function of a telephone,
today’s mobile phones may support additional services and func-
tions including Short Message Service (SMS) for text messaging,
email, packet switching for access to the Internet, gaming, Bluetooth,
infrared, camera with video recorder and Multimedia Messaging
Service (MMS) for sending and receiving photographs and video.
The telephone revolutions of the 1870s (land-line) and 1970s
(cell phone) make an interesting parallel with the artificial lighting
revolutions of the 1870s (electric) and 1960s (solid state) that
were covered in Chapter 23.
206
Conversing with gym equipment
When we are using gym equipment, we like instant feedback on
our performance so that we know if there is a need to ‘up the
tempo’ to achieve our progress aspirations (or moderate our efforts
to avoid collapse). Interactivity between user and machine is set
up by the user keying in value responses to some basic attribute-
type prompts delivered via a display screen. Thus, the user of, say,
a treadmill or cross trainer will be asked personal questions (e.g.
weight, age) and machine-setting questions (e.g. duration of ses-
sion). The equipment software may be quite sophisticated.
However, the user can easily work out the simpler things that the
machine wants to convey. For example, we want to do 30 minutes
on a treadmill, starting at 5mph (8kmh) and building up to 10mph
(16kmh). We want to know how far we’ve run. The distance run
is the product of starting speed + final speed multiplied by time
and divided by two. In this case the calculation is 5mph (starting
speed) + 10mph (final speed) multiplied by 0.5 (hours) and divided
by 2 = 3.75 miles. To work out the number of calories burned, the
equipment software takes user weight (input in response to a
prompt) and multiplies it by the distance run (calculated as dem-
onstrated). The calculation of the work rate is the number of calo-
ries burned divided by the time spent running.
With the cross trainer, calculations are even easier. This is
because each ‘step’ is fixed by the geometry of the machine. The
machine can take the user weight-input and combine it with the
distance-travelled calculation to produce the number of calories
burned. It uses current speed and weight information to display
the current work rate.
The rowing machine involves simply pushing with the legs
and pulling with the arms, using a chain linked to a large fan.
The level of difficulty is set by adjusting the air intake to the fan,
a process known as ‘adjusting the vent’. Sensors in the rowing
machine record the speed of rotation of the fan and how many
times it turns for each pull. For all its simplicity, the rowing
machine offers extensive feedback options ranging from calorie-
burn information to race scenario graphics and games (e.g. the
Concept 2 PM3 ‘Fishing Game’). The default language for gym
equipment may be English but, for equipment distributed in the
main European markets, available options for selection may
include all of the principal western European languages and all
Scandinavian languages.
 c o m m u n i c at i o n s

Rough
Maintenance requirement is an important consideration in sig-
nage design and installation. There are many situations in which
messages can become concealed or corrupted. We’ve chosen this
Desborough township (population 8500) sign to demonstrate both
possibilities. The sign fails to tell the traveller where they are
arriving, and could give the wrong impression of the welcome
he or she is likely to receive (the foliage was cut back at the end
of September 2008, six weeks after this photograph was taken).

24.8
Rough (2008)

207
25.1
Harborough Leisure Centre:
foyer fire safety equipment (2008)
Chapter 25
Safety and security
Definitions
‘Safety’ means the protection from accident of building occupants
or users and, to a lesser extent, of their possessions. ‘Security’
means the protection from wilful attack of building occupants or
users, their possessions and the property they occupy.
Safety
Entries to and exits from facilities must be clearly marked and
equipped with panic hardware. Emergency procedures need to
be posted and followed. Facilities must comply with appropriate
codes and regulations. Telephone and other emergency call sys-
tems must be available, together with first-aid equipment and
materials. Building users must comply with eye-guard and foot-
wear requirements. All activities must be conducted in accor-
dance with the appropriate rules and guidelines, which are
developed to incorporate safety standards. Facilities must be
cleaned regularly and equipment inspected periodically. If equip-
ment is found to be damaged or defective then it should be
repaired or replaced promptly.
Fire safety design
Fire is one of the most destructive threats to safety. Over the authors’
working lives the emphasis of fire safety in construction has moved
upstream from the manufacturer-driven consideration of fire
209
protection to the design concept-driven consideration of fire safety
design. This change in approach leads to more imaginative and
more elegant structures but necessitates dealing with fire safety
issues from project outset. Fire safety design is a vast topic and the
only reason for not devoting a whole (and substantial) chapter to it
is that its influence permeates the content of the book as a whole.
Summerland
On the night of 2 August 1973 fire spread through the Summerland
sports and leisure complex at Douglas, Isle of Man, killing 51
people and seriously injuring 80. This disaster was to sports and
recreational buildings what Ronan Point was to high rise develop-
ment, Hillsborough to stadiums and King’s Cross to transport
terminals. More than 35 years have now passed since the tragedy.
The events are recounted here to encourage diligence and to
eliminate complacency in those too young to be forever affected
by the salutary media coverage of the time.
Summerland had opened on 25 May 1971. It was a climate-
controlled 50,000ft² (4600m²) seven-storey concrete building
with adjacent Aquadrome (two heated swimming pools, sauna
and Turkish bath) and a miniature golf garden. It was designed to
accommodate up to 10,000 tourists. Facilities included a dance
area, games areas, restaurants and a public bar. Novel techniques
and new plastic materials were incorporated in its construction.
The street frontage and part of the roof were clad in a frosted
translucent acrylic glass sheeting called Oroglas.
The fire started around 19:30 hours and was caused by three
boys illicitly smoking in a small kiosk adjacent to the centre’s
25.2
Fire precaution and safety measures
mini-golf course. The burning kiosk keeled over against the exte-
rior of the building and the acrylic sheeting proved highly flam-
mable, spreading the fire quickly across the walls and roof, and
through vents which were not properly fire-proofed. The acrylic
melted, allowing more oxygen to enter, and the melted material
fell, starting more fires and injuring and impeding people trying
to escape. The interior sound-proofing material also proved to be
highly flammable and the building’s design incorporated many
unblocked internal spaces, which increased the conflagration by
acting as chimneys.
Thirty minutes elapsed before the local fire services were
alerted. The emergency call did not come from within Summerland.
It came from the captain of a ship two miles (3km) out to sea who
radioed HM Coastguard the message, ‘It looks as if the whole of
the Isle of Man is on fire’.
Meanwhile, it was only the sight of the flames that had made
the 3000 people on the premises aware of the danger they were
in. There was panic and a rush for the exits, where people were
trampled and crushed because the doors were locked. People
then strove to reach the main entrance instead, causing a crush
there. The arriving fire services realised that they had a major
disaster on their hands and all the resources of the Isle of Man
Fire and Rescue Services were mobilised.
The death toll at Summerland led to a public inquiry which
took place between September 1973 and February 1974. No spe-
cific individuals or groups were blamed and the deaths were
attributed to misadventure. The delay in evacuation and the use of
flammable building materials were condemned. Changes in build-
ing regulations were introduced to improve fire safety. The seri-
ously-damaged Summerland centre was demolished, rebuilt on a
smaller scale and re-opened in 1978. It closed in 2004 and final
demolition began in October 2005. The east wall was kept intact
because of concerns that its removal might cause cliff collapse.
210
Fire precautions
The aim of fire precautions within a building is to inhibit the growth
of fire and to restrict its spread. The influencing factors are: size of
building (area, height and volume); layout and configuration within
the building; uses accommodated and activities hosted; construc-
tion materials, linings and claddings; type of construction; services
installed; furnishings and furniture. Precautions may include:
• protection of load-bearing structure to prevent untimely col-
lapse in the event of fire;
• limitation of combustibility of key structural elements;
• adequate and appropriate provision of means of escape;
• access for fire-fighters to and up through the building to reach
the seat of the fire and extinguish it;
• compartmentation and separation within the building to
restrict spread of fire (plus maintenance of separation by pro-
tection of openings, fire stopping and cavity barriers within
concealed spaces);
• safe installation and maintenance of building services, heat-
producing equipment and building user equipment;
• enclosure of high-risk places with fire-resisting construction
to protect adjacent areas;
• active fire-extinguishing installations to detect and/or contain
fire in its early stages and to restrict its growth and spread;
• limitation of flame spread by selective use of materials;
• fire-resisting external walls and/or space separation to prevent
spread of fire to adjacent premises, protection of openings in
external walls, use of insulation with limited combustibility to
reduce risks of ignition and fire spread;
• provision of natural or mechanical ventilation, smoke extrac-
tion and/or smoke control measures to facilitate escape and
fire-fighting;
• management and staff training in procedures for evacuation,
maintenance of fire precautions and risk analysis.

Fire detection
Fire detectors are designed to detect heat, smoke or radiation.
Fire detection and alarm equipment is closely related to illegal
entry detection equipment. In fully integrated systems, equipment
for each function can be included on the same control system,
together with access control and energy management functions.
In the interests of reliability, it is best to minimise the number of
elements in a fire alarm system. The detectors (or ‘call points’)
are usually solid state devices that are, electrically, either nor-
mally open (NO) or normally closed (NC), with the condition
being reversed when the point is activated. The message is then
conveyed, via a single circuit (or circuit-break) to the control and
indicating equipment and to the fire sounders, fixed fire-extin-
guishing systems, fire doors and the ventilation system. The loca-
25.3
tion of fire detectors is influenced by considerations including
Harborough Leisure Centre:
the type of detector, the size and shape of building and ceiling
reception security and access control (2008)
heights. Radiation (flame) detectors work best in tall, open, inte-
rior spaces (and in open external spaces). Smoke and heat detec-
tors are slower to react in tall rooms and are ineffective in most
external locations. Ceilings which are not flat raise additional
considerations in the location of detectors. For example, where Security
downstand beams or ducting are of greater depth than 10% of
the ceiling height then they must be considered as walls and each Sports facilities buildings can be subject to – or the scenes of –
side of the downstand must be treated as a separate room. theft, vandalism, enforced entry, muggings, assaults, fraud, arson
and general anti-social behaviour. The most crime-susceptible
places within the building are the changing rooms and the cash
desk. Because users’ cars are parked for protracted periods of
Emergency lighting time, sports centre car parks may be susceptible to vehicle
crime.
In the event of an emergency of any kind, not necessarily a fire Sports facilities managers have a primary duty to protect their
emergency, building occupants or users must be able to make a staff, the users of their building and any cash or valuables that
quick, safe escape from the building. Self-contained, central bat- may be on the premises. Public surveillance of entrances is known
tery or central generator systems of emergency lighting must be to deter intruders. Other known enhancements to security include
available for activation to illuminate escape routes and their a heavy safe for any cash that has to be kept on-site, robust chang-
directional signs. This draws the appropriate routes to the immedi- ing room lockers, secure locks on windows and doors, avoidance
ate attention of occupants, provides sufficient light to facilitate of easy routes to roofs and openable skylights, effective site light-
safe egress and ensures that fire alarm call points and fire-fighting ing and the elimination of potential hiding places within the
equipment along the escape route can be easily accessed. building. Lighting and surveillance are particularly important in

211
25.4
Clydebank Leisure Centre (1994)
car parking areas. In 2006, for example, crime opportunities at
Leicester Leys Leisure Centre were slashed when Chubb Electronic
Security installed 14 colour CCTV cameras around the outside of
the buildings and at other strategic positions including the dis-
abled car park (where unauthorised parking had been taking
place), the pool hall, the equipment and snack-vending stores
and outside the locker rooms.
Site layout is ideally considered from a security perspective at
project outset. Entry and exit points should not be sheltered from
view but may usefully be overlooked by other parts of the building
development or by neighbouring properties. Perimeter footpaths
should be well-lit and additional external lighting might incor-
porate passive infrared detection. Fences often make better bar-
riers than walls because they can be seen through and not hidden
behind. Barriers may be reinforced by planting but this may again
raise the consideration of lack of visibility. Examples of external
security products available to sports facilities managers include
rubber road ramps, no-waiting cones, traffic barriers and chain-
holder systems.
Window apertures attract the interest of criminals. Laminated
glass (Chapter 21) is preferable from a security point of view.
Window panes less than 0.05m² (0.54ft²) cannot be climbed
through. Larger panes should, for security, be as large as possible.
For increased security, windows may be barred or fitted with
grilles. Vertical bars are more effective than horizontal bars. They
should be 20mm × 20mm (0.8in × 0.8in) cross-section and of
125mm (4.9in) maximum spacing. Transverse tie-beams should
be provided at 600mm (23.6in) centres.
Outside doors of the building should be thicker than 44mm
(1.7in) and of solid construction, with internal hinges. If more
212
than one lock is fitted, then the locks should be well-spaced (by
approximately one-third of door height).
The above can be used to support the argument that early
involvement of a security engineer in a project can be a cost saving
rather than an incurred cost. This is because the security engineer
can help the space planner to minimise the amount of electronic
security that the finished building will need. The security engineer
can advise the architect on optimisation of security through the
placement of perimeter barriers, windows and doors, corridors and
stairs. Also, intelligent security planning means taking advantage
of integrated infrastructure components. Security can be integrated
with the spaces, pathways and low-voltage communication spine
that deliver the building’s fire detection, building management,
lighting and audio-visual voice and data systems. This offers advan-
tages in future development because, when functions share the
same cabling, they can be more readily extended.
Access control
Access control systems to sports facilities include card-readers,
chip-readers and electronic locks that read information encoded
on cards, disks or keys carried by building users. Popular systems
include insertion-readers or swipe-readers which interpret mag-
netic strip cards, or proximity-readers that do not require contact
with the cards they read. Other components include the software
for managing the distribution and encoding of the cards, and the
processing of transactions, together with strikes, contacts and
releases that operate the doors.

The use of such systems makes possible additional safety and
security measures. A safety example is that the medical condi-
tion of building users, logged on the centre’s database, can
display on the screen at reception when a card is swiped. This
alerts staff of the presence on-site of somebody who, under
certain conditions, may require specific attention. A security
example is that the appearance of building users can be checked
at swipe-in against photographs held on the database. This
prevents the fraudulent use of membership cards and, in the
case of stolen cards, enables them to be returned to their rightful
owners.
Market Drayton Swimming Pool
Business Project Management Solutions worked with North
Shropshire District Council on CCTV and door access develop-
ments at Market Drayton Swimming Pool, Wem, Shropshire, UK.
This involved replacement, fully-automatic doors with associated
security and overrides, refurbished entrance foyer, internal and
external CCTV provision with remote radio access link to a police
monitoring station, infrared CCTV monitoring of the external lido
pool with movement detection and tracking, and Short Message
Service (SMS) alerts to key personnel. The benefits to the client
included:
• compliance with Part M of the Building Regulations;
• compliance with the requirements of Quest audit;
• ease of access for disabled pool users;
• automatic opening of all entrance doors upon fire alarm
activation;
• manual overrides;
• enhanced insulation at front entrance;
• elimination of anti-social behaviour in external pool, car park
and reception areas;
• security for pool users;
• control of public access areas with camera monitoring;
• rapid engagement of police and key personnel on incident
alert activation;
• recording of incidents for later investigation and, potentially,
prosecution;
• peace of mind for pool users and residents in adjacent
properties.
213
safety and security
Emirates Stadium, Arsenal Football
Club, Holloway, North London, UK
Call-Systems Technology (CST) of Edgware, Middlesex, UK worked
with Arsenal FC on the development and introduction of the
‘StewardCall’ system to the club’s new Emirates Stadium, which
opened in 2006. Every one of the club’s 700 stewards carries a
small wireless transmitter which has four buttons: one to summon
a supervisor; one for medical help; one for an ejection squad;
one for the stadium’s cleaners. Pressing a button transmits an
instant alert to pagers worn by the appropriate personnel. At the
heart of the system is CST’s Genesis communications software,
which monitors exits, fire doors, alarms and all other critical
equipment. This program logs and displays all the wireless traffic,
giving the control room an immediate overview of every situation
as it occurs. Key staff can also send messages and alerts to indi-
viduals as well as pager groups via terminals throughout the
stadium’s PC network. Log reports show that 300–350
‘StewardCalls’ are made during each match. This level of activity
would not be sustainable using a system based on two-way radios.
However, as an independent system, StewardCall ensures that all
messages are received, regardless of the amount of radio traffic.
Its cost is less than one-quarter the cost of a 700-unit radio system.
Additional benefits include clear messages (whatever the back-
ground noise), lack of intrusion in quiet areas such as lounges,
and the ability to act as a viable substitute should the radio system
fail. Opening and closing the stadium has also been made simpler.
Multiple security sweeps and checks are replaced by each steward
pushing a button on his or her transmitter to confirm status. As a
result, the control room now makes one-tenth of the calls that it
used to make during stadium opening and shut-down.
26.1
Projectile range, Norwich: inclusive design for visually impaired (2008)
Chapter 26
Accessibility
Sport for All
‘Sport for All – Sport for Life’ was the theme of the 12th World
Sport for All Congress that was held from 3 to 6 November 2008
in Genting Highlands, Malaysia. The five specific issues covered
were:
• physical activity for young people;
• the role of Sport for All in an IT World;
• the challenges of ageing populations;
• social justice; and
• the Olympic and Sports Movements’ Sport for All initiatives.
Because wheelchair provision presents a relatively big challenge
to facilities planners and designers, it has become almost synony-
mous with the concept of accessibility. However, Sport for All
includes able-bodied people, the physically disabled, the very
young and the very old, and those with visual or hearing impair-
ment, or those suffering from mental illness. Universal access is
an essential component of this theme and of all the initiatives
emanating from it.
Inclusive sports
More types of inclusive sports will be catered for in sports facili-
ties in the future. For example, sitting volleyball is played on a
10m × 6m (33ft × 19.7ft) court as opposed to the 18m × 9m (59ft
× 29.5ft) standard court. The net height is reduced to 1.15m
(3.77ft) for men and 1.05 (3.44ft) for women, from the standard
215
volleyball net heights of 2.43m (8ft) for men and 2.24m (7.35ft)
for women. The sitting version of volleyball enables double-leg
amputees and people with spinal cord, polio-induced or other
lower-extremity disabilities to compete with able-bodied partici-
pants. The rules necessitate some part of the body, from buttocks
to shoulders, being in contact with the floor at all times. Players
must stay seated while hitting, front-row players may not block
an opponent’s serve and the use of prosthetic or orthopaedic
devices is banned. (For deaf people, the standard volleyball game
can be played using a red flag instead of a whistle as a signalling
device.)
Access to play areas and facilities
There are regulations or guidelines covering aspects of access to
individual sports areas and building facilities. An example relating
to sports areas is the need for two accessible means of entry to
the water in swimming pools with more than 300ft (91.44m) of
linear pool wall. The primary means of entry should be a sloped
entry or a pool lift capable of operation by a person with a dis-
ability. The secondary means of entry could be one of these two
types or a transfer wall, transfer system or pool stairs. An example
relating to access to facilities within a sports building is that of
restaurants, where there should be wheelchair access to food
service lines and all collection points for tableware, crockery,
cutlery, condiments and any associated foods and drinks (e.g.
from vending machines). The principal consideration of this
chapter is, however, the means of people movement from the
reception area of the building to the different areas of activity.
26.2
Forest Gate Youth Centre, London (2006)
Passenger elevators
Passenger elevators (or lifts) move people vertically between floors.
They are available in capacities ranging from 1000lb (455kg) to
6000lb (2727kg) in increments of 500 lb (230kg). In buildings of
eight floors or less, they are hydraulic (up to 200ft/min, 1m/s) or
electric (up to 500ft/min, 2.5m/s). Elevators in tall buildings may
have speeds up to 2000ft/min (10m/s) and they are mentioned here
because sports facilities in hotel or residential towers are often
located at a high level, where users may enjoy spectacular views.
Passenger elevator controls include call buttons, door-open and
door-close buttons and an alarm button or switch. US elevators also
have a stop switch. In the US and some other countries, call button
text and icons are raised to enable blind people to operate the eleva-
tor. Additional elevator equipment might include a telephone,
fireman’s key switch, medical emergency key switch, hold button,
call cancellation mechanism and key card reading devices (which
may be used to restrict elevator use). Controls that might be located
behind a locked panel, and are not therefore intended for passenger
use, include switches to control elevator lighting and ventilation
fans, an inspection mode switch (which may be located on top of
the elevator), independent service/exclusive mode (for use in, say,
transporting goods), manual up/down controls for elevator techni-
cians and pass/start buttons for attendant-operated service.
216
Stairways
A ‘stairway’ is a stairwell and the staircase that it contains. In the
UK the term ‘staircase’ is often used to mean the same thing.
Other important terms include ‘tread’ (the part of the stairway
that is stepped on), ‘riser’ (the vertical part between each tread
on the stair) and ‘nosing’ (an edge part of the tread which pro-
trudes over the riser beneath). Tread width is the sum of tread
‘run’ width plus tread nosing width. A ‘balustrade’ is the system
of ‘balusters’ and ‘railings’ which prevents users from falling off
the edge of the stairway. The vertical balusters support the railings
and are, in turn, supported by ‘stringers’, ‘stringer boards’ or
‘strings’ (usually one either side of the stairway). Confusingly, the
term ‘banister’ may be used to mean a handrail, or the handrail
plus the balusters, or just the balusters. A ‘landing’ is an area of
a floor near the top or bottom step of a stairway. An ‘intermediate
landing’ is a small platform that is built, as part of the stairway,
between main floor levels to allow stairs to change direction or
stair users to rest. Intermediate landings consume floor space and
add to the expense of a stairway. But they usefully increase the
options open to stairway designers by enabling changes in direc-
tion and offering privacy to upper level users (because they cut
out direct sightlines from ground floor to upper floor). Importantly,
if a user should fall down a stairway then an intermediate landing
26.3
Hampden Park, Glasgow (1994)

will prevent that fall from extending all the way to the foot of the
stairs. So intermediate landings are potential life-savers and they
usually feature in sports facilities developments. An ‘L’ shaped
stairway has one landing and a change in direction by 90°. A ‘U’
shaped stairway may have a single wider landing for a change in
direction of 180°, or two landings for two changes in direction
of 90° each. Typical UK stairway dimensions may be:

• minimum tread length 245–260mm (9.6–10.2in);

• maximum riser height 220mm (8.7in);
• minimum riser height 155mm (6.1in);
• maximum nosing protrusion 32mm (1.25in);
• handrail height 900–1000mm (35.4–39.4in);
• railing diameter 37–68mm (1.25–2.675in);
• maximum space between balusters 100mm (4in);
• maximum openings between bottom rail and treads 6in
(152mm).

