FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 1

Fatherlessness and Learned Helplessness: An Investigation of Current Black Family Dynamics, Black
Self-Concept and their Relation to Racism
Hayden L. Merkel
Loras College
PSY 490: Senior Seminar and Portfolio
October 25, 2020
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 2

Introduction

Culture is always in flux. With its change, there is also a change in family dynamics, socioeconomic standings,

and a change in the beliefs about the self. In light of recent events, there is a microscope on factors and systems

which have unfairly and unjustly discriminated against different groups within the American population. In

particular, black families are one of the groups seen as being discriminated against yielding to greater racial

divides. Firstly, it must be communicated this is a diverse and sensitive issue involving a variety of factors such

as socioeconomic status, marital status, quality of education, access to resources, and the like. Rather than

focusing on many of the external factors impacting black groups, I narrowed my focus to the black

family dynamics, the role of authority in adolescence, and the influences of adults or role models in their

upbringing and how it relates to the formation of black’s self-concept, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. In

addition to the formation of self, learned helplessness is also investigated as a factor of racism.

Specifically, I will be focusing on the crippling cognitive and motivational drive of African Americans as a

result of fatherlessness and the development of learned helplessness. While there is a degradation of the nuclear

family in black populations, there is also an altered belief of self. With these changes, I will investigate the

relationship these have to learned helplessness which perpetuates racial stigmas and promotes a greater racial

divide. The internal locus of control can be seen as an influential aspect of racism that ought to be addressed

properly so that black people have the autonomy and competence to operate in the changing world. I will also

discuss further ways to which this can be addressed.

The Current Black Family

There has been a drastic shift within the black family from the 1890s, 1950s to today. It appears there is

a break from the traditional husband and wife nuclear family makeup to one that is largely maternal-based.

Within the black community, there is no longer the encouragement for committed marital relationships (Reid,

2006). What is seen is a decline in the expectation or encouragement of singles getting married. There is a rise
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 3

in the acceptance of single-parent homes where the mothers are tasked with nurturing, providing, and raising the

child. There are occasions where there is shared custody, but often the father is out of the picture. In general,

there is an attitude in black communities where marriage is not necessary in order to raise children (Reid, 2006).

In 1890, roughly 80 percent of black families had two parents within a union of marriage. Then, later on in the

1960s, 23 percent of black children were born out of wedlock. Today, this percentage has increased to over 70

percent (Reid, 2006). The stigma of children out of wedlock is diminished. The growing trend appears to be

embraced, but with it, there seems to be an acceptance of the consequences as well. Without fathers committed

to the marriage, women, and the children, the hurt and burden is shared by all in a variety of ways.

In a particular study on the effects of parental marital status, income, and family functioning on black

adolescents, it was found that boys with married parents had a high self-esteem than those who did not have

married parents. Interestingly, there was no correlation with girls. On one side of the coin, the appeal for black

girls in a family makeup is the presence of family relational factors (Mandara & Murray, 2000). On the other

side, black boys need greater structure and growth factors present in a family setting for an increase of self-

esteem. It is suggested that fathers have a significant role in providing order and structure to the family. The

stability a father provides also yields to greater growth in both the black girls and boys. As Reid wrote, in

research, fathers are not less interested in marriage (Reid, 2006). In fact, given the opportunity for a free

wedding, men are more likely to jump to the opportunity, but overall, they do not have the encouragement to get

married. Also, children in fatherless homes have an increase in delinquency, and seeking structure, many urban,

black adolescents find this in the streets or in organized group aggression (Reid, 2006). Many troubles are

associated with adolescent hardships.

The Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect illumines some of the consequences as

a result of the degradation of the family. They found children were more likely to be abused by female

perpetrators rather than males, with the majority being mistreated by their mothers at 75 percent. This statistic is

skewed because without fathers, this statistic is obvious; however, it also states that parent structure is a

significant factor to the frequency of maltreatment (Sedlack & Broadhurst, 1996). Essentially, there is more
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abuse and neglect occurring in single-parent homes versus the traditional family structure. It states, “Children of

single parents were at higher risk of physical abuse and of all types of neglect and were overrepresented among

seriously injured, moderately injured, and endangered children… compared with their counterparts living with

both parents” (Sedlack & Broadhurst, 1996). There are numerous factors with can yield such a result, but the

correlation between fatherlessness and high rates of neglect and abuse in psychological, physiological, and

social terms, it cannot be denied. Whether it is the father himself that causes the absence or compounding

factors due to the loss of what a father’s presence provides, it is quite significant as to how a black adolescent is

impacted. We see the degradation of the family next to the rates of abuse, but the function within black families

ought to be investigated.

