Lecture 6 - Igneous and Volcanic Rocks

ROCKS

Objectives
• Classification of rocks on the basis of their origin
• Classification of rocks within their broad classes
• Processes of mineral and rock formation
• Main distinguishing features of rocks
• Trace history of a cooling magma/lava i.e. use P-T conditions to determine
mineral assemblage
• Name some common rocks
Definition
A rock is a solid mass of mineral grains (or a mineral assemblage).
So minerals can exist without rocks and not the other way round
When studying rocks, a few things are obvious:
1. Rocks have varying chemical and mineral compositions
2. Rocks occur in several different ways
3. Rocks have distinct origins
Therefore its necessary to classify rocks

Genetic Classification of Rocks

Broadly, rocks are divided into three main groups according to their origin.

• Igneous,
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic rocks.

Rock cycle
• Equilibrium
• There is an Interrelationships between:
– Igneous rocks
– Sediment
– Sedimentary rocks
– Metamorphic rocks
– Weathering and erosion

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Igneous Rocks
• Formed by the cooling and crystallization of originally molten rock called magma
(if it is underground) or lava (if it is at the surface) as it moves up from the
interior of the earth
• On cooling, this material crystallizes into the varying minerals, forming volcanic
rocks at the surface and plutonic rocks at depth.
• The final composition is the result of complex processes often occurring deep
underground over periods of millions of years and their textures are the product
of a close interaction between composition and cooling history.

I. Igneous Activity
Involves:
 Creation of hot, liquid material (magma) within earth
 Rising of magma through lithosphere, perhaps to earth's surface
 Cooling of liquid to form solid, igneous rocks
Cooling underground = plutonic rocks
Cooling above ground or at very shallow depths (<1 km)= volcanic rocks

Volcanic activity = surface expression of igneous activity

A) History of study of igneous rocks: late 1700's, early 1800's (Europe)

1) Plutonists (Pluto = God of underworld):
a) igneous rocks form from cooled molten rock;
b) champion = James Hutton

2) Neptunists (Neptune = God of Sea);

a) igneous rocks crystallized from solution;
b) champion = Abraham Gottlob Werner

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Debate resolved in central France, where igneous rocks were traced from valley floor,
up mountain side, into mouth of volcano: Conclusion: Thus, igneous rocks result from
cooling of molten rock or magma.

B) Liquid rock = magma.

Most magmas = silicate magmas (i.e. rich in SiO4 tetrahedra)

Melting of rock within earth depends upon:

1) Heat (600-1200C);
2) Pressure: ~10% volume increase when rock melts; if pressure is released on very
hot rock, it will expand and melt;
3) composition of rock, because different minerals have different melting temps
(e.g. olivine in basalts = (Fe, Mg-rich; SiO4 -poor) melts at ~1200C; hornblende
(amphibole) in andesites (intermediate comp) melts at ~900C; Quartz in granite (Fe,
Mg-poor, SiO4 -rich) melts at ~600C;
4) Amount of water present: -more water = melts at lower temperature; little water
= melts at higher temperature (e.g. basalts = dry; melting temp ~1000-1200C;
granites = wet; melting temp ~600-800C)

II) How is magma generated or formed?

1) Geothermal gradient is the source of heat;

2) Deepest magma generated from upper mantle.

Note that: a) Mantle is very deficient in silica (very Fe, Mg-rich);

b) Only most easily melted parts (SiO4-rich) of mantle melts.

Thus, composition of magma = basaltic = different from mantle;

3) Hot (1000-1400C) basaltic magma begins to rise, because volume increase =

density decrease when rock melts.

Magma rises towards surface because

a) Ductile flow of rock out of way of rising magma; and

b) Incorporation of country rock into magma as it rises, called assimilation.

Assimilation is accomplished through:

a) Stoping (breaking off) of chunks of country rock (xenoliths) and incorporation into
magma; and
b) Melting or partial melting of country rock;
• Partial melting of rock at depth

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 • Source of heat– Geothermal gradient
• Rate of Temperature increase with depth
• Average 30 oC/km depth
• Not same everywhere and thereforeTells us that heat is being conducted to
the surface of the earth from the interior (Core > 5000 deg C)

4) Hot basaltic magma encounters granitic continental crust, and granitic magma
forms because
a) Granite melts at lower temperature, and
b) Heat from basalt magma melts granitic magma.

Note that there is a very wide range of possible magma compositions, including
a) basaltic = Fe, Mg-rich; SiO4 poor;
b) andesitic = intermediate; and
c) granitic (= rhyolitic) = Fe, Mg-poor; SiO4 rich

Factors that control melting temperatures

1. – Pressure
• melting points of minerals increase with pressure – This is why increasing
temperature along the geotherm alone fails to melt crustal rocks
• reduction in pressure can therefore induce melting
2. – Water added under pressure
• lowers melting point of minerals
3. – Mixing of minerals
• lowers melting point of minerals

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Partial melting: three ways:
1. On top of Mantle plumes
– Narrow upwelling of hot mantle rock from great depth
– Brings deep rocks rapidly to pressures at which they can melt.