The rise height of each step is measured from the top of one tread
to the top of the next tread. It is not only the physical height of
the riser, because that excludes the thickness of the tread. The
tread depth, the ‘going’, is measured from the edge of the nosing
to the vertical riser. The number of steps in a stairway is always
the number of risers and not the number of treads. Stairway design 26.4
parameters may be quoted as, say, riser + tread = 465–480mm Safety stair tread (2008)

217
technologies

(18.3–18.9in) or 2 × riser + tread = 555–700mm (21.8–27.5in).

Specifying a maximum riser height and minimum tread length
gives a ‘maximum slope’. Specifying a minimum riser height and
maximum tread gives low-rise stairs which take up a lot of floor
area. Steeper stairs are permitted for residential buildings than
are allowed in public buildings. Safety stair treads and landings
are available in steel, stainless steel, aluminium, fibreglass and
other materials including, as required, appropriate backings and
bonded surfaces.

Ramps
A ramp is an inclined plane installed in addition to, or instead
of, stairs. It may be bolted or cemented in place (permanent),
resting on the ground or on a cement pad (semi-permanent) or
temporary (portable, usually of aluminium construction). For
permanent wheelchair ramps, a minimum width of 3ft (914.4mm)
may be specified. Regarding ratio of ramp height to ramp length,
a generalisation is that 1in (25.4mm) of step requires 1ft (304.8mm)
of ramp, i.e. a ratio of 1:12. For permanently-fixed ramps, mini-
mum recommended ramp length may be 1in to 1ft 3in (381mm);
2in (50.8mm) to 2ft 6in (762mm); 4in (101.6mm) to 5ft (1524mm);
6in (152.4mm) to 7ft 6in (2286mm). For assisted wheelchairs,
minimum recommended ramp lengths may be: 1in step to 6in
ramp; 2in step to 1ft ramp; 4in step to 2ft (609.6mm) ramp; 6in
step to 3ft (1014.4mm) ramp. For self-propelled wheelchairs on
temporary ramps, recommendations may be: 1in to 1ft; 2in to 2ft;
4in to 4ft (1219.4mm); 6in to 6ft (2028.8mm). Non-slip and anti-
slip surfaces for stair treads, stair nosings and ramps are available
in forms including tapes and coatings to suit stairways constructed
in concrete, steel, timber and other materials.

26.5–26.7
Harborough Leisure Centre:
(top) first floor elevator area (2008);
(middle) ground floor elevator area (2008); and
(bottom) automated doors (2008)
Technological advances
If you look at elevator shafts, stairways and ramps in sports facili-
ties developments then you are likely to see a lot of steel. This is
because steel can be precision-manufactured off-site, under
controlled workshop conditions, and transported to site as com-
ponents for ease of assembling and manoeuvring prior to welding
or bolting together. Elevator, stairway and ramp designers have

218
26.8
Liverpool Watersports Centre: ramp (1995)
taken advantage of developments in the post-1945 era of modern
welding techniques.
The introduction of structural hollow sections (SHS) in the
late 1950s gave stairway designers a highly efficient, fully
enclosed steel section with smooth corners. If a stair user should
slip into balusters or railings made of SHS then, in comparison
with the use of open steel sections, the resulting impact would
cause reduced – or maybe even no – physical damage. Large
SHS proved effective for stringer applications and the need for
stairways to turn was facilitated by advances in tube bending
technologies. For example, the curving of large diameter struc-
tural hollow sections for architectural and engineering purposes
was achieved by ‘fire bending’ up to and including the 1970s.
This process involved filling the tube with silver sand and ram-
ming it home hard. The tube ends were then plugged with a clay
compound, to hold the sand firm and tightly packed. Then the
tube was heated to 950°C (1740°F) by coke-fired or gas-fired
ovens in whatever manageable lengths could be accommodated.
The process was highly skilled and labour intensive, often requir-
ing several re-heats and water-dousing operations to produce a
bend with acceptable tolerances. It was therefore expensive and
technically challenging with no certainty of a positive, even less
a consistent, outcome. Steelwork fabricators using the fire bend-
ing technique had, in particular, to beware of wrinkles on the
inside radius, wall thinning and ovality.
Today’s curved tubular sections are formed by passing the tube
to be bent through an induction coil where a narrow band of the
219
tube, approximately 13mm (0.5in) wide, is raised to a forging
temperature while the remainder is kept cool by air and water
cooling coils. The tube is secured to a pivoted radial arm which
is set to describe the required centre line radius of the tube. A
hydraulic ram pushes the pipe through the heating coil while the
radial arm rotates the pipe to the desired radius. Changes in bend
radius require an adjustment to the pivot point. As appropriate,
a series of multiple bends can be produced without the need for
intervening straight sections. The narrowness of the heated zone
eliminates pipe wrinkling and no formers or supporting mandrel
are needed (because the cold tube on either side of the heated
zone provides adequate support). Because of the very high speed
of induction heating, neither the outside nor the inside of the tube
develops scaling during bending.
The skill needs and inherent uncertainties of fire bending
resulted in relatively few curved steel structures, especially for
buildings as opposed to bridges, before the 1980s. Today, how-
ever, large diameter curved circular hollow sections are promi-
nent in the design not only of sports buildings but also many other
public, commercial, retail and industrial building developments.
They have made possible aesthetic and even iconic solutions to
the challenges of designing large-mass building developments.
Examples range from feature arch entrances and curved roofs to
the 315m (1033ft) span Wembley Arch, the world’s widest single-
span roof structure.
27.1
Beijing 2008 Olympics: Technology Operations Centre (2008)
Chapter 27
C o n t ro l s a n d a u t o m a t i o n
Getting smart
In buildings, materials and structures must be safe (under con-
struction, in service and during demolition), durable (typically
for 60–120 years), low cost, low maintenance and of predictable
properties. Systems or materials that are ‘smart’ can sense a
change in the environment, such as a rise in temperature or an
increase in light intensity, and respond by effecting a compensa-
tory change, such as a reduction in temperature or a change in
glazing from clear to different degrees of opacity. The challenge
for smart technologies is to create enough ‘added value’ to justify
associated increases in initial outlay.
Principal applications for smart technology in construction are
‘sensors’ and ‘actuators’ (collectively ‘transducers’), ‘smart materi-
als’ and ‘smart systems’. A sensor is anything, e.g. a photoelectric
cell, which receives a signal or stimulus and responds to it. An
actuator is anything that initiates action or mechanical motion.
An early and influential example is James Watt’s flyball governor
for steam engines (1788), in which two metal balls swinging
around at the ends of levers held on a revolving shaft control the
amount of steam admitted to the engine cylinder, so controlling
the engine speed regardless of load (this principle is still used in
steam turbine control and in the governing mechanisms of car
transmissions). A smart material, such as the intumescent paint
used in steelwork fire protection, senses changes in the local
environment and responds to them. A smart system, for example
an active noise suppression system, controls the use of sensors
and actuators to assess actions required and take those actions.
One of the biggest concentrations of transducers has been at
Beijing 2008. Here, Lenovo allied imagination with management
skills and technology to build a multi-layered computing solution
221
which would support delivery of Olympic competition results to
fans and media around the world, and keep all aspects of the
Games on track. Lenovo deployed more than 30,000 pieces of
equipment and some 600 engineers. Its core engineering team
was based in the Technology Operations Centre (TOC) inside the
massive Digital Building on the Olympic Green. From within the
TOC, the engineers monitored all venues to make sure equipment
was in place and operating correctly. Lenovo also maintained
hundreds of servers in the Digital Building which, during the
Games, processed more than 23,000,000 live queries.
Control systems
Whatever their degree of complexity, all control systems have
common basic features. The simplest form is the ‘open loop’
control system comprising desired output + controller + actual
output (there is no feedback mechanism incorporated so this type
is not smart). The ‘closed loop’ control system incorporates a
transducer for monitoring the actual output and converting it into
a form similar to the signal representing the desired output. The
two signals are compared to produce a ‘difference’, or ‘error’,
signal which is used to control the system. Closed-loop control
systems are therefore ‘error-actuated’ and smart.
Switches
These are used to switch electric current fully on or fully off. They
27.2
Beijing 2008 Olympics: the Water Cube, equipment testing (May 2008)
are essential components of control systems. Examples range from
the basic light bulb + two wires + switch condition, which enables
the light to be turned on and off, to the complex computer, which
is a switching device transmitting tiny electronic impulses through
a maze of circuits. Switches are of several principal types. The
push-button switch is a push-to-make, release-to-break type. Slide
and toggle switches are generally single-pole, double-throw (spdt)
or double-pole, double-throw (dpdt), with the poles being the
number of separate circuits that the switch will make or break
simultaneously. A microswitch is a sensitive mechanical switch
fitted with a lever so that only a small force is required to operate
it. A rotary switch has one or more fixed contacts (poles) that
make contact with movable contacts mounted on its spindle,
facilitating a greater variety of switching conditions. Magnetically-
operated switches include the reed switch and electromagnetic
relay. The latter enables a small current to control a much larger
current in a separate circuit.
Washroom controls
Everybody has to use washrooms and they are integral to sports
facilities developments. So we choose them to illustrate some
points. Up until recently we would not have made this choice
because washrooms in sports centres were unglamorous and
utilitarian (and that is being kind). It is now universally accepted
that they must be pleasant places to be or sports club members
will take their business elsewhere.
222
Modern washrooms often have a service entrance and utilities
passages that run behind the fixtures. Wall-mounted toilets that
bolt on from behind the wall are superseding floor-mounted
toilets. Wall-mounted or ceiling-mounted optical proximity sen-
sors, using an LED and a photodetector, are used increasingly to
create automatic washrooms. Reflective distances are dependent
on the drive current for the light-emitting device, the wavelength
of the light source and the type of reflective material. For security
reasons sensors can also be designed as ‘in-wall’, to operate
through almost any dielectric including glass, plastic, ceramic,
plaster and wood. They can also be installed on the far side of
the wall, behind the fixtures, viewing out through small windows
to urinals, toilets, sinks and hand dryers. Water-use efficiency is
a key benefit of such systems – facility managers and maintenance
staff can use predetermined flow times and automatic shut-off to
deliver significant water and energy savings.
Cold and flu viruses can survive on surfaces for up to 72 hours.
Automating washroom fixtures such as faucets, flushers and door
openers eliminates the need for users to touch surfaces and breaks
the chain of cross-contamination. Surround sensor technology,
or capacitive sensing, can be used to activate a tap when hands
are within a few inches or centimetres of it. In addition to the
new hands-free technologies, manufacturers have developed new
surface materials that help stop the spread of bacteria. Solid-
surface materials have very low porosity, which makes them
resistant to contamination from fungi and bacteria, and do not
contain the bacteria-harbouring seams found in laminate fixtures.
Solid plastic is another material now being used in washrooms
(for partitions) and locker rooms (for lockers and locker-benches).