After seeing the effects of marital status on black youth, Mandara & Murray continued their study a

couple of years later to examine the different types of black families. It was determined there are three types of

black families based on family functioning. There is the cohesive-authoritarian type, the conflictive-

authoritarian type, and the defensive-neglectful type (Mandara & Murray, 2002). It was found each class had a

certain number of children per family with the more stable cohesive-authoritative type having about two

whereas the other extreme, defensive-neglectful, had about three. The cohesive-authoritative type has above

average parental education and income whereas the defensive-neglectful were below average for education and

income. The defensive-neglectful were predominately families headed by single-mothers (Mandara & Murray,

2002). In this particular setting, or in families with chaotic family processes, it was found adolescents suffered

more in self-esteem. We can see that not every black family in a negative light, and they should not be branded

as such; however, the families with the absence of a father stand out as fatherlessness is seen as a contributing

factor to delinquency, abuse and neglect, and lower self-esteem. These factors can radically impact a life. I will

then examine these effects on the concept of self.

Brief Formation of Self-Concept in Blacks

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It might be easy to see how success perpetuates success whereas failure perpetuates failure. Even like

Newton’s law of inertia where an object in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon an outside force.

This principle can also be applied to different social aspects like a child who grows up abused are likely to be

victims of abuse later or perpetrators of abuse. The cycle continues. Looking at black families, it is important to

realize where they come from, their influences, and how they view themselves. The formation of self is critical

as self-concept, the belief about oneself, can drastically dictate, change, or alter their life. I will focus on the

black families experiencing fatherlessness.

Knowing yourself is not always an inherent principle. Just like self-efficacy, it has aspects of repeating

previous personal behaviors, it can be learned vicariously through other experiences, we can be told through

verbal persuasion, and we can determine our efficacy in our literal abilities to do a task. Family is a great place

to see what works well and where we can be encouraged through verbal persuasion. The unfortunate reality for

a single-mother household is the lack of a father yields many shortcomings for their children. The father is often

seen as an authoritative figure, and someone to be trusted, but in their absence, the mother has to compensate

for this loss. This impacts black boys and girls.

Without a father, black children, nonetheless, seek father figures. For younger children, especially boys,

looking up to authority or father figures is essential to their own self-concept for good or bad. Current research

suggests adolescences perceiving high competence, high tyranny, or low in sensitivity in a leader impacts their

own self-concept (Tu et al., 2018). The adolescences mirror these traits and behaviors. With further

enforcement of these thoughts and behaviors, it is easy to examine the authority figures in black youth. Role

models for black youths are critical as they are the models of emulation. A perceived good leader, despite their

abusive characteristics, teaches kids to conform and adopt their style as part of their own self-concept (Tu et al.,

2018). The cycle of abuse then continues.

Since the 1970s, rap music has become influential to the adoption of particular masculinity and

fatherhood ideals for blacks. Jessie Adolph studied the effects of rap culture and fatherhood narratives in black

adolescenes. Through his study, it was found that the perception of masculinity and fatherhood between 2000-
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2015 is painted with a broad archetype of drugs, prison or jail sentences, traumatic experiences, as well as a

dysfunction in the family make up (Adolph, 2018). Seeing this as common place, several generations grew up

with the idea that these stereotypes are enforced as “true,” or that they are readily assumed into one’s own self-

concept and racial identity despite being a representation of a small group of blacks who experience drug issues,

jail, prison, and traumas. It must also be said rap music is not the only factor for blacks as it relates to father or

authority figure, but nonetheless is an important factor within black culture and upbringing.

As it relates to racism, black men experience higher rates that black women, Hispanics, and whites. there

are numerous factors that contribute to this. Wade & Rochlen (2013) and Majors & Billson (1992), outlined a

concept in blacks called “cool pose” which includes the scripts, postures, behaviors, norms, and performances

which convey a singular message. This singular message conveys distinct pride, strength, and control (Majors &

Billson, 1992). These contribute to stereotype threat as well. Stereotype threat, as defined by Steele & Aronson

(1995), is a “socially premised psychological threat that arises when one is in a situation or doing something for

which a negative stereotype about one’s group applies.” The “cool pose” makes up the learned social and racial

identity of black men, but when this is threatened, what is observed is the withdrawal and disengagement of

blacks, especially in black men (Steele, C.M. et al., 2002). This leads to the separation of blacks in academics,

relationships, social engagements, and other similar spheres. Relating to the formation of family, we see that

even commitment to family as a stereotype threat to the black identity. Without fathers, there then is a

deterioration.

A life without fathers causes stress upon children, the family, and society. In a recent longitudinal study,

it was examined how the family environment effects self-esteem and development. Self-esteem is deeming

one’s own worth as a person. Several factors were put under the microscope to examine what aspects of family

yields positive and negative self-esteems in children. In a short list, these factors included parental warmth,

hostility, monitoring, involvement in education, quality of parental relationships, and the presence of father

(Krauss et al., 2020). It was found that “parental warmth, parental monitoring, and the presence of the father

positively predicted subsequent child self-esteem” (Krauss et al., 2020). It was also seen that economic
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hardships were less significant when there was mediation by parental warmth and parental monitoring. All of

this is to say that despite economic burdens, if the parents show warmth to each other and their children while

also being invested in the behavior of their children, the economic burdens can be mitigated (Krauss et at.,

2020). This finding is pretty substantial, but the presence of the father is also significant.

With the absence of the father, there is a rise in depression symptoms in mothers, decline in self-esteem

the children, decrease in educational involvement, rise of deviant behaviors, and a collapse of parent-to-child

relationships. Without fathers and the proper authority figures, there is a diminished self-esteem and the

creation of an unhealthy self-concept rooted in counterproductive norms and behaviors centered on pride,

strength, and control. These contribute to further disengagement and withdrawal which seems to perpetual the

issues across generations. This facilitates more experiences of observed and felt racism in blacks.

Brief Formation of Self-Efficacy in Blacks

As mentioned in the Krauss, Ortho, & Robins (2020) study, there are numerous factors that impact the

formation of a black child’s self-esteem and self-efficacy and how it relates to the experience of racism. As

sociologist have concluded, the family unit is the basis of society. The family is the primary agent in the

formation of identity and education. In a report by the National Research Center on Education in the Inner

Cities, their research project detailed values of achievement and in schooling, self-perceptions of their abilities

(self-efficacy), adolescent relationships with teachers, and different parent-child relationships. The findings

suggest that as black students experience or perceive discrimination, they believe schooling is less crucial. They

also experience high rates of mental illness and mental illness symptoms. Different parent styles influence these

perceptions as well (Taylor, 1996). If parents teach that there can be no positive outcome, then the child is likely

to believe this for themselves. The family begins belief formations which would only be further reinforced by

other experiences within or outside of the family. If parents instill the belief of unimportance, this belief is

assumed along with a fixed mindset which is a foundation for learned helplessness.
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In a particular parenting style – women supporting kids without a committed husband – there are

numerous effects. A woman who raises children alone is already articulating a specific narrative: no

commitment. Bearing a child and wanting commitment instills in the child with the belief “You do not always

get the outcomes you desire.” In a study on the history of welfare and abandonment, Withorn (1996) examines

the hurt and pain women feel by the lack of commitment of others whether that is by organizations, “systems”,

or the fathers of their children. When political systems promising change and care to women and men fail, this

only perpetuates the feelings of abandonment (Withorn, 1996). Since the family is the main educator and place

of trusted instruction, the experience of abandonment, the uncommitedness of fathers, and the collapse of

hopeful outcomes are main factors in which many blacks grow up believing ultimately impacting their self-

esteem and self-efficacy. These are other contributing pieces of evidence to learned helplessness: that no matter

what I do, I cannot change the outcome. This idea further perpetuates the culture of desiring pride, strength, and

control as these are three principles in which many blacks seek to maintain in an uncertain world full of empty

promises. Withorn (1996) articulated the learned helplessness as something which educates children. There is a

belief there are no good outcomes and with each example, this mindset becomes reinforced. This mindset

includes there is only a lack of commitment, lack of control, loss of appreciating good and desirable outcomes

(Withorn, 1996).