It is a non-porous, corrosion-proof, bacteria-resistant, easily-
cleaned material compounded from polymer resins under high
pressure. Another important consideration in washroom provi-
sion, which affects the location of control devices, is pedestrian
movement flow – because sinks and hand dryers should be placed
between the toilet facilities and the exit, to encourage people to
wash their hands.
Washroom control measures need not be electronic or elec-
tromechanical. At Schiphol, Amsterdam, the airport authority had
a life-size black fly etched strategically into the inner bowl surface
of urinals installed in the men’s washrooms. Users automatically
aimed at the fly. This reduced ‘spillage’ by 80%, thereby promot-
ing hygiene and considerably reducing floor-cleaning
requirements.
Building management systems
Building management systems (BMS) use smart systems in the
technologies that they incorporate to control HVAC, lighting,
alarm systems and other building elements. BMS are usually based
on central unit control, using information supplied by peripherals.
More recently, distributed intelligence microprocessors have been
developed to serve as intelligent peripheral units, with the central
unit taking on a ‘supervisory’ function. The costs of such systems
have come down, relative to overall building cost. Once installed,
more control functions can usually be added without the need
for extra cabling requirements.
System transmission media are typically 24V bus cable,
Electrical Installation Bus (EIB) radio frequency, via infrared and,
increasingly, the Ethernet. EIB was developed by Siemens but is
now managed and regulated by the central Konnex Association,
which is independent of manufacturers. Apart from EIB, main
protocols accepted as ‘open’ in the building systems industry
include LON (which operates mainly at field device level) and
BACnet (which is an open data communications protocol for
building automation and control networks including HVAC con-
trol, fire detection and alarm, lighting control, security, smart
elevators and utility company interfaces). The main difference
between the LON protocol and other languages of equal recogni-
tion, like BACnet, is that LON was designed from the bottom up
as a controls communication platform – it was not limited to a
specific application area such as building controls or HVAC.
223
controls and a u t o m at i o n
EIB technology requires only a bus line along which all bus
devices (sensors and controls) can communicate. Potential func-
tions include checking that all of the building’s doors and win-
dows are closed. EIB switches can be used to control, say,
air-conditioning and broadcasting. Alarms can be monitored and
controlled, and can dial out to programmed telephones if preset
levels are exceeded. Lighting and heating bills can be reduced
because of the ability to control individual room temperatures
and to provide constant environment by compensating room
temperature against outside temperature. Special lighting control
networks can be incorporated. Enhanced building automation
can be achieved through, for example, incorporating the lighting-
specific control protocol Digital Addressable Lighting Interface
(DALI) which, typically, comprises ballast and multisensor. This
can encompass individually addressable lighting ballasts (ana-
logue permits only circuit addressability), bi-directional com-
munication between each ballast and the control system, passive
infrared (PIR) movement detection, constant lighting control and
infrared (IR) remote operation.
Integration
BMS are part of the movement towards the computer-integrated
building. Single systems operations are based on a terminal for
each system. Integration enables one point of access to the whole
system, with data from the various system parts appearing on a
screen simultaneously. Operators can access the information they
want more quickly and respond faster. Systems training is simpli-
fied and systems maintenance time is reduced. Integrated systems
should incorporate intelligence so that some of the information
produced can activate automatic responses, freeing the operator
to address contextual issues. Automated responses may include
lighting and HVAC activation on swipecard-holder entry to an
area of a building or, in the event of fire and smoke outbreak,
control of fans and dampers together with the unlocking of secu-
rity doors to allow safe egress of building users. Benefits of inte-
gration are more obvious in the operational rather than the
constructional stages of buildings. It has, however, been demon-
strated that an integrated solution planned into a building starts
to deliver savings during the construction phase and can, through
construction and operation, achieve operating cost savings of
20% over the lifetime of the system.
27.3
Harborough Leisure Centre:
user-activated sensors – cross-trainer grips (2008)
Alert devices
Alert devices include output mechanisms (means of alerting build-
ing users) and feedback mechanisms (means of alerting control
system operators). In each case alerts may be audible or visual,
or a combination of the two. Sounders, beacons and sounder/
beacon combinations can be used to alert building users. Activated
lighting may be, say, xenon or LED and constant or, to commu-
nicate urgency, flashing. The human ear can detect sounds from
20Hz (very low pitch) to 20,000Hz (very high pitch) but is par-
ticularly sensitive to sounds in the range 500–5000Hz (the
‘speech’ frequencies). A logarithmic scale, the decibel scale, is
used to measure sound levels. So a sound of, say, 20dB is not
twice as loud as 10dB – it is 10 times louder. The sort of sound
levels that interest us in the sports centre context range from, say,
a whisper (30dB) and normal speech (50dB) to levels which are
safe for an indefinite period of time (<85dB) and up to levels
which are safe for protracted periods (90dB is safe for about eight
hours) and ultimately unsafe levels (100–105 dB is safe for less
than 30 minutes). So watch out before you allow Led Zeppelin
to be booked to perform at your sports hall! Sounders may be set
to operate at unsafe (to the human ear) levels if their function is
to communicate an emergency, such as the implementation of
building evacuation procedures.
Of greater interest, in the context of this chapter, is feedback
to the control system operator, over and above everyday data
delivery, involving audible and visual alert devices. Audible
224
devices include buzzers, which work by applying voltage to a
piezoelectric crystal – such as quartz or topaz – which causes
the crystal to expand or contract. By attaching a diaphragm to
the crystal, changes in voltage will cause the diaphragm to vibrate
and generate sound waves. Buzzer attributes include sound fre-
quency (usually 2–4kHz), operating voltage (V), voltage range
and sound level (dB). Visual alert devices principally comprise
indicators.
An intriguing aside in feedback innovation is the development
by Swiss researchers in 2009 of a sensor that can monitor the
progress of orthopaedic implants in a healing bone and could,
eventually, be made to biodegrade in the body. A small but sig-
nificant number of sports centre members use gym equipment to
help rebuild strength in limbs that have been weakened by injury
or disease. In such cases the sensor device, embedded in an
implant, can monitor implant deformation to avoid overload dur-
ing physiotherapy and rehabilitation. It can provide information
about the healing process of the bone, with more of the load
shifting from the implant to the bone being reflected by changes
in recorded deformation.
Indicators
What makes silicon, as a material, useful to electronics is the
way that a silicon atom’s electrons are distributed as shells
27.4
Marl 699 Series LED panel indicator (2008)
surrounding the nucleus. There are two electrons in the inner
shell, eight in the next shell and four in the outer shell. The four
electrons in the outer shell make pure silicon a crystalline mate-
rial, with each outer ‘valence’ electron forming a ‘covalent bond’
with an electron from a neighbouring silicon atom. Once a pure
crystal of silicon has been manufactured, it is ‘doped’ with
impurity atoms to create n-type or p-type semiconductors. By
careful selection of p-type and n-type semiconductors it is pos-
sible to make a p–n junction emit light when it is forward-biased.
This creates a light-emitting diode (LED) – opening up new fron-
tiers in controls technology by providing the means of replacing
the fragile, short-life incandescent lamps used as indicators or
on/off lamps (in circuits, the LED is designated by a standard
diode symbol with two arrows pointing away from the cathode).
Life expectancy of the LED exceeds 100,000 hours of operation
(Chapter 23). An LED emits light when only a few milliamps (mA)
are passed through the p–n junction. A p–n junction based on
silicon releases energy in the form of heat, which simply warms
up the junction. If the p–n junction is formed from other semi-
conductor material then the energy release can be at infrared,
red, green and yellow wavelengths. An LED emits light if the
forward-bias voltage across it is approximately 2V (a resistor must
be connected in series with an LED to be lit by a potential dif-
ference greater than 2V).
Marl 699 series LED Indicators
with integral resistor
In 2008 Marl International introduced its 699 series of 12.7mm
panel mount LED indicators. These are true bi-polar products
for low voltage applications, have full internal potting to resist
shock and vibration and are sealed to IP67. They will operate
from any voltage in the range 12–28V with minimal variation
in brightness, making them appropriate choices for battery-
powered systems and other applications where input voltage is
subject to wide variations. These new LEDs are highly energy-
efficient, drawing just 8mA from a 12V supply – around 25%
less than the established versions. Light output colours (with
light intensities in brackets) are white (14,000mcd), blue
(7000mcd), red (11,000mcd), green (23,000mcd) and yellow
(16,000mcd).
225
27.5
LED intelligent panel indicator: maintenance timer (2007)
LED intelligent panel indicators with
integral resistor
Arcolectric specialises in the manufacture of appliance switches,
indicator lights and fuseholders for every kind of product from
computers to vending machines, security devices and lighting to
laser printers. Its intelligent LED panel indicators include main-
tenance timers, mains supply checkers, temperature monitors and
temperature micro-loggers. The example shown is a maintenance
timer, which monitors accumulated usage time and indicates
when preventative maintenance should be carried out. The 30mm
× 11mm indicator shows continuous green while power is applied,
and the accumulated operating time (hours run) is monitored and
stored in non-volatile memory. When the number of operating
hours exceeds the pre-programmed time limit, the LED illumina-
tion changes to flashing red, clearly indicating that a service or
replacement interval has been reached, and that maintenance is
required. The indicator can be reset after maintenance operations
are completed. Indicators are available with pre-set intervals of
1 week (168 hours), 1 month (672 hours), 3 months (2184 hours),
6 months (4368 hours), 1 year (8736 hours) and 3 years (26208
hours).Typical applications include: component end-of-life indi-
cation; de-scale/decalcification interval; filter cleaning/replace-
ment interval; machinery – lubrication, belt change; petrol/diesel
engines – oil change, servicing; equipment calibration interval
reminder; visual inspection and cleaning reminder.
Smart shoes
Sensors and transducers are pervading not only sports facilities
development but also sports development as a whole. For example,
on 10 May 2004, after three years of secret in-house development
at Portland, Oregan, Adidas unveiled the most advanced shoe in
the world – Adidas 1. Essentially, the shoe adapts itself to its wearer
and to changing running surface conditions. Each shoe contains a
20MHz microprocessor capable of 5,000,000 calculations per
second. A magnetic sensor in the shoe’s heel measures its compres-
sion on impact, taking 1000 readings per second. An algorithm
determines the optimum amount of cushioning and an electric
motor, spinning at 6000rpm, turns a metal rod that adjusts the
hollow plastic heel to suit the wearer. The motor is powered by a
replaceable 3V battery which lasts approximately 100 hours.
28.1
Sports centre approach road: sustainable transport (2008)
Chapter 28
Sustainability
Sustainability
To ‘sustain’ means to ‘support’, ‘provide for’, ‘maintain’, ‘keep
going’, ‘prolong’, ‘support the life of’. The concept of ‘sustain-
ability’ is based on the idea that we are holding the planet in trust
for future generations and this must be embodied in our decision-
making. The United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) – The Earth Summit – was held in Rio de
Janeiro on 3–14 June 1992 to help governments rethink economic
development and to find ways of halting the destruction of irre-
placeable natural resources and the pollution of the planet. It
aimed to bring about a change in understanding of the likely
long-term environmental effects of developed and developing
economies, with particular reference to:
• energy use;
• loss of habitats;
• air, water and soil quality; and
• health.
‘Sustainable development’ involves providing a level of social
activity within recognised economic constraints and at reduced
environmental impact – the ‘triple bottom line’. Because these
qualities are, in any case, integral to good design, they extend
beyond meeting client needs to addressing wider social issues.
On the environmental front, there is expectation of reductions in
materials consumption and reductions in the impact of materials
use and disposal.
227
Energy efficiency
During the second half of the 20th century, apart from a period in
the mid-1970s, energy was comparatively cheap. It has been essen-
tial to world economic development. Demand for energy can be
viewed as a combination of the human population, the economic
output and activity of that population and the energy intensity of
its output and activity (i.e. the energy used per unit of output). The
average annual energy intensity of global output (1985–90) was
-1.1% but has been predicted to rise to +1.8% per annum (based
on predicted population expansion and historical trends). Most pri-
mary energy is from fossil fuels: coal, oil and natural gas. Reserves
of these are finite and declining. The nuclear power option offers
security of energy supply and low carbon dioxide emissions, but it
leaves a legacy of reprocessing and waste containment costs.
Sustainable energy, principally wind and solar forms, are exciting
alternatives, but are developing from a low base. For the foresee-
able future, therefore, energy-efficiency and energy savings are
vitally important and growing in importance. Options which offer
big potential savings in energy consumption include daylighting,
adaptive facades, LED lighting (Chapters 23 and 27), displacement
ventilation, ultra-light vehicles with hybrid engines, bio-liquid fuels
from cellosic materials, information systems that manage demand
using load-levelling/peak-shaving techniques and matching to inter-
mittent supplies, waste heat recovery techniques (Chapter 5) and
combined heat and power (CHP) or co-generation. This list reflects
the importance of buildings in achieving energy reductions and sav-
ings (more than 40% of global energy use is in buildings). Associated
measures include the integration of land use and transport planning
to reduce the need to travel and to support non-energy-intensive
modes of transport such as public transport, cycling and walking.
28.2
Airdrie Leisure Pool (1997)
Daylighting
Daylighting of sports facilities is natural and energy-efficient. It
has been held back in some cases by the issue of ‘glare’, which
is a by-product of poorly-designed daylighting. Glazed walls in
swimming pool buildings are popular with pool users and act as
a shop window for the facilities on offer. They do produce reflec-
tions but these can be opportunities rather than problems because,
for example, the space can be planned so that the daylighting
creates an attractive sparkle on the water surface when viewed
from the entrance, but no surface reflection at all when viewed
from the lifeguard station. In sports halls, daylighting introduced
through rooflights can be diffused by translucent fabric panels
which prevent direct sunlight from penetrating the playing volume
and reduce glare.
Adaptive facades
The space planning referred to above can be used in combination
with ‘angular glazing’ which allows light to pass through only in
228
selected directions, enabling glare control to be achieved simply
by the lamination of solar control films. Then there are ‘super
windows’, multiple layers of glass and/or plastic that may be
film-coated or filled with low conductivity gases such as argon.
These can be such good insulators that they can gather more
energy than they lose over a 24-hour period in winter. ‘Air cur-
tains’, created by air travelling from a supply grill in the ceiling
to an extractor in the floor, can be used to separate a humid
swimming pool from adjacent areas. ‘Photochromic glass’
becomes increasingly opaque when exposed to sunlight and
‘automated blinds’ are photovoltaic cells which absorb solar
energy for use in the building. Glass products are continuously
being improved. For example, in 2008 AGC Flat Glass, Brussels,
introduced Vision-60T into its European Stopray range. Vision-60T
is a high performance glass with toughenable coatings, high solar
protection and low emissivity. The product, for use in non-resi-
dential architecture, offers increased thermal insulation and
retains more than 65% of solar heat. Its low light reflection is
aimed at meeting the requirements of architects looking for neu-
tral glass.
Displacement ventilation

Mixed flow ventilation is the traditional method of supplying air

to ventilated spaces. Cool air is blown in through the ceiling or
wall. By diluting the room air, it aims to provide an even tem-
perature and even contaminant level throughout the space.
Typical sports hall and gymnasium designs incorporate this sys-
tem, using rooftop units to push air down from a high ceiling.
However, mixed flow ventilation often leads to uneven tempera-
tures, inadequate ventilation and background noise.
Displacement ventilation works on the principle of introducing
conditioned air at low velocity through floor terminals or other
diffusers. As cool air floods into the room at low level, the room’s
heat sources lift the air up and it passes through the occupied
zone, to be exhausted at high level. Because the displacement
units are located at low level, a considerable vertical temperature
gradient naturally occurs between floor and ceiling. The volume
of air supplied to a room is height-dependent because of this
gradient and the air volume supplied for displacement ventilation
is proportional to the supply air and exhaust air temperatures.
With displacement ventilation, the flow of air is maintained
by convective forces, which also have the effect of carrying to
discharge the airborne pollutants characteristic of inadequate
ventilation or filtration. (Electrostatic air cleaners are also now
available to remove indoor air pollutants such as organic com-
pounds, dust, smoke, allergens and viruses – benefiting people’s
health and extending the life of furnishings, fittings and expensive
equipment.)
Displacement ventilation is feasible for rooms over 2.5m (8.2ft)
high, where the vertical temperature gradient is unimportant, i.e. 28.3–28.5
where high temperatures above 2m (6.6ft) height are not impor- Harare International School Physical Education Complex:
tant. These basic criteria fit a lot of sports facilities but may (top) exterior (2002);
exclude some arena-type installations where tiered seating rises (middle) gymnasium (2002); and
up around the playing area. (bottom) wind cowls (2002)

Harare International School
Harare International School caters for the educational needs of
children from more than 50 nations. In its new building the school
wanted to showcase sustainable technologies that would be cost-
effective and would stimulate environmental awareness. Architect
Mick Pearce with engineer Arup designed a solution which
became an international model of sustainable design.
Classrooms benefit from a passive cooling/heating system.
Filtered fresh air is supplied from chambers of granite rock,
located beneath shady verandas. These chambers are configured
to act as thermal storage batteries. During summer nights cool

229
28.6
Sutton Arena, Surrey (2003)
air is blown through the building via the stored rock, which
absorbs the high levels of night coolness that are a feature of the
local climate. During school hours, air is blown through the rock
chambers, reducing incoming air temperatures by up to 10ºC
(18°F). This can reduce classroom temperatures to 8ºC (14.4°F)
cooler than ambient. The system also works for the winter months,
when Harare has chilly mornings followed by warm afternoons.
By operating the low energy fans during daytime hours only,
afternoon heat is stored in the rocks and can produce several
degrees of pre-heating to the early morning air supply.
In the school’s art block, passive ventilation is promoted using
a specially engineered wind-driven extractor. The physical educa-
tion building has a pair of periscope-shaped wind-cowls which
turn in opposition to each other, providing passive supply and
extraction. Hot water requirements for the school are met by
locally manufactured solar panels.
Sutton Arena, Surrey
Sutton Arena is one of a growing number of sports venues, sup-
ported by Sport England, in which natural ventilation systems are
230
used not only to reduce energy costs but also to embrace long-
term eco-friendly strategies. The arena hosts international-level
athletics (as well as regional clubs and community groups) so is
often used for televised events, hence the considerable array of
powerful floodlights which generates high heat gains. The building
incorporates Windcatchers supplied by Monodraught of High
Wycombe. The Monodraught Windcatcher differs from other forms
of natural ventilation in that it makes no difference which way the
wind blows, the louvers on one side will always encapsulate the
prevailing wind and turn that air movement down through 90°.
By the movement of external air at roof level, a negative or suction
zone is also created to one side of the Monodraught system,
encouraging the extraction of stale air to the atmosphere. The
architect for the Sutton Arena project was William Hogan-O’Neil,
who said, ‘My whole idea from the concept stage was to bring the
outside indoors, with daylighting and fresh air to replicate as much
as possible traditional outside field and track facilities in this all-
weather arena’. Eight 1000mm (3.3ft) diameter Windcatcher natu-
ral ventilation systems were used at Sutton, each fitted with
motorised opposed blade dampers. Ten 750mm (2.5ft) diameter
Monodraught SunPipes – energy free, super-reflective tubes – were
also used to provide the natural daylight requirement, while not
contributing to the project’s heat gains.
28.7
Sutton Arena, Surrey (2003)
Bio-liquid fuels from cellosic materials
The Borough of Telford and Wrekin is one of the most wooded
areas in the UK. Building consultants working within the Borough
had been looking for a suitable site for a biomass heating pilot
project in order to demonstrate to the community the application
of an efficient and viable source of renewable energy. At the
time, Oakengates Leisure Centre needed to replace its inefficient
oil-fuelled heating system. This presented an opportunity because
a leisure centre and swimming pool, with its continuous all-
year-round heating requirement, was considered to be the
perfect demonstration project. The cheapest option would have
been to upgrade the existing system and continue to use oil.
However, the introduction of new environmental legislation –
The Control of Pollution (Oil Storage) (England) Regulations
2001 – meant that a new oil system would have to be installed,
which would have been very expensive. The only viable options
were, therefore, a new gas system or the biomass option. Net
present value projections were produced in the summer of 2002
for each proposed solution, comparing installation costs and
future energy costs. Because the amount of capital funding
required for the more expensive biomass solution was not avail-
able at that time, the analysis was based on the use of a ‘heat
231
contract’, by which a separate company is responsible for the
maintenance and running of the heating system and the cus-
tomer receives a bill for the heat used. It was also decided that
Oakengates would not wish to be involved in the purchase of
wood fuel and would leave this to a heat supplier, which would
manage the purchase and delivery of the fuel and would main-
tain the boiler.
Advantage West Midlands approved a grant of £25,000 (from
the Environmental Technology Programme) to cover the additional
cost of the biomass option, as opposed to the gas solution, and
Oakengates was able to make capital funding of £100,000 avail-
able. An order was placed for a biomass boiler. The equipment
was purchased outright and a ten-year heat contract set up,
whereby Econergy provides the fuel and operates and maintains
the system. The heat is charged through a heat meter, by monthly
invoice. By the time the project was up and running, in November
2004, the comparative costs of fuel were £18/MW hour (biomass),
£23/MW hour (gas – accounting for boiler efficiency) and £40/
MW hour (oil). Among the other advantages were reductions in
fossil-fuel-derived carbon dioxide emissions, from approximately
290 tonnes per annum to around 40 tonnes per annum, and
increased local employment because of the creation of a local
wood market.
technologies
Waste heat recovery
In the early 1980s sports facilities led the way in the introduction
of waste heat recovery techniques. More recent examples include
the refurbishment of Pontypool Active Living Centre, Wales, in
2007 and the upgrading of Wadebridge Leisure Centre, Cornwall,
in 2006.
At Pontypool, a £6.85 million refurbishment incorporated the
installation of Calorex combined heat-recovery and dehumidifica-
tion units, reducing running costs by 42% in comparison with
the previous air-handling unit. Carbon dioxide emissions were
reduced by 51% (i.e. 288 tonnes) per annum. The centre has a
25m pool with gallery for 200 spectators, a separate teaching
pool, hydro-slide and health suite with spa, steam room and
sauna. The Calorex units incorporate heat-pump technology. The
unit serving the main pool was modified to include a Cylon
controller, to enable easy integration into the BMS, and remote
monitoring and diagnosis.
At Wadebridge a new energy-efficient ventilation system for
the swimming pool saves £14,000 per annum in running costs
and reduces carbon dioxide emissions by at least 150 tonnes per
annum. The new air-handling unit recovers heat from the air
around the pool and uses it to heat the bathing water. At the
same time, moisture is extracted from the air, keeping humidity
levels down and improving the air quality for swimmers and
staff.
Combined heat and power (CHP)
The £250 million ExCel Exhibition Centre in London is open
24 hours a day, 365 days a year. It is the largest clear span
building in Europe and venue for the London 2012 Olympic
boxing, table tennis, judo, tae kwon do, weightlifting and
wrestling events. In terms of power supply, its Docklands loca-
tion posed a serious challenge because there was only a limited
grid supply and the cost of reinforcing the National Grid was
considered to be too high. ExCel brought in Energy Control
Consultants Ltd (ECCL) to formulate an energy strategy.
Modelling for the ExCel site, as an exhibition and events centre
site, showed complex demand patterns that varied significantly
depending on two factors – the temperature outside and the
internal use. The chosen and most cost-effective, efficient
232
configuration for the site involved using CHP plant for the
baseload, topped up by the limited grid supply to make up the
core off-peak load. Scottish and Southern implemented the
consultants’ proposal, installing a 7MW grid supply including
two 3MW diesel-powered generating sets and one Cummins
1.35MW CHP set powered by a 16-cylinder 16QSV81G 81-litre
gas-powered Cummins engine. The CHP set operates in parallel
with the centre’s electricity grid supply, ensuring on-site base-
load during peak periods (when exhibitions are being held or
events hosted). The CHP unit can supply medium hot water
generated by waste-heat from its exhaust. This is used for heat-
ing in winter and, via an absorption chiller, for air-conditioning
in the summer. The Excel Energy Centre also includes three
6MW boilers, two 2.5MW absorption chillers and one 3.9MW
vapour compression chiller. In the event of a mains power
failure, the CHP unit is automatically stopped and a circuit
breaker opened, isolating the unit. It then provides standby in
parallel with the Energy Centre’s two standby sets.
BREEAM
Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
Method (BREEAM) is the world’s longest-established and most
widely-used environmental assessment method for buildings. It
assesses buildings against set criteria and provides an overall
score of pass, good, very good, excellent or outstanding. It is
primarily a design stage assessment. By involving a BREEAM
assessor as early in the life of a project as possible, it is easier to
obtain a higher rating and a more cost-efficient result. For some
categories of new-build, e.g. UK schools, a BREEAM rating is
mandatory.
USGBC: LEED
The US Green Building Council (USGBC) is a non-profit organisa-
tion committed to expanding sustainable building practices. It
aims to transform the way that buildings and communities are
designed, built and operated, enabling an environmentally and
socially responsible, healthy and prosperous environment that
improves the quality of life.
 s u s ta i n a b i l i t y

The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)

Green Building Rating System™ is a third-party certification
programme and the US nationally-accepted benchmark for the
design, construction and operation of high-performance green
buildings. LEED provides building owners and operators with the
tools they need to have an immediate and measurable impact on
their building’s performance.

RoHS and WEEE

European readers, and all readers involved in European markets,
need to be familiar with the RoHS and WEEE Directives of the
EU. The Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances
(RoHS) Directive was fully implemented in July 2006. It bans the
placing on the EU market of new electrical and electronic equip-
ment containing more than agreed levels of lead, cadmium,
hexavalent chromium and polybrominated biphenyl (PBB) and
polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) flame retardants. The
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive came
into force in January 2007. It aims both to reduce the amount of
WEEE being produced and to encourage everyone to reuse,
recycle and recover WEEE. The ten categories of RoHS WEEE
include IT and telecommunications equipment (category 3), light-
ing equipment, including light bulbs and luminaires (category 5),
toys, leisure and sports equipment (category 7), monitoring and
control instruments (category 9) and automatic dispensers (cat-
egory 10).

233
29.1
Racquet and Tennis Club, Park Avenue, New York (December 2003)
Chapter 29
Refurbishment
Introduction
Refurbishment is a perennial activity. It has increased as large
numbers of buildings have become derelict or obsolete because
of the decline of traditional industries. Building stock is a valuable
resource and heritage but, like any resource, it has a finite life.
This life can be extended and the value of a building restored,
and even enhanced, by carefully-considered and well-imple-
mented refurbishment. A key criterion is the fact that most build-
ings under consideration for refurbishment were designed in eras
when energy use was not an issue. Therefore imaginative engi-
neering is necessary to bring them into line with current financial
and environmental requirements.
Ground conditions
As with new buildings, refurbishment projects are susceptible to
the introduction of contaminants and methane gas from the
ground. Unfortunately, unlike new buildings, refurbishments have
already had their base structures designed and built. So the
opportunity for mitigating ground conditions is reduced.
Nevertheless, the nature and concentration of contaminants
should be established by sampling and testing, as with new-build
(see Ground Investigations, Chapter 13). If contaminant levels are
too high, then materials must be removed or separation measures
taken. If methane is present, then assessment must be made of
the rate of generation and the possible rate of penetration through
the ground slab. It may be necessary to dissipate the gas or design
an appropriate barrier. Where new or deeper basement
235
construction is planned as part of a refurbishment, there will be
additional ground considerations including the level of the water-
table and the depth and type of existing foundations.
Structural assessment
Refurbishment projects are about reducing risk, because there is
always an aspect of dealing with the unknown. Surprises can be
planned for by flexible design, programme buffers, early investiga-
tion and the use of appropriate forms of contract. Risk can be
reduced by assembling and assessing all available information on
the building (from, say, the building owner, professional advisors,
building control records, reference libraries and institution
archives) and by opening up the existing structure to surveying,
inspection and testing. Record data can be validated by digging
inspection pits and sampling existing concrete, masonry and steel,
for testing and analysis of past performance. Findings will inform
assessment of the building’s future life expectancy.
The strength of an existing structure can be assessed by con-
sidering the imposed loading which has been present. If there is
no visible damage or distortion then it can reasonably be accepted
that – at the time of testing – the structure is capable of supporting
the existing dead loads plus the imposed loads that have been
safely applied in the past. In particular, the ‘100-year rule’ states
that if a building has performed satisfactorily for 100 years without
sign of distress, and if no change is planned to the imposed load
that it is intended to carry, and provided that all reasonable
maintenance requirements are met, then the structure should
continue to function satisfactorily.
technologies
Loading
It will be seen from the above that future loadings should be kept
within the load range which has proved to be appropriate in the
past. Future partitions and finishes should be detailed to minimise
the risk of damage due to structural movements. Where floor use
is changed, or dead load loading increased then, generally, the
application of statutory imposed design loads to the structure is
required. Less onerous values may be agreed by the building
control office if these are considered to be appropriate to a spe-
cific location.
Timber
In old buildings, particularly those which have been empty for a
long time, timber may exhibit signs of decay or infestation. The
points where joists and other members are built into external
walls are particularly susceptible to damp penetration through
the walls and these ends should be inspected as a priority. Where
heating or electrical installations have been introduced into an
existing building, then its timber floors may have been weakened
by notching or otherwise cutting to accommodate the new ser-
vices. Strengthening and repair of timber floors may be required
to:
• repair damaged, deteriorating or defective wall plates, bearings
and joints – or individual timber elements;
• upgrade the strength of timber bearings, joints and elements
as necessary to support any new loading conditions (or remedy
a previously inadequate structural performance, where no
change in use is proposed); or
• improve the stiffness in excessively springy floors.
Most timber repairs involve the repair of bearings, remediation
of wet and dry rot or insect attack, and the strengthening of
structurally deficient and/or split binding joints, oak girders and
associated joints. Ceiling repairs may be necessary to joints
weakened by shrinkage, to members damaged by previous ceiling
removal or replacement, and to members with serious splits or
shakes.
236
Iron and steel
These metals will be gradually degraded by water and air if they
are left wholly unprotected or inadequately protected. In this
event it may be possible to clean and paint the material, otherwise
it may be necessary to remove and replace affected members.
Masonry
Masonry is highly durable (Chapter 21). Inspections should,
however, be carried out to ensure that wall construction is sound
– that rubble-fill or snap headers have not been used and that
internal and external skins are adequately tied. Things to watch
out for include:
• past differential settlement, leading to cracking;
• damp/frost penetration due to degradation/omission of a
damp-proof course; and
• damp penetration due to, say, damaged rainwater goods or
inadequate capping; inappropriate repointing, e.g. using hard
cement mortars in soft bricks.
Concrete
Concrete degrades under the action of water and air so that,
eventually, the protective layer around its steel reinforcement
ceases to function effectively. This leads inevitably to the rusting
of the reinforcement and spalling of the concrete. Swimming
pools, for example, may be installed in clayish soil which, as it
dampens and dries out, may cause cracking of the concrete cover
to the pool’s steel reinforcement. This process can be exacerbated
if the pool is emptied and refilled repeatedly because this causes
the walls to move out and back again, also leading to cracking.
If the concrete cover is insufficient to allow for such cracking
then water will reach the steel and start to corrode it. If the pool
water is salt water, as at Santa Cruz (Chapter 5), then the corrosive
effect on the steel reinforcement will be accelerated. Methods of
repairing cracks to swimming pool concrete include cathodic
protection, the use of resin-based waterproofing products, e.g.
low-viscosity polyurethane or – for structural repairs – epoxy.

Repairs, upgrading, retrofitting,
restoration
Remedial works to spalling concrete are, of course, repairs rather
than refurbishment works (but are covered here because they
may represent an essential element of pool refurbishment). Other
refurbishment-type works include upgrading (e.g. of wiring,
HVAC installations, controls systems) and retrofitting (e.g. of LED
lamps, insulated panels or double or triple glazing). Restoration
is perhaps less applicable to sports facilities, which have not
generally been around for as long as other types of building.
Where required, restoration is the toughest aspect of refurbish-
ment because it calls for extensive knowledge of materials
technology, including that of materials no longer in common
use, together with a keen understanding of the construction
techniques of previous generations. The above categorisations
are not mutually exclusive. The Racquet and Tennis Club, 370
Park Avenue, New York City (NYC), was built in 1917 (in response
to its site, the height of the club was made exactly two times the
width of Park Avenue). According to the original plans, the inte-
rior contained three dining rooms, a billiard room, library,
lounge, gymnasium, four squash courts, two tennis (real tennis)
courts and two racquets courts. Today there are four international
squash courts, one North American doubles squash court, one
racquets court and the two tennis courts. The second-storey
windows in the building facade, overlooking Park Avenue, have
in recent years been replaced with energy-efficient insulating
glass in the reused existing frames. This hybrid solution intro-
duced new technology to a sensitive historic site while meeting
with – as it had to – the approval of the New York City Landmark
Preservation Commission (LPC).
Sports club facilities refurbishment
Many private clubs were originally gentlemen’s clubs. Over the
years, the front parts of the buildings tended to be refurbished
and the rear parts of the building, containing the sports facilities,
tended to be neglected. These provide interesting refurbishment
case studies because, in recent years, they have had to be
adapted to cater for women members and disabled members.
Modifications have had to be made to toilet facilities, locker
237
refurbishment
rooms and playing areas or courts. At the Harmonie Club, 4 East
60th Street, NYC, one spa floor level has been converted to pro-
vide equal facilities for men’s and women’s locker rooms, steam
rooms and changing facilities. At the Union Club, 101 East 69th
Street, NYC, recent refurbishment works have involved replacing
approximately 50% of the fifth floor, consolidating all wet func-
tions into a central location and creating a core of plumbing
services. These works were based on original club precedents.
During refurbishment works of these types the opportunity is
often taken to introduce features such as variable speed fans and
motors, and remote computerised controls, which can be used
in combination to increase the proportion of floor space available
for activities, reduce staffing levels and optimise energy
consumption.
Hutton Arena, Hamline University,
Chaska, Minnesota
Hamline University is known as the birthplace of intercollegiate
basketball. It hosted and competed in the world’s first intercol-
legiate basketball game on 9 February 1895. The ‘Hamline Pipers’
took on the School of Agriculture, which was connected with the
University of Minnesota, and lost 9–3. Norton Fieldhouse
(renamed Hutton Arena in 1986) opened on 4 January 1937.
Hamline hosted Stanford University in the first game played at
the Fieldhouse, losing 58–26. Under the leadership of legendary
head coach Joe Hutton Snr, the Pipers went on to win National
Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) Championships in
1942, 1949 and 1951. In 1967 the arena was renovated: the old
bleachers were dispensed with; a 4in (101.6mm) concrete base
for the slab was installed; new fluorescent lighting was mounted;
the ceiling was painted; the existing wooden floor was replaced
with a ‘Tartan’ floor of approximately 11,000ft² (1000m²). The
Tartan floor was replaced with another Tartan floor in the mid-
1970s and the current wooden floor was installed in year 2000.
30.1
Bilston Steelworks: scrap steel dump (1948)
Chapter 30
Recycling
Definitions
To recycle means to:
• pass (a substance) through a system again for further treatment
or use;
• reclaim (packaging or products with a limited useful life) for
further use;
• institute a different cycle of processes or events (in a machine,
system, etc.);
• repeat (a series of operations); and
• as a noun – the repetition of a fixed sequence of events.
(Collins English Dictionary – Millennium Edition)
When these generic definitions are applied to specific fields of
activity, then they open up scope for different interpretations and
– ultimately – misinterpretations. Our definition of recycling, in
the building context, is the reclaiming of materials of construction
for alternative uses or using the existing building as a whole for
an alternative purpose.
Recycling building materials
It is interesting to speculate on the possibility of some of the scrap
steel shown in the photograph finding its way into the school and
school sports facilities building programme of the 1950s. This is
quite likely in view of the great diversity of steel products going
into buildings, from simple fasteners and fixings all the way up
to building frames and roof structures.
239
If a building is scheduled for demolition, then there are certain
materials that may usefully be salvaged for recycling. The obvious
example is original fireplaces salvaged from houses. Other exam-
ples include structural steel sections, sheet metal, piping (especially
lead or brass), hardware, hardwood flooring, mouldings, panelling,
timbers, tiling, brick and stone. Post-demolition, the principal
building materials (Chapter 21) are all highly recyclable.
Steel, for example, is 100% recyclable and is the world’s most
recycled material, losing none of its properties during re-treatment
processes. There are two processes for making steel – the basic
oxygen furnace process uses a minimum of 25% recycled steel
and the electric arc furnace process uses virtually 100% recycled
steel. The 380 million tonnes of scrap steel recycled in 2003
amounted to 40% of that year’s total world crude steel-make of
965 million tonnes. In North America, the amount of energy
required to produce one ton of steel decreased by almost 23%
between 1990 and 2003 as the result of technological improve-
ments and energy conservation measures implemented by the
industry. Ohio Steel reported that a production cycle for a pound
of steel resulted in 90% less air, water and solid waste emission
than it had ten years previously. The Canadian Steel Producers
Association has stated that extensive use of recycled steel in the
steel production process:
• conserves raw material and reduces the impact of resource
extraction on the environment;
• saves energy; and
• reduces landfill waste.
For every ton of steel produced in Canada in 2006, over half a
ton of scrap steel was recycled. When one ton of steel is recycled,
30.2
Fort Regent Recreation Centre, Saint Helier, Jersey:
view from la Route de la Libération (2007)
2500lb (1134kg) of iron ore, 1400lb (635kg) of coal and 120lb
(54kg) of limestone are conserved.
Concrete is also 100% recyclable (and all UK concrete reinforce-
ment is manufactured from recycled steel). It is the ultimate ‘local’
material, requiring minimum transportation. A concrete structure
has a high thermal mass. Exposed concrete facilitates fabric energy
storage (FES) which regulates internal temperature fluctuations. This
reduces a building’s mechanical, electrical and plumbing require-
ments while reducing the need for and cost of energy-intensive
air-conditioning, and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. New
developments in concrete technology have the potential to make
concrete an important factor in carbon reduction. Although concrete
currently accounts for 5% of human-caused carbon-dioxide emis-
sions, mostly because of its cement content, a new process will soon
enable precast concrete to actually store carbon dioxide.
Fort Regent, St Helier, Jersey
This is one of the largest, most prominently located and romantic
non-sports to sports recycling projects. Fort Regent was completed
in the spring of 1814, at a cost of £375,203, to withstand invasion
by France. It was never stormed because Napoleon was defeated
at Waterloo in 1815. The fort was garrisoned by British troops until
1932, after which date its condition declined and it fell into a state
of neglect. In 1958 the British government sold all War Department
buildings on the island to the States of Jersey and, at that time, the
fort was valued at £14,500 (so not a great investment for the British
taxpayer). The 13,500m² (145,313ft²) building could not simply be
left to rot but the nature of its construction – some walls were 5.5m
(18ft) thick – meant that both conversion and demolition were
expensive options. In 1966 the States of Jersey authorised an island
lottery which proved profitable and enabled a scheme to be
240
developed for conversion of the open fort, on its site overlooking
the harbour, to an enclosed sports and recreation centre. Ron Taylor
was asked to put forward a design for roofing the proposed amenity
in structural hollow sections and his Structural Marketing team at
British Steel developed a tubular steel design that was adopted by
the architect and client. The structure was completed in 1972.
The principal constraint was the irregular shape of the fort.
There were many other challenges too:
• access to the fort was extremely restricted, up a steep and
winding road and into a narrow tunnel piercing the ramparts
and leading to the central parade ground;
• the ramparts contained many narrow brick vaulted rooms,
extended laterally, which ruled out carrying major structural
column loads down through the walls – it was necessary to
support the roof from parade ground level 6.1m (20ft)
below;
• the consultant responsible for the cladding required that the
roof structure be separated from the vertical glazed enclosure
springing from the vertical rampart level (necessitating a move-
ment joint between the verges of the roof structure and the
side wall framing);
• the wind velocity derived from the requirements of CP3: 1972
Chapter V (Loading) was 52m/sec (170ft/sec) which gave rise
to theoretical suction forces on the roof of such magnitude
that if the whole roof were covered in 100mm (4in) concrete
blocks then they would all be blown off.
The structural solution coped with these difficulties and cre-
ated the maximum possible usable space contained by the fort’s
walls. Three areas of roof were of such complex shapes that they
were designed as space structures and used as anchorage points.
The central dome of 51m (167ft) clear span and its deep drum-
framed supports were part of the architectural concept and formed

a convenient and rigid central core for the superstructure. The
north and south hipped and peaked ends allowed no possibility
of repetitive fabrication. The main structural loads could be car-
ried to parade ground level by means of central columns.
Overturning and lateral loads due to wind forces were carried to
the ramparts by a series of portal frames, these structures being
analogous in appearance and action to single poled tents (albeit
carrying greater forces than those which a tension/membrane
structure could be expected to withstand without experiencing
serious flutter). The dual use of frames, as guys and as supports
to a rigid cladding system, ensured that the ends of the building
formed solid anchorages. The loads to the ramparts from overturn-
ing forces were spread evenly by portals round the ends of the
building and therefore did not exceed the allowable limit on the
rampart construction. The areas between the three space struc-
tures were required to be as clear as possible, having as few
supports to ground as possible, commensurate with achieving
economy. In order to allow a walkway to be carried around the
inside of the ramparts, with adequate headroom under the roof
members, the construction depth of the roof framing could not
exceed 4ft (1.2m). Accordingly, a system of braced portal frames
with hinged feet was used to support a system of curved beams
continuous over the portal rafters. The portals were spaced at 90ft
(27.43m) centres while the curved beams were spaced at 8ft
(2.44m) centres along the portals.
The depth between curved beam chords was made 3ft 9in
(1.14m) and that between the portal rafter chords 6ft (1.83m),
allowing a knee brace to be introduced in the curved beams at
each support point. This knee brace served the dual purposes of
increasing the beam depth at the points of maximum bending
241
30.3–30.4
Curved Workshop, Wapping:
(left) before; and
(above) after
effect and providing lateral support to the bottom chord of the
portal rafters. Because the legs of the portal frames had a height
of 32ft (9.75m) without lateral support, they were made triangular
in section. The rafters were provided with good lateral support
by the curved beams and were therefore designed as plane frames.
In view of the 250m (820ft) length of the building, movement
joints were provided at each side of the dome structure.
Preliminary calculations suggested that a single-layer dome of
between 6in (152mm) and 8in (203mm) construction depth was
feasible. A triangular grid would have provided the most satisfactory
theoretical structural solution but the fact that no repetitive fabrica-
tion was possible led to the consideration of square and other
quadrilateral grids. The grid finally adopted provided rows of nearly
square frames allowing up to 30 similar frames to be fabricated in
each pair of rows out from the dome centre line. This solution made
cladding simpler. The dome was assembled from the prefabricated
frames at ground level, inside the braced vertical frames of its sup-
porting drum, the clearance between ring beam and drum being
20mm (0.8in). The dome was then hoisted from its own supporting
structure into its final position 13.4m (44ft) above ground level
within two days, using the British lift slab method.
The Curved Workshop,
Wapping, London
Ian Mudd, who advocated publication of this book, is the former
leader of the Arup teams of engineers which worked with London
Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) on the regeneration
30.5
The Old Gym, Leslie: Ozark Heritage Art Center (2005)
of the London Docklands. This massive commercial, residential and
mixed-use transformation project involved many sports and leisure
facilities, taking advantage of the water amenity. We know, however,
that Ian is particularly fond of one very small recycled building
project completed within the overall Docklands redevelopment.
The building in question is the Curved Workshop. It had been
built in 1911 and had a western wall following the curve of
Wapping Basin (in which an all-weather football pitch had been
laid). This industrial facility was disused and threatened with
demolition. Ian and his team, working with architect Shepheard,
Epstein & Hunter, saved the Curved Workshop by recycling it as
a sports hall, building a new sports hall on its northern side and
thereby creating the 1800m2 (19,375ft2) Wapping Sports Centre.
Features of the conversion included the reuse of the original roof
trusses, positioned radially in 18 bays along the 55m length,
which are an early example of the use of steel for this type of
application. Truncation of the southern end of the building, to
allow space for a future east–west road, was achieved by erecting
a new gable wall in the style of the existing building, removing
one truss and modifying another.
The Old Gym, Leslie,
Searcy County, Arkansas
Relatively few sports buildings have been recycled, as they have
not been in existence for very long and they have come into a
growing market which has continued to grow year on year. For
these reasons, existing sports buildings have tended to be
upgraded, retrofitted and refurbished.
242
One interesting example of change in use, however, is the
recycling of the Old Gym, built in 1938, as the Ozark Heritage
Art Center. The story begins in the Great Depression, when the
citizens of Leslie approached President Franklin Roosevelt’s Work
Progress Administration (WPA) to construct a gymnasium to
complement their school, which had been built in 1910 during
the city’s boom years. The resulting native stone gymnasium
building was used for 48 years, up to 1986, when the education
authority constructed new facilities nearby.
School superintendent Ed Bradberry had the idea of converting
the empty, disused Old Gym into an arts centre. Retired local
merchants Rex and Daphne Killebrew spearheaded a fundraising
effort to make this happen. The Killebrews donated $200,000,
about 80% of the total needed for the four-year recycling pro-
gramme. After the centre opened, in August 1990, the Killebrews
donated another $300,000 in stocks as an endowment for the
non-profit organisation.
The centre houses the Killebrew Theater, Art Gallery and
Heritage Museum. Since 1997 the theater’s signature event has
been an annual fiddle contest for Arkansas residents (one of just
three such contests in the state). The Art Gallery changes exhibi-
tions on a monthly basis. The Heritage Museum has four rooms
of locally-sourced items and artefacts ranging from an 1820s loom
to classic typewriters, cheerleader outfits, a dentist’s office from
the mid-20th century and a collection of whittlers’ photographs
and implements. It is in the Heritage Museum that Professor Chris
Valle and his students from the Lyon College Art Department have
showcased their talents by exhibiting their work (photo). This
particular exhibition was sponsored by Kappi International
Honorary Art Fraternity.
Conclusion

Sports facilities reflect the times in which they are built. They are
a measure of civilisation because they indicate refinement in
interests and tastes. It is said that today’s stadiums are the equiva-
lent of Europe’s medieval cathedrals in terms of the wonderment
they inspire, but the stadiums and sports facilities of the ancient
world are no less inspirational.
Perhaps what marks these buildings out is the way in which
they reflect the aspirations of the societies they serve and those
of the people responsible for building and using them. If this is
accepted as being the case, then our enterprising generation
makes the sports facilities business a great business to be in right
now – a place where imagination, inventiveness and technology
meld into powerful creative forces.