Learned Helplessness and Self-Efficacy in Blacks

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, research picked up on the topic of learned helplessness. Diner and

Dweck’s research (1978) provided an analysis of learned helplessness as it relates to a person’s perceived

success and the ability to avoid failures. It was concluded through the research that those who were mastery-

oriented saw success as something based on ability and the expectation of future successes based on their

orientation to tasks. Then, on the other hand, children who are helpless-oriented, they see successes when they

do happen as less noticeable, unpredictable, and perhaps a one-time thing. Overall for a helpless belief or

orientation, success is less successful (Diener & Dweck, 1978). This is important to recognize as it relates to
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 9

blacks because the orientation received in upbringing, from external sources like the media, politicians, or

trusted authority figures, and from lived experience encourages the adoption of a helpless orientation. This is

further entrenched in black culture through pessimistic explanatory styles due to the various stresses and

distress in their unique lives. With more social failures, there is an increase in adverse behavioral and affective

responses as means of coping (Sacks & Bugental, 1987). Sacks and Bugental (1987) did not exclusively study

blacks, but the idea that social failures equates to helplessness can still apply as we have seen blacks facing

many difficult challenges from racism to socioeconomic distress to the collapse of the family.

Then, there is a principle of internalization that contributes to learned helplessness in blacks and other

minority groups. Since blacks can be part of the outgroup as a minority, there is a desire for relatedness and to

have meaningful ties to the world around them. Often there is a belief of a lack of competence, but still a desire

for relatability. In doing so, there is the taking in of outside perspectives. If the outgroup repeatedly speaks of

the poor situations blacks find themselves in, their poor outcomes, and further elaboration of repeated failures,

there is the reinforcement of negative self-esteem, negative self-concept, and negative outcomes no matter what.

The loss of hopefulness begets further learned helplessness which circularly feeds the state blacks find

themselves in with a broken family, higher distress, difficult socioeconomic situations, and diminished beliefs

of self. This leads into the last principle contributing to learned helplessness: an appreciation for an external

locus of control.

It is common to hear accusations that “blacks are unmotivated” or “do not apply themselves”. While this

may be an observable fruit, the root of the issue is in learning and adopting an external locus of control. It is

also closely associated to internalization. In a study by Ryan and Connell (1989), which is on the topic of

perceived locus of causality and internalization, they examine the relationship between the two. Autonomy, or

the ability for an agent to act, is under threat due to internalization. In the study, it was found three reasonings,

external, introject, and identification, alter a person’s internal locus of control to external (Ryan & Connell,

1989). Simply put, “identification” are labels or tags placed on people, “introject” are the adoption of someone

else’s ideas or attitudes, and “external” references the origin of behavior (Ryan & Connell, 1989). For blacks,
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 10

the labels placed on them from suggesting they are inept, problematic, or unable to live like others to blatant

racism, these labels are attached fairly easily. Then, the ideas suggested of blacks from within their families,

their own experiences, or being told by others, they are assumed into the self-concept of what it means to be a

black individual. Lastly, it would appear that only external factors influence outcomes. These three reasonings

beget helplessness and a fixed mindset not set on mastery or growth, but one set on failure. This places blacks in

positions where they are likely to be subjected to further racism. The racial tension caused by a fatherless black

culture and the adoption of learned helplessness forbids excelling, success, and approval. Instead, these two

main factors forbid it.

Discussion

As mentioned earlier, racism is extremely dynamic. There are many factors for black racism, but from

previous research, many of these factors can be mitigated by the establishment of a solid family unit. Not only

this, there is research to suggest that parents need community support by school and religious leaders (Boyd-

Franklin et al., 1997). Rather than perpetuating racial and failing narratives, there ought to be an empowerment

of black families. From the research by Ryan & Connell (1989), sometimes help is not helpful. Determining

what kind of help is valuable. Valuable help increases a person’s autonomy, their competence, and their ability

to relate to others who are the same and different than themselves.