243
Appendix I

Construction Specifications
Institute (CSI) MasterFormat

In this book we have referred to the importance of effective com- attitudes to security and life safety, green building design and
munication and, in particular, to the use of precise and consistent sustainability. None of these issues, he noted, were much men-
terminology during the construction planning, procurement and tioned 40 years ago.
implementation processes. The importance of effective commu-
nication continues into the building operation and maintenance
phases of the project life cycle.
MasterFormat is the most widely used standard for organising SPECIFICATIONS GROUP
specifications and other information for commercial and institu-
tional building projects in the USA and Canada. It provides a General Requirements Subgroup:
master list of divisions, and section numbers and titles within • Division 01 – General Requirements
each division, for users to follow in managing information about
a facility’s construction requirements and associated activities. Facility Construction Subgroup:
Standardising the presentation improves communication among • Division 02 – Existing Conditions
all the parties involved in construction projects. • Division 03 – Concrete
On 12 May 2005 one of the authors (JP) was privileged to hear • Division 04 – Masonry
Karl Borgstrom, Executive Vice President, Construction • Division 05 – Metals
Specifications Institute, speak about the New MasterFormat to a • Division 06 – Wood, Plastics, and Composites
Construction Writers Association audience at Hotel Washington, • Division 07 – Thermal and Moisture Protection
Washington DC. The MasterFormat 2004 Edition is the most • Division 08 – Openings
significant revision in the product’s 40-year history, and the first • Division 09 – Finishes
new version since 1995. • Division 10 – Specialties
Dr Borgstrom said that MasterFormat 2004 was a response to • Division 11 – Equipment
the need for change. He gave the example that, when the original • Division 12 – Furnishings
16 divisions of MasterFormat were created, there was one tele- • Division 13 – Special Construction
phone company maintaining connections to a building, using a • Division 14 – Conveying Equipment
single telephone closet for telecoms wiring. In those days, tele- • Division 15 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
phone lines were used mainly for talking. Today, building owners • Division 16 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
have to accommodate much more complicated equipment, and • Division 17 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
tenants choose between many different providers for the services • Division 18 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
that ‘fat pipes’ bring into the building. Dr Borgstrom explained • Division 19 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
how the New MasterFormat would accommodate changes in

244
 appendix i

Facility Services Subgroup: CSI provides technical information and products, common organi-
• Division 20 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION sational systems for construction information, continuing educa-
• Division 21 – Fire Suppression tion and professional certification to continuously advance the
• Division 22 – Plumbing process of delivering construction projects.
• Division 23 – Heating Ventilating and Air-conditioning Construction Specifications Institute (CSI):
• Division 24 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION www.csinet.org/s_csi/index.asp
• Division 25 – Integrated Automation
• Division 26 – Electrical
• Division 27 – Communications
• Division 28 – Electronic Safety and Security
• Division 29 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION

Site and Infrastructure Subgroup:

• Division 30 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 31 – Earthwork
• Division 32 – Exterior Improvements
• Division 33 – Utilities
• Division 34 – Transportation
• Division 35 – Waterway and Marine
• Division 36 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 37 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 38 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 39 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION

Process Equipment Subgroup:

• Division 40 – Process Integration
• Division 41 – Material Processing and Handling Equipment
• Division 42 – Process Heating, Cooling, and Drying
Equipment
• Division 43 – Process Gas and Liquid Handling, Purification
and Storage Equipment
• Division 44 – Pollution Control Equipment
• Division 45 – Industry-Specific Manufacturing Equipment
• Division 46 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 47 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION
• Division 48 – Electrical Power Generation
• Division 49 – RESERVED FOR FUTURE EXPANSION

245
Appendix II

Indoor sports:
space planning drawings

American squash

Squash

246
Archery

247
Badminton

Baseball

248
Boxing

249
Hockey

Ice hockey

250
Martial arts

Netball

251
Swimming pool

Diving pool

252
Team handball Tennis

253
Tetherball

254
Trampoline

Volleyball court

255
R e f e re n c e s
General
Sawyer, Thomas H (ed.), Facility Design and Management:
For Health, Fitness, Physical Activity, Recreation and Sports
Facilities Development, Sagamore Publishing,
ISBN 1571675655, 2005
Peterson, James A and Tharrett, Stephen J, ASSM’s Health/
Fitness Facility Standards and Guidelines, American College
of Sports Medicine, Human Kinetics, 2nd revised edn,
ISBN-10 0873229576 ISBN-13 978-0873229579, 1997
Sports Council (Geraint John and Kit Campbell), Handbook
of Sports and Recreational Building Design: Indoor
Sports, Volume 2, 2nd edition, Architectural Press,
ISBN-10: 0750612940 ISBN-13: 978 0750612944, 1995
Konya, Allan, Sports Buildings, Architectural Press,
ISBN 0 85139 7611, 1986
Chapter 1
Crane-Dixon, Architects’ Data Sheets: Indoor Sports Spaces,
Architecture Design and Technology Press, ISBN 1 85454
008 4, 1991
Sport England, Comparative Sizes of Sports Pitches and Courts
(Design Guidance Note), Sport England, April 2007
www.sportengland.org/
Sport England, Sports Halls: Sizes and Layouts (Design Guidance
Note), Sport England, ISBN 1 86078 108 X, February 2000
Sport England, Sports Halls: Design (Design Guidance Note),
Sport England, ISBN 1 86078 094 6, February 1999
257
New Buildings Institute www.newbuildings.org/
National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA)
www.nirsa.org/
sportscotland www.sportscotland.org.uk/
Chapter 2
World Squash Federation, Squash Specifications for:
Courts, Rackets, Balls (Recommended Standards Approved
by the World Squash Federation), WSF May 2003
www.worldsquash.org
Plimpton, George and Zug, James, Squash: A History of the
Game, Scribner Book Company, ISBN-10: 0743229908
ISBN-13: 978-0743229906, September 2003
Bellamy, Rex, The Story of Squash, Cassell, 1978
Squash Talk www.squashtalk.com
US Squash Racquets Association www.us-squash.org/
European Squash Federation www.europeansquash.com/
England Squash www.englandsquash.com/
Squash Australia www.squash.org.au/
Asian Squash Federation www.asiansquash.com/members.html
Indian Squash Professionals www.ispsquash.com/
Press Articles by Raju Chainana from 1976 to 2001
www.ispsquash.com/RajuChainaniArticles3.htm
Prospec/Ellis Pearson www.prospec.co.uk
ABS www.abs-sport.hu/
McWil Courtwall www.mcwilcourts.com/
references
Chapter 3
BS 5628-1: 2005 Code of Practice for the Use of Masonry
DD140: Part 2: 1987 Recommendations for the Design of Wall
Ties
BS EN 845-1: 2003 Specification for Ancillary Components for
Masonry – Part 1: Ties, Tension Straps, Hangers and Brackets
Kicklighter, Clois E, Modern Masonry – Brick, Block and Stone,
Goodheart-Willcox, 2003
Microsoft Windows Embedded, Real-Time Embedded
Computers Help Maximize Gym Workouts, 22 May 2007
Life Fitness – World Leader in Commercial and Home Fitness
Equipment www.lifefitness.com
Curves International Women’s Fitness Franchise and Weight
Loss www.curves.com
My Gym Children’s Fitness Center www.my-gym.com
Overtime Fitness www.overtimefitness.com
Olsen, Stefanie, ‘Teen-only gym: Virtual reality, real sweat’,
CNET News, 22 September 2006
Power Plate www.powerplateusa.com
Camber, Rebecca, ‘Madonna looks amazing thanks to £7,000
vibrating plate’, Daily Mail, 18 July 2006
Hall, Joanna, ‘All You Need To Know About: Power-Plate’,
Guardian Weekend, 5 September 2007
Stuttaford, Dr Thomas, ‘Q&A: Why do I sweat’, The Times,
23 July 2007
BAE Systems Engineering, ‘Calculated Fitness – Case Study 01:
Simple sums in the gym’
www.baesystemseducationprogramme.com/
systemsengineering/pdfs/gym.pdf
CYBERFIT www.cyberfit.de
Designer Fitness www.designer-fitness.com
K&K Designs www.fitnessdesigner.com
Precor www.precor.com
Professional Fitness Concepts www.pfc-fitness.com
Totally Fitness www.totallyfitness.co.uk
Collins, Patrick et al., ‘Design and Construction of Zero-Gravity
Gymnasium’, Engineering Construction and Operations in
Space V, American Society of Civil Engineers, 1996
258
Chapter 4
Rambert Dance Company www.rambert.org.uk
Giordan, Marion, ‘Ballet Rambert Studios’, Tubular Structures,
19, p. 24, British Steel Corporation, Tubes Division, October
1971
National Dance Association, Dance Facilities, American
Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and
Dance, 1985
National Dance Association www.aahperd.org.nda/
National Dance Teachers Association www.ndta.org.uk/
Henshaw, David, ‘A New Dance Studio’
www.ndta.org.uk/public/resources/dm028d.html
Dance Studio Specification Hands On CPDA Ltd
www.handsoncpda.com/
Foley, Mark, ‘Dance Spaces’, Arts Council of England, 1994
Chapter 5
Wheeler, Mortimer, The Indus Civilization, Supplementary
Volume to the Cambridge History of India, 3rd edition,
1968
Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA) www.fina.org/
USA Swimming www.usaswimming.org/
National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCCA)
www.ncca.org/
State of Alaska, Department of Education, ‘Swimming Pool
Guidelines’, 1997 edition www.eed.state.ak.us/facilities/
publications/SwimmingPool.pdf
Lund, John W, ‘Design Considerations for Pools and Spas
(Natatoriums)’, GHC Bulletin, September 2000
http://geoheat.oit.edu.bulletin/bull21-3/art3.pdf
Amateur Swimming Association www.britishswimming.org/
Mungall, G et al., ‘Manchester Aquatics Centre’, Arup Journal,
1, pp. 9–14, 2001 www.arup.com
Chapter 6
Harris, Martin C, ‘Homes of British Ice Hockey’, Stadia,
ISBN-10 07524 2581 1 ISBN-13 978 0 7524 2581 8, 2005

Dilley, Philip, ‘Oxford Ice Rink’, Arup Journal, Ove Arup
Partnership, pp. 23–27, Spring 1986
Disano, ‘Curling: a Scottish game entirely to be discovered’,
Disano Lighting Magazine, No. 1, 2007
Brochure: ‘A New View for Bringing People Together’, HOK
Sport Architecture
USA Hockey www.usahockey.com/
Ice Hockey UK www.icehockeyuk.co.uk/
Royal Caledonian Curling Club
www.royalcaledoniancurlingclub.org/
English Curling Association www.englishcurling.org.uk/
Canada Curling Association www.curling.ca/
United States Curling Association www.usacurl.org/
The Official US Speedskating Website www.usspeedskating.org/
Speed Skating Canada www.speedskating.ca/
International Skating Union (ISU) www.isu.org/
Skate Canada www.skatecanada.ca/
The United States Figure Skating Association (USFSA)
www.usfsa.org/
National Ice Skating Association (NISA) www.iceskating.org.uk/
Ice Skating Australia www.isa.org.au/
CIMCO Refrigeration
www.cimcorefrigeration.com/icesports.asp
Chapter 7
Beckmann, Poul, ‘Crystal Palace Sports Centre’, Ove Arup &
Partners, London, Newsletter No. 24, pp. 129–131, June
1964
The Great Exhibition of 1851: An Overview www.victorianweb.
org/history/1851/1851ov.html
‘NODUS Space Frame Grids Part 1 – Design’, British Steel
Corporation Tubes Division, 2nd edition, January 1974
‘National Exhibition Centre, Birmingham’, Tubular Structures,
26, pp. 3–5, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division,
January 1976
Wynne-Jones, RD, ‘This Sporting Life: Sunderland
Recreation and Leisure Centre’, Tubular Structures, 27,
pp.17–19, British Steel Corporation Tubes Division,
August 1976
Martin, Andrew and Pascoe, John, ‘NODUS the Space Maker’,
British Steel Corporation Tubes Division, 1974
259
references
Shepheard, Michael (ed.), ‘A standardised approach to sports
halls’, Building with Steel, Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 26–27,
Constrado, December 1984
Pascoe, John, ‘Dubai Sports Halls’, Tubular Structures, 53, p.4,
British Steel General Steels, January 1991
Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Tubular Structures Case Study
2: The Dome, Doncaster Leisure Park, British Steel General
Steels, 1991
Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Tubular Structures Case Study 7:
The Play Drome, Clydebank Tourist Village, British Steel
General Steels, 1995
John, Geraint and Campbell, Kit, Handbook of Sports and
Recreational Building Design: Volume 2 Indoor Sports, 2nd
edition, The Sports Council Technical Unit for Sport,
Architectural Press, 1995
National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA)
www.nirsa.org/
Yee, Robert, Sports and Recreation Facilities, Visual Reference
Publications Inc., 2006
Chapter 8
Gabrielsen, M Alexander and Miles, Caswell M, Sports and
Recreation Facilities: For Schools and Community, Prentice-
Hall, 1958
Hindhaugh, Eric (ed.), Building with Steel 2 – Buildings for
Education, British Steel Corporation, February 1970
Pascoe, John (ed.), Tubular Structures 63 – Learning with SHS,
British Steel Tubes & Pipes, January 1996
Pascoe, John (ed.), Tubular Structures 56 – Regeneration,
British Steel General Steels, June 1992
Pascoe, John and Culley, Peter, Sport-led Social and
Community Regeneration 2002, Corus Structures – Winning
Stadia, Corus Construction Centre, 2002
Sheffield International Venues www.sivltd.com
Sportcity, Manchester www.sportcity-manchester.com
London 2012 www.olympic.org/uk/games/london
references
Chapter 9
Culley, Peter and Pascoe, John, Stadium Engineering, Thomas
Telford Publishing, 2005
John, Geraint, Sheard, Rod and Vickery, Ben. Stadia – A design
and development guide, 4th edition, Architectural Press, 2007
Shapiro, J, The Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds (The ‘Green
Guide’), 4th edition, HMSO, London, 1997
Inglis, Simon, Digest of Stadium Criteria, Football Stadia
Advisory Design Council, 1992
Inglis, Simon, Seating – Sightlines Conversion of Terracing Seat
Types, Football Stadia Advisory Design Council, 1991
Culley, Peter, Action Steps for Sports Ground Safety, British
Steel General Steels, 1990
Clark, Warren, ‘The Olympic Legacy’, Recreation, pp. 32–37,
September 2005
World Stadium www.worldstadiums.com
Guide to the Football Stadiums in Europe
www.stadiumguide.com
The Stadium Guide – USA www.stadiumguide.com/usa.htm
Australian Stadiums www.austadiums.com
National Stadium, Wembley www.wembleystadium.com/
default.aspx
Kisho Kurokawa, Ōita Stadium www.kisho.co.jp/164.htm
Kisho Kurokawa, Toyota Stadium
www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/267
2010 World Cup Stadiums, South Africa
www.sa-venues.com/2010/2010-stadium.htm
Commonwealth Games, Delhi 2010, Venues
http://cwgdelhi2010.org/venues.html
London 2012 www.london2012.com
Commonwealth Games Glasgow 2014 www.glasgow2014.com
HOK Sport www.hoksport.com
NBBJ www.nbbj.com/#work/market-sectors/sports
Arup Sport www.arup.com/sport
Ellerbe Becket www.ellerbebecket.com
GMP Architekten www.gmp-architekten.de
Chapter 10
Tennis Queensland http://www.tennis.com.au/pages/default.
aspx?id=21&pageId=734
260
English Cricket Board, Cricket Specific Indoor Centres: TS2:
ECB Facility Briefs and Guidance Notes for Cricket Specific
Indoor Centres (Excellence Centres) www.static.ecb.co.uk/
files/ts2-cricket-specific-indoor -centres-1334.pdf
Powered Rowing Tank Design www.rowingtank.com
McLean, James, The London Regatta Centre and Powered
Rowing Tank, pp. 19–23, The Arup Journal, 1, 2002
Chapter 11
Billington, MJ et al., The Building Regulations: Explained and
Illustrated, Blackwell Publishing, 13th revised edition, March
2007
Chudley, R and Greeno, R, Building Construction Handbook:
Incorporating Current Building & Construction Regulations,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 6th edition, March 2006
BSI www.bsi-global.com/en/Standards-and-Publications/About-
BSI-British-Standards/
ISO www.iso.org/
ASTM www.astm.org/
ANSI www.ansi.org/
CEN www.cen.eu/cenorm/index.htm
CENELEC www.cenelec.eu/
World Standard Services Network http://www.wssn.net/WSSN/
listings/links_national.html
Chapter 12
Health and Safety Commission, Managing Health and Safety in
Construction: Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2007, Approved Code of Practice, HSE Books,
2007
Health and Safety Executive, Want construction work done
safely? A quick guide for clients on the Construction (Design
and Management) Regulations 2007, HSE Books, 09/07,
www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg411.pdf
Statutory Instrument 1996 No. 1592, The Construction (Health,
Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1996, HMSO, 1996
www.legislation.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961592_en_1.htm

Chapter 13
Nicholson, Duncan and Pascoe, John, ‘Geotechnics’ (capability
statement), Arup, 2002
Harris, HA, Sport in Britain: Its Origins and Development,
Stanley Paul, London, 1975
Chapter 14
Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE),
Creating Successful Masterplans – A Guide for Clients
www.cabe.org.uk
Urban Task Force, Towards an Urban Renaissance, Office of the
Deputy Prime Minister (ODPM), 1999
White, Harvey and Karabetsos, James, ‘Planning and Designing
Facilities’, pp. 13–28, Facilities Planning for Physical
Activity and Sport, American Association for Active
Lifestyles and Fitness, 1999
Daly, Jim, Recreation and Sport Planning and Design,
2nd edition, Human Kinetics, 2000
Campbell, Kit, ‘Design Briefs’, in Sports Council, Handbook of
Sports and Recreational Building Design: Indoor Sports,
Volume 2, 2nd edition, pp. 38–40, Architectural Press,
1995
Irwin, Ernie et al., ‘Birmingham Olympics’, The Arup Journal,
Volume 21, No. 1, pp. 4–22, Spring 1986
Chapter 15
Bechthold, Martin, Innovative Surface Structures: Technologies
and Applications, Routledge, 2007
Brookes, Alan J and Meijs, Maarten, Cladding of Buildings,
4th edition, Routledge, 2007
Levin, Ezra (ed.), Wood in Building, The Architectural Press,
London, on behalf of the Timber Research and Development
Association, 1971
Foster, Jack Stroud and Harington, Raymond, Structure and
Fabric, Part 2, BT Batsford Limited, London, 1976
Franklin, Bertil, ‘Coloured Sheet Steels for Roofs and Facades’,
Building with Steel, Vol. 7, No. 2, Constrado, July 1978
261
references
Long, MJ, Design Life of Buildings, Proceedings of an
Institution of Civil Engineers Symposium held 26–27
November 1984, Thomas Telford, London, 1985
McDougal, Kate, Desktop Engineering, ‘Pushing the Limits
in Sports Facility Design’
www.dte.co.uk/case_studies/sports_facility_design.htm
Chapter 16
EN 14904: ‘Surfaces for Sports Areas – Indoor surfaces for
multi-sports use – Specification’, Comité Européen de
Normalisation (CEN), April 2006
DIN Pre-Standard 18032 Part II: ‘Sports Halls, Halls for
gymnastics, games and multi-purpose use. Part 2: Sports
floors, requirements and testing’, Deutsches Institut für
Normung, 2001
DIN Standard 18032 Part II: ‘Sports Halls, Halls for gymnastics,
games and multi-purpose use. Part 2: Sports floors, require-
ments and testing’, Deutsches Institut für Normung, 1991
Bookwalter, Karl W (ed.), College Facilities for Physical
Education, Health Education, and Recreation, College
Physical Education Association, 1947
Maple Flooring Manufacturers Association, MFMA Maple
Performance Characteristics Guide, MFMA, 2001
Sport England, Design Guidance Note: Floors for Indoor Sports,
Sport England, September 2007
CEN TC 217: Surfaces for Sports Areas: WG2: Sports Hall
Surfaces; established 1988
England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB), ‘Cricket Specific
Indoor Centres’, TS2, ECB Facility Briefs and Guidance
Notes for Cricket Specific Indoor Centres (Excellence
Centres) http://static.ecb.co.uk/files/ts2-cricket-specific-
indoor-centres-1334.pdf
ASTM E648-08: ‘Standard Test Method for Critical Radiant Flux
of Floor-Covering Systems Using a Radiant Heat Energy
Source’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2008
ASTM F2650-07: ‘Standard Terminology Relating to Impact
Testing of Sports Surfaces and Equipment’, American Society
for Testing and Materials, 2007
ASTM D1042-06: ‘Standard Test Material for Linear Dimensional
Changes of Plastics Under Accelerated Service Conditions’,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 2006
references
ASTM D543-06: ‘Standard Practices for Evaluating the
Resistance of Plastics to Chemical Reagents’, American
Society for Testing and Materials, 2006
ASTM D3389-05: ‘Standard Test Method for Coated Fabrics
Abrasion Resistance (Rotary Platform, Double-Head
Abrader)’, American Society for Testing and Materials, 2005
ASTM F1860-04: ‘Standard Specification for Rubber Sheet
Covering With Backing’, American Society for Testing and
Materials, 2004
ISO 2813: ‘Paints, Coatings, Varnishes, Non-metallic coatings,
Specular reflection, Gloss (of surface), Optical
measurement, Films (states of matter), Angles (geometry),
Test equipment, Testing conditions, Specimen preparation,
Calibration, Reproducibility, Optical’, International
Organization for Standardization, 1997
ISO 717-2: ‘Acoustics, Rating of sound insulation in buildings
and of building elements. Impact sound insulation’,
International Organization for Standardization, 1997
Touny, AD and Wenig, Dr Steffen, ‘Sport in Ancient Egypt’,
edition Leipzig (translated from the German by Joan Becker),
B R Grüner Amsterdam, 1969
Chapter 17
Sol, Neil and Foster, Carl (eds), American College of Sports
Medicine Health/Fitness Facility Standards and Guidelines,
Human Kinetics Books, 1992
Maver, Thomas W, Building Services Design: A Systematic
Approach to Decision-making, RIBA Publications Limited,
1971
Part L, Jan 2008 www.environ.ie/en/DevelopmentandHousing/
BuildingStandards/RHLegislation/FileDownload,16556,en.
pdf
Stolton, David, Delivering Indoor Air Quality, Modern Building
Services, April 2007
McFadyen, Craig, One L of a Change in Thinking, Modern
Building Services, April 2007
Prowen, Rik, The Importance of Humidification, Modern
Building Services, March 2006
Schwimmsporthalle, Berlin www.arup.com/_assets/_download/
download42.pdf
262
Chapter 18
Institution of Engineering and Technology, IEE Wiring
Regulations, 17th edition (BS7671: 2008), Institution of
Engineering and Technology, March 2008
Locke, Darrell, Guide to the Wiring Regulations: 17th edition
IEE Wiring Regulations (BS7671: 2008), John Wiley & Sons
Ltd, 2008
Chapter 19
Claiming an Enhanced Capital Allowance (ECA)
www.eca.gov.uk/etl/claim/_default.htm
Health and Safety Executive, ‘Slips and trips: The importance of
floor cleaning’, HSE information sheet, HSE, September
2005 www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/web/slips02.pdf
INFORM Inc, ‘Cleaning for Health: Best Practices’, 2006
www.informinc.org/cfhbp.pdf
Green, Angela, Sports Marketing, Routledge, 2008
Wolsey, Chris et al., HRM in the Sport and Leisure Industry,
Routledge, 2008
Wilson, Robert J and Joyce, John, Finance for Sport and Leisure
Managers, Routledge, 2007
Westerbeek, Hans et al., Managing Sport Facilities and Major
Events, Routledge, 2006
Ferrand, Alain et al., Routledge Handbook of Sports
Sponsorship, Routledge, 2006
Torkildsen, George, Leisure and Recreation Management,
5th edition, Routledge, 2005
Watt, David C, Sports Management and Administration,
Routledge, 2003
Robinson, Leigh, Managing Public Sport and Leisure Services,
Routledge, 2003
Peterson, James A and Tharrett, Stephen J, Fitness Management:
A Comprehensive Resource for Developing, Managing, and
Operating a Successful Health/Fitness Club, Healthy
Learning, 2nd edition, 2008

Chapter 20
North American Society for Sport Management (NASSM)
www.nassm.com
National Association for Sport & Physical Education (NASPE)
www.aahperd.org/naspe
International Assembly for Collegiate Business Education
(IACBE) www.iacbe.org
University of Ulster Sports Technology www.ulster.ac.uk
University of Northumbria www.northumbria.ac.uk
Institute of Sport Management (ISM) www.ismhome.com
Institute of Sport and Recreational Management (ISRM)
www.isrm.co.uk
British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES)
www.bases.org.uk
Burwitz, L et al., ‘Future Directions for Performance-Related
Research. An Interdisciplinary Approach’, Journal of Sports
Sciences, 12, 93–109, 1994
National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA)
www.nirsa.org
Quest www.quest-uk.org
Chapter 21
Gabrielsen, M Alexander and Miles, Caswell M, Sports and
Recreation Facilities: For Schools and Community, Prentice-
Hall, 1958
Liddell, Ian, ‘Creating the Dome’, The 1997 Hinton Lecture,
September 1997
Architen Landrell www.architen.com
Japan Inc Business Technology People, Concrete,
Magazine No. 72, Summer 2007
www.japaninc.com/mgz_summer_2007_concrete
American Concrete Institute www.concretepumpers.com
Quality Systems Inc.
www.permacrete.com/architects/index.php
British Cement Association (BCA) www.cementindustry.co.uk
Brick Development Association www.brick.org.uk
Masonry Contractors Association of America
www.masoncontractors.com
Timber Research and Development Association
www.trada.co.uk
263
references
Wide Span Wood Sports Structures
www.trada.co.uk; www.woodforgood.com
Brick Industry Association www.astm.org
Association for Iron and Steel Technology www.aist.org
Steel Construction Institute (SCI) www.steel-sci.org
The British Constructional Steelwork Association Ltd (BCSA)
www.steelconstruction.org
British Stainless Steel Association www.bssa.org.uk
Aluminium Association www.aluminium.org
European Aluminium Association www.eaa.net
International Titanium Association www.titanium.org
Copper Development Association www.cda.org.uk
Lead Sheet Association www.leadsheetassociation.org
Society of Facade Engineering
www.facadeengineeringsociety.org
US Glass www.usgnn.com
Chapter 22
BS 8233:1999: ‘Sound insulation and noise reduction for
buildings. Code of Practice’, BSI, B/209/18, 15/08/99
BS EN ISO 140-6:1998: ‘Acoustics – Measurement of sound
insulation in buildings and building elements’, BSI,
PEL/23/1, 15/10/98
Ruys, Theodorus, AIA (ed.), Handbook of Facilities Planning,
Vol. 1, Laboratory Facilities, ISBN 0-442-31852-9. New
York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990
ISO 1996-1:2003: ‘Acoustics – Description of measurement of
environmental noise’, ISO, TC43/SC1, BSI, 2003
BS EN ISO 717-1:1997: ‘Acoustics. Rating of sound
insulation in buildings and of building elements’, BSI EPC/1,
15/08/97
Occupational Safety and Health Administration www.osha.gov
European Association of Insulation Manufacturers (EURIMA)
www.eurima.org
Federation of European Heating and Air-Conditioning
Associations (REHVA) www.rehva.eu
National Insulation Association, NIA (of USA) www.insulation.
org
Acoustical Society of America (ASA) www.asa.aip.org
European Acoustics Association (EAA) www.eaa.fenestra.org
Institute of Acoustics (IOA) www.ioa.org.uk
references
Shield, Bridget and Cox, Trevor, ‘Acoustics, Audio and Video’,
University of Salford,
www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/acoustics_info/
concert_hall_acoustics/?content=index
Bureau Veritas: ‘Building Acoustics’ www.bureauveritas.co.uk/
wps/wcm/connect/bv_couk/Local/Home/bv_com_serviceShe
etDetails?serviceSheetID=22428
Chapter 23
Gregory, Sarah, ‘sports hall lighting – a guide to visibility in
small multipurpose sports halls’, TUS design note 10, Sports
Council, November 1984
DIN EN 12193:2007 Light and lighting – Sports lighting,
Publication Date 2008-04, German
DIN VDE 0710-13 Luminaires with operating voltages below
1000; Luminaires safety to ball throwing (VDE Specification)
Publication Date 1981-05, German
Illumination Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)
www.iesna.org
interNational Association of Lighting Management Companies
www.nalmco.org
US Environmental Protection Agency www.epa.gov
Association of Lighting Designers (ALD) www.ald.org.uk
The Lighting Association (LA) www.iald.org
Archenhold, Geoff, ‘LEDs’, IALD/RIBA Conference on
Sustainability, Business Design Centre, London, February
2007
The Future of Things http://thefutureofthings.com/news/6362/
cheap-100-000-hours-led-light.html
Chapter 24
British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 1:
Specification for fire safety signs’, BSI, London, 1990
British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5378 Part 1:
Safety signs and colours’, BSI, London, 1980
British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 2:
Specification for self-luminous fire safety signs’, BSI,
London, 1986
264
British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 3:
Specification for internally-illuminated fire safety signs’, BSI,
London, 1990
International Organization for Standardization: ‘ISO 6309: Fire
protection – safety signs’, ISO, Geneva, 1987
Health and Safety Executive, ‘Health and Safety Regulations
(Safety Signs and Signals) 1996 No. 341’, Health and Safety
Executive Books, London, 1996 (see also the detailed guid-
ance Safety Signs and Signals: Guidance on Regulations,
The Health and Safety Regulations 1996, HSE Books, 1996)
European Community, ‘Directive EEC/92/58: European Safety
Signs Directive’, EC, Brussels, 1992
British Standards Institution, ‘Code of Practice BS 5499 Part 4:
Safety signs’, BSI, London, 2000
International Organization for Standardization, ‘ISO 9002:
Quality Management Standard’, ISO, Geneva, 1994
United States, ‘Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990’, Pub.L.
101-336, 104 Stat. 327, enacted 1990-07-26
Great Britain, Disability Discrimination Act 1995, Stationery
Office Books, 17 December 1995
HM Govt., Explanatory Notes to the Disability Discrimination
Act 2005, Stationery Office Books, 22 April 2005
Statutory Instrument 2005, No. 3340: ‘The Disability Code of
Practice (Public Authorities) (Duty to Promote Equality)
(Appointed Day) Order 2005’, HMSO, 2005
Chapter 25
Buchanan, Andrew H, Structural Design for Fire Safety,
John Wiley and Sons Ltd, April 2001
Purkiss, JA, Fire Safety Engineering; design of structures,
Butterworth-Heinemann, November 2006
Muir, Peter, The New Fire Safety Legislation, RICS Books,
February 2007
Ham, Simon, Legislation Maze: Fire, RIBA Publishing,
April 2007
Colquhoun, Ian, Design Out Crime: Creating Safe and
Sustainable Communities, Architectural Press, 2003
Marsh, Paul, Security in Buildings, Construction Press, 1985
Business Project Management Solutions
www.businessprojectmanagementsolutions.co.uk
StewardCall www.butlercall.co.testimonials.php

Chapter 26
Hall, Peter and Imrie, Robert, Inclusive Design: Designing and
Developing Accessible Environments, Spon Press, 2001
Goldsmith, Selwyn, Universal Design, Architectural Press, 2000
European Union, ‘EN81-1: 1998 Safety Rules for the
construction and installation of lifts – Electric lifts’, EU,
1998
European Union, ‘EN81-2: 1998 Safety Rules for the
construction and installation of lifts – Hydraulic lifts’, EU,
1998
Liftline Limited, EN81 – New Standards www.liftline.co.uk/
en81/introduction.htm
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, ‘ASME A17.1,
Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators, and CSA B44,
Safety Code for Elevators’, ASME, 2007
ASME Product Catalogue, Education/Training – Elevators and
Escalators www.asme.org/elevator
Canadian Standards Association, ‘CSA B44.1/ASME-A17.5,
Elevator and escalator electrical equipment’, CSA, 2004
Australia: ‘Australian Standard Lift Code AS1735 Part 2 (2001)’,
Department of Commerce, 2001
Australia: ‘Australian Standard AS1735 Part 12 (1999)’,
Department of Commerce, May 1999
European Union: ‘EU Lift Directive 95/16/ec (The Lift
Regulations 1997)’, EU, 1997
BNI Building News: ‘ADA Accessibility Guidelines’,
BNI Publications, June 1996
Pascoe, John, ‘Building with Steel since 1945’, unpublished
paper, 2008
Chapter 27
Levermore, Geoff, Building Energy Management: An
Application to Heating, Natural Ventilation, Lighting and
Occupant Satisfaction, Taylor & Francis, 2000
Lenovo www.lenovo.com/planetwide/select/selector.html
Marl International www.leds.co.uk/
Arcolectric www.arcolectric.co.uk/
Adidas www.adidas-group.com/
265
references
Chapter 28
Earth Summit www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html
Energy Saving Trust www.est.org.uk
Restriction of Use of Certain Hazardous Substances
www.rohs.gov.uk/
BREEAM www.breeam.org/
USGBC: LEED www.usgbc.org/Displaypage.
aspx?categoryID=19
Monodraught: putting the wind and sun to work
www.monodraught.com
AGC Flat Glass www.agc-flatglass.en
Harare International School
www.arup.com/environment/project.cfm?pageid=1683
Sassi, Paolo, Strategies for Sustainable Architecture, Routledge,
2006
Frey, Hildebrand and Yaneske, Paul, Visions of Sustainability:
Cities and Regions, Routledge, 2007
Dunster, Bill et al., The ZEDbook, Routledge, 2007
Thomas, Randall and Garnham, Trevor, The Environments of
Architecture: Environmental Design in Context, Routledge,
2007
Hyde, Richard et al., The Environmental Brief: Pathways for
Green Design, Routledge, 2006
Emmanuel, Rohinton, An Urban Approach To Climate Sensitive
Design: Strategies for the Tropics, Routledge, 2005
Guy, Simon and Moore, Steven, Sustainable Architectures:
Critical Explorations of Green Building Practice in Europe
and North America, Routledge, 2004
Curwell, Stephen et al., Sustainable Urban Development
Volume 1: The Framework and Protocols for Environmental
Assessment, Routledge, 2005
Deakin, Mark et al., Sustainable Urban Development Volume
2: The Environmental Assessment Methods, Routledge, 2007
Vreeker, Ron et al., Sustainable Urban Development Volume 3:
The Toolkit for Assessment, Routledge, 2008
Cooper, Ian and Symes, Martin, Sustainable Urban
Development Volume 4: Rethinking Professionalism in
Europe, Routledge, 2008
references

Chapter 29 Chapter 30
Barrie, Malcolm and Pascoe, John, Refurbishment, Arup, 1993 Reiner, Laurence E, How to Recycle Buildings, McGraw-Hill,
Arup Research + Development, ‘Work on Existing Buildings: 1979
risks and mitigation’, draft document, April 2002
Kratchman, Steven, The Design of Urban Private Sports Clubs
in New York City, Steven Kratchman Architect PC, 2004
Hutton Arena www.hamline.edu/hamline_info/athletics/
facilities/hutton_arena.html