From the degradation of the family, and specifically the detriment of absent fathers, there ought to be a

push for a culture change for greater committedness. The father figures in which we all look up to should also

live to an exemplary model and seen as such. The trusted figures who are looked up to tout abuse, risky

behaviors, and a life centered on selfish living (Adolf, 2018). It is the responsibility of leaders to be examples

rather than suggest things which introject aversive ideas to children and parents. It also appears the family is no

longer centered on “we” but the “I”. Further research, specifically in regards to black families, would be to

evaluate the significance of ego-centric beliefs to altruistic beliefs in the present culture. Looking at figures and

models for blacks, often it is about the self, about being proud of one’s own doing, taking what they can or
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 11

could not get, and being independent. There is an overwhelming sense of hypermasculinity and hypersexuality

which I would suggest perpetuates a denigration of the person. Language and words are powerful. I would

suggest a study on language usage and life-success outcomes with the hypothesis that empowering, collective,

and positive language would correlate to more positive life outcomes.

Practically speaking as it related to racism today, it cannot be solved in a day. There is no political,

community organizer, or religious leader who will save the day. It is a collective effort, and it will only work if

life, suffering, challenges, and hope are valued and appreciated in virtue. I would put forth for consideration that

with the inception of contraception and abortifacients, which occurred at the same time as the decline of the

black family, have adversely affected not only the lives of black babies lost, but the entire black population as

racism and black hardship is increasing. The abortion rate for black women is five times that of white women. It

must be added there needs to be a society of support.

With a society of support, I posit that at the local community level, there needs to be a comprehensive

push for many things: establishing men’s groups, increasing awareness of importance of neighbors in our lives,

promoting the significance of life, advocating for education in language usage, creating opportunities for

connectedness particularly through mentoring programs (parent-parent and family-family), engagement of the

elderly with the youth, and providing incentives for religious organizations or non-profits to support the needy

and to provide communal outreach. In particular, support should be shown to those who are single, pregnant,

from broken homes, or in a certain socioeconomic status from families and non-profits to ensure that these

challenges and difficulties are not met with fear, but confidence and hope. If life is valued, then the lives of all

will be respected with the proper and just dignity due. Hopefulness is also a cure to learned helplessness. I

would look into researching ways of bolstering the hope which would be effective at combatting learned

helplessness whether due to incompetence, improper beliefs, or due to decreased autonomy.

Fathers and authority figures are crucial as well. This is a difficult subject, but I believe there can be a

top-down and a bottom-up approach. The top-down approach looks like leaders who are able to hold each other

accountable to use proper language, discuss the errors in their own communities, and to equip and inspire those
FATHERLESSNESS AND LEARNED HELPLESSNESS 12

around them to be the change. This includes sport figures, rappers or musicians, political figures, actors and

actresses, coaches and even the elevation of successful “normal” people. Often the normal people are most

relatable. Being extraordinary can be intimidating and out of reach. The bottom-up approach looks like

empowering young men and boys to adopt healthy ideas of masculinity. Not a feminized or emasculated ideal

which seems to be the case in modern society, but to allow boys, men, fathers and grandfathers to be the models

of masculinity: ones of sacrifice, protection, and oriented towards others. The value of the elderly is overlooked.

I would incorporate them in both of these approaches as they have a dynamic perspective and life experience

which is invaluable. This also helps with the respect of life and the bolstering of community.

By no means is this an inclusive or exhaustive list of suggestions to combat racism, but they are ideas to

get the ball rolling. Knowing that racism is not only a perpetrator harming a victim, the victim, despite their

hurt, needs to be empowered to rise above it. Unfortunately, like hunger, racism will never go away. Helping

people deal with it and to work together seems to be the best way in the present time to address these issues.

However, like the research suggests, we ought to be careful with the type of help we provide. We need to

respect others and their choice and will, but simply offer and encourage the help given. Rather than work on the

many issues right now, a long-term strategy needs to be enacted. The best thing that could be done is to teach

people how to help themselves while standing closely by in the event they fall just as a loving mother and father

should.
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