266
Index
Page numbers in italics denote an
illustration/table
Abbeydale Club (Sheffield) 17
Aberdeen Grammar School 183
absorption coefficient 187–8
access control systems 212–13
accessibility 215–19
accreditation 167–8, 169, 170–3
Accreditation Task Force 167
acoustic ceiling tiles 190
acoustics 187–91
and absorption coefficient 187–8
and coincidence effect 188
external 190
and fabricated ‘cloud’ 190
maintenance of materials 190
noise criteria curves 188
and reverberation 187
and sound reduction index 189
sound reduction methods 189–90
and sound transmission class 188–9
actuators 221
adaptive facades 228
Agganis Arena (Boston University) 50
Agrément Certificates 104
air curtains 228
air-conditioning 148, 150 see also
HVAC
air-handling units (AHUs) 53, 54, 82
air-supported structures 132
air-tightness 150
aircraft hangars 80–1
Airdrie Leisure Pool 149, 180, 228
Airdrionians FC (Broomfield Park) 78, 80
alert devices 224
aluminium 129, 183
Amateur Swimming Association of
Great Britain 40
American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM) 147
American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) 103
American Society of Heating, Beijing Organizing Committee for the
Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Olympic Games (BOCOG) 84
Engineers 43 Berkeley High School (California) 8
American Society for Testing and bi-level switching 12
Materials (ASTM) 103 Bilston Steelworks 238
Anglian Standing Conference see ASC biomass heating 231
Approved Code of Practice (ACOP) 107 Bird’s Nest Stadium (Beijing) 84–5, 85
arch concept 127, 128 Birmingham International Arena 58
archaeology 113 Birmingham Olympic bid (1992) 122–4,
Arcolectric 225 122
Arsenal Football Club (Emirates Bitterne Leisure Centre (Southampton)
Stadium) 213 62, 63
‘Artificial Athlete Berlin’ apparatus 139 blinds, automated 228
Arundel Castle Indoor Cricket School 95 Boardwalk Hall (Atlantic City) 50
Arup 53, 62, 229, 241 boathouse 97, 97
ASB 18 BOCAD 134, 135
ASC (Anglian Standing Conference) 70, boPET 34
71 bowling greens, indoor 94, 94
boxing rings 142–3, 142
‘B of the Bang’ sculpture 191 Brady Squash Center (Yale University)
BACnet 223 16, 20
badminton 7, 126 BREEAM (Building Research
badminton courts 8, 127 Establishment Environmental
ball rebound 140, 140 Assessment Method) 232
ballet 31 bricks/brickwork 17, 130, 177–8
Ballet Rambert (Chiswick) 32, 186 Bridgend Comprehensive School 72–3
bandy 51 bridges 122
Barnsley Metrodome 118, 120, 147, 148 Bristol City Football Club 87
basement design 115 British Association of Sport and Exercise
BASES (British Association of Sport and Sciences (BASES) 169
Exercise Sciences) 169 British Board of Agrément Certificate 104
‘basket ball’ 5–6 British Institute of Facilities
basketball 7, 237 Management 161
floors 137 British Olympic Association (BOA) 122,
beam effect structures 129 123
beams 181 British Standard see BS
Beaurepaire Centre Pool (University of British Steel Corporation 58
Melbourne) 45–6 British Steel Wide Span Sports Solutions
Becket, Ellerbe 20, 87 79, 80–1
Bedford, David 57 brownfield sites 75, 104
beech squash 19–20 BS
behaviour under rolling load 140, 140 5499 203
Beijing 2008 Olympics 46, 56–7, 154, 7044 11, 138–9
204, 220, 221, 222 7671: (2008) Part (7) 158
267
index
Building Act (1984) 101
building management systems (BMS)
223
building regulations 101–5
and construction materials 102–4,
103
and disabled access 105
and energy-efficient systems 150
and fire safety 102
and moisture exclusion 104–5
and site preparation 104
and standards 102–4, 103
and structural stability 101–2
and workmanship 104
Building Regulations (2006) 150
Building Research Establishment
Environmental Assessment
Method (BREEAM) 232
Buntingford Sports Pavilion
(Hertfordshire) 157
Business Project Management Solutions
213
Butler Manufacturing Co 94
‘C’ value 86–7, 86
cable protectors 157, 158, 159
cables, electrical 156, 157
Calipatria United School District
(California) 26
Call-Systems Technology (CST) 213
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation 32
Campbell, Reith Hill (CRH) 19
candlepower 194
car parks/parking 121
lighting and surveillance 211–12
sports centre 189
carbon dioxide emissions 44, 198, 231,
232, 240
cast-iron 181
CATIA software 85
cavity wall construction 105
CE mark 139
cedarboard cladding 11, 132
ceiling tiles, acoustic 190
ceilings
and fire detectors 211
ice rinks 52
repairs of in refurbishment projects
236
squash courts 16
Celtic Football Club Grandstand 81
CEN (Comité Européen de
Normalisation) 103, 104, 138
217: 139
CENELEC 104
changing rooms 66–7
Channel Tunnel Rail Rink (CTRL) 116
chariot racing 117
Chaska (Minnesota) 136
chemicals 42–3
chlorine 42–3
CHP see combined heat and power
Chris Hoy Velodrome (Glasgow) 144
Cimsteel project 134
circular hollow sections (CHS) 64, 65,
66, 73, 81
claddings 11, 130–2
CLASP (Consortium of Local Authorities
Special Programme) 70, 70, 71, 72
CLAW (Consortium of Local Authorities
in Wales) 71
cleaning/cleaniness
and facilities management 162–4
indoor sports surfaces 141, 162
and restaurants 163
of safety signs 203
of sports equipment 164, 165
closing roofs 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84
‘cloud’ 190
Clydebank Leisure Centre 9, 65–6, 66,
212
CMB (Consortium for Method Building)
70, 71, 72
Codes of Practice 104
coincidence effect 188
Colne Leisure Centre 42, 129
Colosseum (Rome) 114, 115, 115
column and truss frames 128–9
268
combined heat and power (CHP) 153,
159, 232
comfort
and facilities management 161–2
Comité Européen de Normalisation see
CEN
Commission for Architecture and the
Built Environment (CABE) 119
Commission on Sport Management
Accreditation (COSMA) 167–8
Commonwealth Games 18
Delhi (2010) 89
Glasgow (2014) 19, 21, 91, 142,
143, 144
Manchester (2002) 74–5
communication 201–7
effective 202, 202
and facilities management 162
and gym equipment 27–8, 206
phone revolutions 205–6
and signage 201, 202–5
and sports facilities 201
computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
152
computer-aided design (CAD) 132, 134,
135
computer-aided manufacture (CAM)
132, 135
computer-integrated building 223
computer-integrated manufacture (CIM)
132, 133–5
Computational Design and Optimisation
(CDO) 135
concrete 129, 178–9
and carbon dioxide emissions 240
degradation of 236
facilitation of fabric energy storage
240
methods of repairing swimming pool
236
painting and colouring 178
precast 130–1
recycling of 240
shell 129

and swimming pools 41
thermal mass of 240
condensation 53, 152
consortium building 70–3
Consortium of Local Authorities Special
Programmes see CLASP
Consortium of Local Authorities in
Wales see CLAW
Consortium for Method Building see
CMB
construction
health and safety regulations 107–9
Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations (2007) 107
construction materials see materials
Construction Products Directive (CPD)
103, 104
continuing professional development
(CPD) 168–9
Continuous Edging System 50
continuous improvement 167–73
control systems 221–5
building management systems 223
features of 221
and switches 221–2
washroom 222–3
cooling 148–9 see also ventilation
copper 184–5
corridors 67
Coventry Central Baths 57
cricket, indoor 95–6, 96, 139
cross trainers 206
Crucible Theatre (Sheffield) 18
Crystal Palace 60–1
curling 52, 52
Curved Workshop (Wapping) 241–2,
241
Curves 28
Daktronics 202
Dalplex Arena (Dalhousie University)
132, 132
Daly, Jim 119
damp-proof course 104
index
dance studios 31–7 and sound reduction 190
ballet barres 34 sports centre 67
dimensions 31, 33 Dubai sports halls 63–4
doors 33 ducts/ ductwork 151, 190
floors 33–4, 137 Dunc Gray Olympic Velodrome
heating 33, 34 (Sydney) 143
interior decoration 34 duty managers, key tasks for 161
Laban Centre 35–7, 36
lighting 33, 34 Earth Summit (1992) 227
mirrors 34 East Midlands International Swimming
music and sound systems 34–5, 35 Pool (Corby) 106, 177
NDA recommendations 33 EC mark 104
NDTA guidelines 33–4 Edgbaston Priory 124
Rambert Dance Company 32–3 Education School Premises Regulations
roofs 32–3 33
storage space 34 Educational Policies Commission 69
ventilation 33, 34 Electrical Contractors Association 159
walls 33 electrical engineering, key drivers in 155
dance/dancing 31 electrical equipment 157–8
daylight/daylighting 11, 12, 24, 195, electrical installation 155–9
228 and BS7671: (2008) Part 7 158
deformation trough, extent of 140, 140 and cable protectors 157, 158, 159
design development considerations designing of systems 156
128–30 inspection and testing 159
digital technology 133 and IP codes 158
dimmer switches 197 and regulations 155
DIN 18032-2 138, 139–40, 140 wiring 157
dirt depreciation 197 Electrical Installation Bus (EIB) 223
disabled people 67, 105, 215 electricity
building regulations and access and CHP plants 159
105–6 demand for 155–6
discus 185 distribution of 156–7
displacement ventilation 229 uses of in sports facilities 155
Dollar Mountain Lodge (Sun Valley, Electricity at Work (EAW) Regulations
Idaho) 156 159
Dome, The (Doncaster Leisure Park) electrostatic air cleaners 229
64–5, 65, 181 elevators, passenger 216
domes 127 emergency escape signs 203–4
Don Valley Athletics Stadium (Sheffield) emergency lighting 196–7, 211
68, 73, 87 Emirates Stadium (Arsenal Football
doors Club) 213
dance studios 33 EN 14904: (2006) 138–9, 140
and disabled 105 energy efficiency 150, 159, 161–2, 198,
and security 212 227
269
index

energy recovery devices 151 fire safety 209–11 glass reinforced plastic (GRP) cladding
Energy Technology List (ETL) 161–2 and building regulations 102 131
energy-efficiency tax deductions 12 and stadiums 89 glass walls, squash courts 17–18
English Cricket Board (ECB) 95 Summerland disaster (1973) 209–10 ‘glasshouse’ 195
English Indoor Bowls Association 94 and timber 180 global warming 44, 150
Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs) fitness 23 Goodwood Racecourse 182
161 flanking paths 189 Gordon Barracks 183
ENs (European Norms) 104 floor coverings 140, 141, 142 Grand Central Station (New York)
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) floors 11 Squash Tournament of Champions
188, 197 cleaning of 141 18, 20–1
‘equilibrium moisture content’ 179 dance studios 33–4, 137 GRASP software 135
Essential Requirements (ERs) 103, 104, and DIN 18032-2 139–40 Great Bath (Mohenjo-daro) 38, 39
139 and EN 14904: (2006) 138–9 Great Exhibition (1851) 60–1
ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) foil gymnasiums 24 Greeks, ancient 23, 79, 185
skins 47, 85 indoor bowling greens 94 greenhouse gas emissions 159 see also
Eureka initiative 134 indoor cricket centres 95, 96 carbon dioxide emissions
ExCel Exhibition Centre (London) 232 life cycle costing 141 ground conditions
Eynsham Joint Use Sports Centre 183 materials used in 11 and geophysical testing 113
sports halls 11 and geotechnical desk studies 111–12
fabric energy storage (FES) 240 sprung 137–8 and refurbishment projects 235
facades 130–2 squash courts 17, 19 and soil dynamics 114
adaptive 228 swimming pools 41 and soil mechanics 113–14
facilities management 158, 161–5 fluorescent lamps 193–4 ground investigations 112, 235
and cleanliness 162–4 foot-candle 194 groundwater 112, 113, 114
and comfort 161–2 footways 121 GSBS 53
and communication 162 force reduction 140, 140 gym equipment 27–9
definition 161 Forest Gate Youth Centre 216 and communication 27–8, 206
keys tasks of a duty manager 161 Fort Regent (St Helier) 240–1, 240 user-activated sensors 224, 224
facings 130 foundation design 115 ‘gym etiquette’ 162, 163
factory production code (FPC) 139 gym mats 141–2
Falkland Palace, Royal Tennis Court 20, Gallium Nitride (GaN) LEDs 198–9, 199 Gymnasium (Sligo) 100
21 Garnerville Police Training College gymnasiums 23–9, 69
fan systems 147, 150 (Belfast) 188, 206 and ancient Greeks 23
‘fan zones’ 76 geophysical testing 113 and club membership issue 23
FASTRAK 134 geotechnical desk studies 111–12 environment of 25
Fédération Internationale de Natation German Gymnasium (St Pancras) 116, floors 24
(FINA) 40 116 layout of 26–7
feedback innovation 224 girder structures 129 in outer space 29
figure skating 54–5 Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth Games roofs 24, 26, 69
fire appliances 102 19, 21, 91, 142, 143, 144 and schools 69
‘fire bending’ 219 glass 180–1, 228 walls 24
fire detection 211 types used in building structures 180
fire exits 102 Vision-60T 228 Hamline University 237
fire precautions 210–11, 210 glass curtain walling 131 Hampden Park (Glasgow) 217

270

handrails 67, 216, 217
Hanley Ice Rink (Teluride, Colorado) 51
Harare International School 229–30, 229
Harborough Leisure Centre 169, 196
airdrome 92, 126
bowls hall 94
elevators 218
fire safety equipment 208
gymnasium 25, 26, 28
reception area 166
reception security and access control
211
restaurant 164
signage 201, 203
Spinning Hall ceiling 146
swimming pool 61
user-activated sensors 224
hardwoods 179
Harmonie Club (New York) 237
harmonised European Norm (hENs) 104
Harrow Leisure Centre 59, 59
hazardous substances 233
health and safety 107–9 see also safety
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) 107
Health and Safety (Safety Signs and
Signals) Regulations 203
‘heat contract’ 231
heat transfer, rate of 150
Heathrow Airport 80
heating 148–9
biomass 231
and combined heat and power (CHP)
153, 159, 232
control systems 151
of dance studios 33, 34
of ice rinks 52, 53
of sports halls 11
of squash courts 16
of swimming pool water 43
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning
see HVAC
height
of buildings and wind gust speeds 101
of sports halls 8
hENs (harmonised European Norm) 104
Heringthorpe Leisure Centre
(Rotherham) 59–60, 60
Hertfordshire system 70
high-pressure sodium lights 194
higher education courses 168
Highgate Wood School Sports hall
(Haringey) 194, 195
Hillsborough Leisure Centre 8, 72
Hodgkinson’s beam 181
Holme Pierrepont 124
Horkstow, Roman villa at 117
Horndean Community School 73
HORSA (Hutting Operation for the
Raising of the School Leaving
Age) 70
humidification 150–1
humidistat 151
humidity, relative 147, 151, 152
Hunstanton School 195
hurling 51
Hurst, John 128
Hutton Arena (Hamline University) 237
HVAC (heating, ventilating and air-
conditioning) 82, 147–53
designing heating and cooling
systems 148–9
and energy efficiency 150
energy recovery devices 151
and humidification 150–1
multidisciplinary team approach
149–50
and Schwimmsporthalle (Berlin)
152–3, 152, 153
system components 151
systems control 151–2
hydrogeology 114
ice hockey 51, 51, 55
ice resurfer 49–50
ice rinks 49–55
and condensation 53
and curling 52
design of 51–2
271
index
dimensions 51
dual-function venues 50, 52
early 49
heating/cooling and ventilation 52,
53–4
lighting 52
preparing surfaces of 49
recycling buildings 55
resurfacing 49–50
roofs 50, 53
and speed skating 53–4
storage provision 52
ice skating 50, 51
IEE Wiring Regulations (17th Edition) 155
Illinois Institute of Technology 69
illuminance, measuring 194
incandescent lighting 193
incident lighting 195–6
inclusive design 104, 105
indicators 224–5
LED intelligent 225, 225
Marl 699 series LED 225, 225
indoor air quality (IAQ) 149
indoor facilities for outdoor sports 93–7
indoor sports halls see sports halls
ingress protection (IP) codes 158
Institute of Sport Management (ISM)
(Australia) 168
Institute of Sport and Recreational
Management (ISRM) (UK) 169
integrated systems 223
integration sports facilities 57–67
International Assembly for Collegiate
Business Education (IACBE) 167
International Olympic Commission
(IOC) 123, 125
International Skating Union (ISU) 54
International Standards Organization
(ISO) 103, 104, 134, 202–3
International Swimming Federation
(FINA) 152
International Tennis Federation (ITF) 93
Interpretative Documents (IDs) 103
IP (ingress protection) codes 158
index
iron 181, 236
ISO-STEP 134
J M Marsh Sports Hall (Liverpool) 130
Jahn, Frederick Ludwig 116
Jai Alai Hall (Havana, Cuba) 14
Japan 178
Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore) 8
Kelvinhall International Sports Arena
143
Kheti, tomb of (Egypt) 145, 145
King George VI Sports Hall (Lilleshall) 7
Laban Centre (New Cross, London)
35–7, 36
laminated glass 180, 212
laminated timber 180
landings 216–17
Landolt rings 203
Lawn Tennis Association (LTA) 93
lead 184
Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) 232–3
LED intelligent panel indicators 225, 225
LEDs (light-emitting diodes) 197–9, 198,
199, 201, 225
Leicester Leys Leisure Centre 212
leisure centres 58–60, 61, 64–6 see also
sports centres
‘level deck’ system 59
Lewis Ice Arena (Aspen, Colorado) 53
Liddell, Eric 85
life cycle costing, and floors 141
Lift Slab method 59
lifts see elevators
light fittings, shielding of 196
light-emitting diodes see LEDs
lighting 193–9
achieving uniformity of illumination
196
automated systems 197
and building management systems
223
of built environment 121
dance studios 33, 34
direct and indirect systems 196
and dirt depreciation 197
emergency 196–7, 211
GaN LED 198–9, 199
ice rinks 52
importance of in sports facilities 195
incident 195–6
and indoor bowling greens 94
and indoor cricket centres 96
and LEDs 197–9, 198, 199, 201, 225
measuring illuminance 194
natural 33, 196
power conversion for white light
sources 197
road 121–2
and security 211–12
solid state (SSL) 197–8, 201
sports facilities 196–7
sports halls 11–12
squash courts 16, 19
swimming pools 42, 45
types of electric 193–4
Liverpool Watersports Centre 219
loading(s)
and building regulations 101
and refurbishment projects 236
and soil dynamics 114
lockers 67
Lodge Park Sports Centre (Corby) 24
LON 223
London (2012) Olympics 47, 69, 75–6,
75, 76, 90, 91, 91
London Arena 50
London Docklands Development
Corporation (LDDC) 241–2
London Regatta Centre 96, 97, 97
lumen 194
lux 194
MACE (Metropolitan Architectural
Consortium for Education) 70,
71–2
272
McIntyre, Professor Peter 45–6
maintenance
of acoustic materials 190
of signage 207, 207
Manchester
Commonwealth Games (2002) 74–5
Sportcity 74–5, 191, 191
Manchester Aquatics Centre 44–5, 44
Manchester Stadium 74–5, 74
Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club
21, 21
Manchester Velodrome 127
manufacturing information system (MIS)
135
Market Drayton Swimming Pool 213
Marl 699 series LED indicators 225, 225
masonry 130, 177–8, 236
masterplanning 119–25
and City of Birmingham Olympic bid
(1992) 122–4
materials 177–85
building regulations and construction
102–4, 103
recycling building 239–40
smart 221
see also individual names
mats
gym 141–2
rollout 96
mechanical ventilation 147–8, 150
membranes, architectural 180
mercury-vapour lighting 194
MERO space-frame system 9
metal halide lights 194
methane 235
Metropolitan Architectural Consortium
for Education (MACE) 70, 71–2
Mewès and Davies 17
Millennium Dome (now O2 Arena) 55,
110, 112
Millennium Stadium (Cardiff) 81–2, 81,
83
Miller Park (Milwaukee) 82, 82, 83
mini squash 19

mirrors, dance studios 34
mixed-mode ventilation 148
mobile phones 205–6
Module 2 buildings 72
moisture exclusion 104–5
Monodraught Windcatcher 230
mortars 178
Mudd, Ian 241, 242
Muncaster Castle Sports and Activities
Centre 199
Munich Olympics (1972) 180
music
and dance studios 34–5
My Gym 28
nano-engineering 181
National Agricultural Centre (NAC) 124
National Association for Sport and
Physical Education (NASPE) 167
National Collegiate Athletic Association
(NCAA) 142
National Dance Association (USA) 33
National Dance Teachers Association
(UK) 33–4
National Exhibition Centre see NEC
National Intramural-Recreational Sports
Association (NIRSA) 8, 67, 170
National Recreation Centre (Crystal
Palace) 41, 56, 57
National Standard Bodies (NSB) 103, 103
National Swimming Center (Beijing)
46–7, 46
natural lighting 33, 196
natural ventilation 147, 230
NEC (National Exhibition Centre) 58,
61, 122, 123
‘New Approach Directives’ 103
New Buildings Institute 11
New English National Stadium
(Wembley) 83, 84–5, 84, 91, 134,
176
NODUS space frame system 10, 57–8,
58, 59, 113
noise criteria curves 188
noise levels, excessive 188
noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) 188
North American Society for Sport
Management (NASSM) 167
North Berwick Leisure Centre 121, 164
Northumbria University 168
nosing 216, 217
Nottinghamshire School Building
Programme 70
nuclear power 227
O2 Arena (Millennium Dome) 55, 110,
112
Oakengates Leisure Centre 231
occupancy sensors 12
Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) 188
Official Journal of the American College
of Sports Medicine 28–9
Old Gym, The (Leslie) 242–3, 242
Olympia Arena (Detroit) 49
Olympian Games (Wenlock) 125
Olympic Delivery Authority (ODA) 91
Olympic Games 40, 125
Beijing (2008) 46, 56–7, 154, 204,
220, 221, 222
Birmingham bid (1992) 122–4, 122
London (2012) 47, 69, 75–6, 75, 76,
90, 91, 91
Munich (1972) 180
Paris (1924) 85
Tokyo (1964) 178
‘100-year rule’ 235
ONWARD (Organization of North
Western Authorities Rationalized
Standard Design) 70, 71, 72
optimisers 151
Oquirrh Park Skating Rink (Utah) 53–4
Otto Graf Institute 139
outdoor sports
indoor facilities for 93–7
Outstanding Sport Facilities (OSF)
awards 170
Overtime gym 28
273
index
Oxford Ice Rink 50–1, 50
oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) 43
Palasport Olimpico (Turin) 54
Palavela (Turin) 133
Paralympic Games (2004) 177
passive cooling/heating systems 229–30
pedestrian guardrails 122
pedestrian movement 120, 121
pelota 15, 17
penetrometers 114
perimeter planning 120
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) 27–8
Perspex 19
Philadelphia Racquet Club 15
photochromic glass 228
photovoltaic devices 181
Pinerola Ice Rink (Italy) 52
pipes 190
and HVAC systems 151
pixel pitch for display application 202
planning 119–21
plantrooms, reducing noise levels 190
plate heat exchangers 151
Play Drome (Clydebank Tourist Village)
65–6
playing areas, of popular indoor sports
6, 7
Plunge, The (Santa Cruz) 40, 236
pole vault 177
indoor 141, 142
Poly-Gymn Conditioner 27
polymer 96
Ponds Forge International Sports Centre
(Sheffield) 71, 73
Pontypool Active Living Centre 232
Power Plate 27, 28–9
Pride Park (Derby) 112
production information database
(‘product model’) 134–5
profiled metal sheeting 131, 132
Prospec 17
PTFE-coated glass fibre material 180
PVC-coated polyester fabric 180
index

Quality Systems Inc. 178–9 rolled hollow sections (RHS) 59, 84 structural 101
quartz lights 194 Romans 40, 113, 115, 117, 127 see also security
Quest 170, 170–3 roofs 62, 127–9 St Nicholas Rink (New York City) 48
aluminium 183 St Pancras 116, 116
Racquet and Tennis Club (New York) closing 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84 Saitama Super Arena (Japan) 87, 88, 89
234, 237 and consortium building 72 Salt Lake Organizing Committee (SLOC)
rakes 87 copper 184–5 53
Rambert Dance Company 32–3 dance studios 32–3 San Alfonso del Mar (Algarrobo, Chile) 47
ramps 105, 218, 219 The Dome 64–5 San Diego Squash 15
Ramsey & Taylor, Mackie 183 flat 128 San Francisco Dance Center 31, 35
real tennis 15, 21, 21 gymnasiums 24, 26, 69 Santa Cruz Natatorium (California) 40
recycling 55, 239–42 ice rinks 50, 53 SASH (Standardised Approach to Sports
building materials 239–40 indoor rowing centres 97 Halls) 60, 61–3, 131
Curved Workshop (Wapping) 241–2, integrated leisure centres 64–5, 66 school and community sport facilities
241 long-span 130 (United States) 69
definition 239 Manchester Stadium 74 School of Physiotherapy and Exercise
Fort Regent (St Helier) 240–1, and moisture exclusion 105 Science (Griffith University,
240 pitched 94 Queensland) 160
The Old Gym (Leslie) 242–3, 242 SASH 62, 63 school sports halls 7–8, 11, 26
reflector technology 196 selection criteria 127–8 school-building 69, 195
refurbishment 235–7 short-span construction 128 consortium 70–3
relative humidity 147, 151, 152 space frame systems 9–10, 57–8, Schwimmsporthalle (Berlin) 152–3, 152,
remote sensing 113 58–9, 58, 129 153
residual current device (RCD) 158 swimming pools 42, 44–5, 59, 60 SCOLA (Second Consortium of Local
resonance 60 tensile 180 Authorities) 70–1, 70, 73
restaurants 67, 162 ‘umbrella’ or north light 129 Scotland 13
accessibility to 215 rowing machines 206 Scotstoun Stadium (Glasgow) 21
choice of foods issue 163–4 rowing-specific indoor centres 96–7, Scottish Exhibition and Conference
and cleanliness 163 98, 99 Centre (SECC) 142
restoration 237 rowing tanks 96–7, 96 SEAC (South-Eastern Architects
Restriction of the Use of Certain Royal Automobile Club (Pall Mall, Collaboration) 70, 71, 72
Hazardous Substances (RoHS) London) 17 security 211–13
directive 233 Royal Commonwealth Pool (Edinburgh) and access control 212–13
retrofitting 237 183 definition 209
reverberation 187, 188 Rugby Union Football HQ and lighting 211–12
riser 216, 217, 218 (Twickenham) 80 and Market Drayton Swimming Pool
risk management 112 run-around coil systems 151 213
roads 120–1 measures 211–12
direction sign 200 Safe-Screen squash courts 19 and site layout 212
lighting systems 121–2 safety 107–9, 209–11 and ‘StewardCall’ system at Arsenal
Robert Watson & Co (Steelwork) Limited definition 209 FC 213
133 and emergency lighting 211 and windows 212
Rogers Center (formerly Skydome) fire 89, 209–11 semiconductors 225
(Toronto) 80, 83 signs 203 sensors 221

274
 index

separated extra low voltage (SELV) 158 Social Services and the Schools 69 Dubai 63–4
shading devices 47, 196 softwoods 179 equipment storage 13
sheet metal cladding 131 soil dynamics 114 factors affecting cost 9
Sheffield soil mechanics 113–14 fittings for 11
hosting of XVIth Universiade 73–4 ‘solar concentrator’ 181 floors and coverings 11, 137, 138–9,
Sheffield Arena 73 solar panels 181 140
Sheffield International Venues (SIV) solid state lighting (SSL) 197–8, 201 heating and ventilation 11
73–4 sound reduction index 189 lighting 11–12
shell concrete construction 129 sound reduction methods 189–90 multi- 127
shinty 51 sound systems, dance studios 35 playing areas and size of 6, 7, 8
‘shock absorption’ value 140 sound transmission class 188–9 roofs 8–10, 9, 10, 59, 59–60, 128
short-span construction 128 sounders 224 and Standardised Approach to Sports
shower facilities 67 South Africa Halls (SASH) 60, 61–3, 131
sick building syndrome 149 2010 FIFA World Cup stadiums 88 upgrading existing 13
sightlines 86–7, 86 South-Eastern Architects Collaboration walls 11
signage 200, 201, 202–5 see SEAC Sports Technology degree 168
emergency escape 203, 205 space frame systems 9–10, 57–8, 58–9, sportscotland 13
maintenance of 207, 207 58, 129 sprung floors 137–8, 139
safety 203 space gymnasiums 29 squash 7
street 122 space hotels 29 beech 19–20
silicon 224–5 specific fan power (SFP) 150 and Glasgow 2014 Commonwealth
site investigation 111 speed skating 53–4 Games 19, 21
and archaeology 113 Sport for All 105, 215 health benefits of 16
and ground investigation 112 Sport England 57, 61, 128, 131, 139, history of 15
and hydrogeology 114 195, 230 mini 19
remote sensing and geophysical sport management courses 167–8 at sea 18
testing 113 Sport Management degrees 168 squash courts 15–22, 59
and soil dynamics 114 Sport Management Program Review all-glass 18
and soil mechanics 113–14 Council (SMPRC) 167 ceilings 16
site preparation 104 Sportcity (Manchester) 74–5 convertible 18
site selection 111 B of the Bang sculpture 191, 191 floors 17, 19
Skatetown (Roseville, California) 54 sports centres glass walls 17–18
skyboxes 73 changing facilities 67 HVAC 16
sledge hockey 52 and circulation 67 lighting 16, 19
sliding coefficient 140, 140 increase in number of 61 Safe-Screen 19
SLIMS (Serco Leisure Integrated restaurants 67 size of 15
Management Systems) 162 Sports Council 61 walls 17
slip and trip accidents sports equipment, cleaning of 164, 165 Squash Tournament of Champions
measures to control 162–3 Sports Hall for Acrobats (Berlin) 10 (Grand Central Terminal,
smart materials 221 sports halls 5–14, 59 NewYork) 18, 20–1
smart shoes 225 and ‘badminton courts’ principle stadiums 79–91, 135
smart technology 221 127 ancient Greek 79
Smithson, Peter and Alison 195 definition 7 closing-roof 79–80, 81–2, 83, 84
smoke detectors 211 distinction from gymnasiums 26 fire safety design 89

275
index
sightlines and calculating ‘C’ value
86–7, 86
and steel wide-span solutions 80–1
under-terrace accommodation 87, 89
use of 3D digital models 135
see also individual names
stainless steel 132, 132, 182, 183
stairways/staircases 216–18, 217, 219
consortium building and 71–2
and exit width 102
Standardised Approach to Sports Halls
see SASH
standards 102–4, 103
Standards Task Force 167
Stanley Cup 55
steel 62, 64, 127, 129, 181–2, 218
advantages of 181
and computer-integrated
manufacture 133–5
innovations in 181–2
as principal structural element in
SASH 62–3
processes for making 239
recycling 239–40
and refurbishment projects 236
roof structures in 9–10, 9
and structural hollow sections (SHS)
219, 240
and swimming pool roofs 42
uses of in consortia components 70,
71–2
wide-span solutions 80–1
‘StewardCall’ system 213
Stoneleigh Park 124
storage
dance studios 34
and ice rinks 52
sports halls and equipment 13
structural hollow sections (SHS) 219, 240
structural stability
and building regulations 101–2
structure 128–30
Summerland (Isle of Man) 209–10
Sun Gro Centre (Beausejour, Manitoba) 52
Sunderland Leisure Centre 58–9, 61
sunlight hours 195
surfaces, indoor sports 137–45
bacteria-resistant 222–3
cleaning 141, 162
and DIN 18032-2 138
and EN 14904: (2006) 138–9
floor coverings 140, 141, 142
specification for 141
and velodromes 144
see also floors
surveillance measures 211–12
sustainability 227–33
adaptive facades 228
and biomass heating 231
and BREEAM 232
and combined heat and power (CHP)
153, 159, 232
and daylighting 228
displacement ventilation 229
and Harare International School
229–30, 229
RoHS and WEEE directives 233
and Sutton Arena (Surrey) 230, 230,
231
and USBGC’s LEED system 232–3
and waste heat recovery 232
see also energy efficiency
Sustainable Development Strategy
and London Olympics 76
Sutton Arena (Surrey) 141, 230, 230,
231
Swansea Leisure Centre 184, 185, 185
swimming pools 39–47, 59, 61, 236
accessibility 215
approach to design 41–2
changing rooms 67
cleaning and purifying water 42–3
condensation problem 43–4
cracks in concrete and methods of
repair 236
and electrical installations 158
floors and finishes 41
and glazed walls 228
276
heating of water 43
history of development of indoor 40
lighting 42, 45
outlets for 43
pool dimensions 40–1
roofs 42, 44–5, 59, 60
and tiles 41–2
waste heat recovery 43–4
water circulation 43
waterproofing and insulation 41
world’s biggest 47
Swimmingly Good Foods programme
163–4
swipe-cards 212, 213
Swiss Cottage Sports Centre 57
switches 221–2
Sydney Opera House 133
Tamworth Sports Centre 61–2
Taylor, Ron 81, 183, 240
TD Banknorth Sports Center
(Quinnipiac University) 52
telephones 205–6
temperature 147
tennis 11, 15
tennis-specific indoor centres 93, 93
text viewing ranges 202
thermal comfort 147
‘thermal inertia’ 147
‘thermal lag’ 147
thermal wheels 151
Thermen Museum (Heerlen,
Netherlands) 113
thermostatic radiator valves 152
thermostats, room 152
tiles
used for swimming pools 41–2
timber 129, 179–80
affected by moisture 179–80
and fire safety design 180
products available 180
strengthening and repairing of in
refurbishment projects 236
use of in heated buildings 179

time switch 151 displacement 229
Tipton Leisure Centre 93, 131 and energy efficiency 150
titanium 184 equipment 151
toilets 67, 222, 223 ice rinks 52
Tokyo Olympics (1964) 178 and indoor air quality 149
Torino Palavela (Turin) 54, 55 mechanical 147–8, 150
toughened glass 180 mixed-mode 148
traffic speeds 121 natural 147, 230
transportation planning 120–1 passive 229–30
tread 216, 217, 217–18, 217 sports halls 11
treadmills 206 squash courts 16, 19
triple jump, indoor 12 see also HVAC
trunking 157 vertical deformation 140, 140
trusses 64–5, 129 Victoria Rink (Montreal) 51
Turnhalle see German Gymnasium Vienna Agreement 104
(St Pancras) Vision-60T glass 228
VIVO 27–8
Ulster University 168 volleyball 7, 136
under-terrace accommodation 87, 89 sitting 215
underpinning techniques 116
Union Club (New York) 237 Wade King Student Recreation Center 8
United States Figure Skating Association Wadebridge Leisure Centre (Cornwall)
(USFSA) 54–5 44, 232
United States Tennis Association (USTA) Wagonmaster (film) 137
93 walls 62, 130
United States Tennis Court & Track brick 177–8
Builders’ Association (USTC & and building regulations 101–2
TBA) 93 considerations when selecting
University School (Hampstead) 184–5 materials for external 131–2
upgrading 13, 237 dance studios 33
urban regeneration, sports-led 69–77 finishes 11
Urban Task Force 119 and fire safety 102
urinals 67, 223 glazed 228
US Green Building Council (USGBC), gymnasiums 24
LEED 232–3 ice rinks 52
Utah Olympic Oval 53–4 moisture exclusion and external
104–5
V-mop 17 and sound reduction 190
velodromes 143–4, 144 sports halls 11
ventilation/ventilation systems 147–8 squash courts 17
control devices 151 use of steel in consortium building
criteria determining sizing and 72
selection 148–9 Warfield Gymnasium 5, 7
dance studios 33, 34 washroom controls 222–3
277
index
Waste Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (WEEE) Directive 233
waste heat recovery 232
and swimming pools 43–4
Water Cube 135, 222
water polo 40
weather compensators 151–2
‘Wembley Arch’ 84, 84
Wembley stadium see New English
National Stadium
Wenlock Olympian Games 125
Western High School (Washington DC)
4, 5, 7, 22, 23, 30, 138, 192
wheelchair access 67, 105, 215
wheelchair ramps 218
Wicksteed Park (Northants) 205
wide span structures 80–1
Willink Leisure Centre (Reading) 179
wind gust speeds, and height of
buildings 101
Windcatchers 230
windows 11, 132, 188
and security 212
super 228
Winter Olympics 53, 54
wiring systems 157
wood see timber 179
workmanship 104
World Cup
(Germany) (2006) 76
stadiums in South Africa (2010) 88
World Sport for All Congress (2008) 215
World Squash Federation (WSF) 16
World Student Games (XVIth) (Sheffield)
73–4
wrestling rings 143
Yee, Robert 67
Zamboni 49–50
zinc 185
zinc spray coatings 66
I m a g e c re d i t s

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Collection 23.2 Lyon College Art Department 30.5
Arcolectric 27.5 Man vyi 30.2
Arup 1.5, 5.3, 5.5, 6.3, 6.4, 7.7, 7.8, 8.2, 9.9, 14.4, 17.6–17.8, Manchester Tennis and Racquet Club 2.7
21.9–21.11, 26.2, 28.3–28.5 Marl International Limited 23.5, 23.6, 27.4
British Steel Corporation 7.2, 7.4, 7.5 Martin Atkinson 26.1
Crispin Eurich for Tubular Structures magazine 4.2, 22.1 Merlin Hendy and Martin Rose 4.4, 4.5
Dalhousie University Photograph Collection, PC1, Dalhousie Nicolas Sanchez 9.4
University Archives and Special Collections 15.6 Peter Culley 9.10
Daniel Imade 7.1 Philip Sayer 23.3
David Nairn © British Steel Corporation 3.3 Police Service of Northern Ireland 22.2, 24.7
Designhive/Glasgow 2014 2.5, 9.12, 9.13, 16.6–16.8 PTW Architects 5.6, 5.7
Detroit Hockey Club 6.2 R Berbec 29.1
Eric A Clement © US Department of Defense 8.7 Radio Times 1.7
Felix Fonteyn © British Steel Corporation 7.3, 9.2 Roger Ridsdill Smith © Arup 10.4, 10.5
Gareth Young 10.6–10.8 Ronald G Taylor & Associates 15.2
Griffith University 19.1 Shepheard, Epstein & Hunter 30.3
Harry Sowden © Arup 30.4 Simon J Atkinson 3.4, 3.5, 3.7, 7.6, 9.8, 10.1, 10.3, 11.3, 11.4,
Henry Trotter 2.3 12.1, 15.1, 15.8, 17.1, 19.4, 20.1, 20.2, 21.1, 21.2, 23.4,
James Popple 13.2, 13.3 24.1–24.3, 25.1, 25.3, 26.4–26.7, 27.3, 28.1
Jens Willebrand 17.5 Sport England 1.6, 11.2, 16.2, 16.4
John Clarke © British Steel 1.3, 1.4, 5.4, 7.9, 7.10, 8.1, Sport Instituut Goederaad, Netherlands 3.6
8.3, 9.3, 10.2, 14.1–14.3, 15.3–15.5, 17.2–17.4, 19.3, Steve Thomas © Monodraught 28.6, 28.7, 16.5
21.3–21.8, 25.4, 26.3, 26.8, 28.2 Stewarts and Lloyds Ltd 9.1, 30.1
John Clarke © Corus Group 13.1 Thomas Cooper Library, University of South Carolina 2.6, 2.8
John Pascoe 22.3, 24.6, 24.8 Thomas Graham © Arup 8.4
JSE (Electrical Services) Ltd 18.3 Thomas Heatherwick 22.4
Kokyo Miwa Architectural Photography Laboratory 9.11 Tim Griffiths 9.6, 9.7
Lenovo 18.1, 24.4, 24.5, 27.1, 27.2 Tim Ledlie 2.4
Library of Congress © Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper 6.1 University of Cambridge 23.7
Library of Congress © Pillsbury Picture Co. 5.2 Vulcascot, Crawley, UK 18.4, 18.5
Library of Congress: gift of the State Historical Society of Wayne Short © US Department of Defense 1.2
Colorado 2.1 Wheeler Electric 18.2
Library of Congress: photo by Frances Benjamin Johnston 1.1, William D Moss © US Department of Defense 6.7
3.1, 3.2, 4.1, 16.3, 23.1 WS Atkins 9.5

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