2. Partial melting beneath the Mid-Ocean Ridge

• Diverging plates
– Lithospheric plates spread apart
– Creates narrow upwelling zone where hot mantle rock of the asthenosphere
rises to fill in the gap
– Decompression results in partial melting

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3. Partial melting in subduction zones
• Converging plates
• Addition of water from subducted crust into mantle lowers melting point of
mantle rock
• Mantle rock partially melts to form basalt
• Basalt rises into crust
– Evolves to andesite and rhyolite
– Partially melts crust to create granite
– Forms Granite batholiths

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Partial melting of mantle or crust is followed by:
1. Differentiation – Crystal Settling
2. Assimilation of country rock
3. Mixing of magmas

Differentiation – Crystal Settling

Assimilation of country rock

Mixing of initially separate magmas

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RECAP: Plate Tectonics & Igneous activity
DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
– Notably at mid-oceanic ridges
– Sea floor Spreading
– Magma from asthenosphere
• Partial melting – Due to reduced pressure
• Produces mafic magma
• Solidifies into basalt and gabbro
• Becomes oceanic crust
• Unmelted residue remains as ultramafic rock

INTRAPLATE IGNEOUS ACTIVITY

– Attributed to mantle plumes
• Partial melting due to reduced pressure on upwelling mantle rock
• Creates mafic magma (basalt)
– Ocean Island chains
– “Hot spot” magmatism

CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
– Origin of Andesite
• Partial melting of asthenosphere above subducted crust
• Water lowers melting temperature producing mafic magma
• Ascending magma evolves into intermediate magma
– Origin of Granite
• Partial melting of lower continental crust
• Heat from mafic magma underplating the crust

Plutonic (intrusive) rocks: magma rises through crust and solidifies before reaching
surface to form intrusive rocks

Volcanic (extrusive) rocks: magma rises all the way to surface, where it erupts to
form extrusive rocks.

III) Some important igneous terms

A) Pluton - mass of magma cooled to form rock underground

B) Batholith - very large pluton or series of plutons (e.g. Sinda batholiths)

C) Stock - small (km-scale) pluton = usually 1 magma chamber

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D) Dike - vein of intrusive igneous rock that cuts across rock layers (thus is
"discordant")

E) Sill - vein of intrusive igneous rock that does not cut across rock layers, but
squeezes between layers (thus is "concordant")

F) Chilled margins: finer-grained edges of intrusive igneous bodies

Magmatic Differentiation
Changes in chemistry or composition of magmas as they evolve through time.

Determined by
1) Original composition of magma (basalt, andesitic, rhyolitic);
2) Composition of any subtracted material (e.g. form olivine crystals and they are
removed from melt);
3) Composition of any added material (e.g. assimilation of country rock,
incorporation of xenoliths)

Most magmas evolve such that melt becomes enriched in silica. This requires a lot of
oxygen and is called the silica-enrichment trend.

Processes of magmatic differentiation:

1) Fractional crystallization
· only minerals of a particular composition are crystallized at one time
· melt is concentrated in cations and anions that are not incorporated into
crystallizing minerals
· if crystals are removed from melt, composition of melt has permanently changed

For example: olivine (Fe,Mg)2 SiO4 crystals are formed at high temp.
a) olivine is rich in Fe and Mg;
b) remaining melt is depleted in Fe and Mg;
c) olivine is poor in SiO4; remaining melt is enriched in SiO4

How are crystals removed from melt that formed them?

a) crystal settling: sink to bottom of magma chamber;
b) crystal flotation: float to top of magma chamber;
c) filter pressing: "crystal mush" is injected into dikes and sills, leaving melt
behind

2) Liquid immiscibility: like oil and vinegar, some magmas separate into 2 separate
liquids with different comps.

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 3) Loss of volatiles (H2O, CO2). Volatiles are originally dissolved in melt (like CO2
in beer or soft drink). If enough pressure released, volatiles come out of solution as a
gas (pop the top off beer or soft drink); If then the gaseous volatiles "bleed" off, the
composition of the magma has permanently changed

Fractional Crystallization

Consider silicate melt at a certain temperature (e.g. 1100C)

· Only crystals of some specific minerals with a certain chemical composition will
form.
These crystals will coexist in chemical equilibrium with the remaining melt
For example, starting with a melt of basaltic composition:
1) Above about 1200C, melt is entirely molten (100% liquid); no crystals have begun
to form.
2) At around 1200C, mineral olivine (Fe, Mg)2 SiO4 begins to form.

Note that olivine is a single tetrahedra silicate mineral (not much SiO4),
and there is a lot of Fe and Mg per crystal

Therefore, the following is true:

a) Much of original Fe and Mg from the basalt melt is incorporated into the olivine
crystals;
b) Relatively little SiO4 is incorporated into the olivine crystals;
c) Remaining melt is SiO4 -rich and Fe, Mg-poor and is a different composition than
the olivine crystals.

3) Magma cools further, more olivine crystals form, further depleting the remaining
melt in Fe and Mg, and further enriching the melt in SiO4

4) Eventually, magma is rich enough in SiO4 that single-chain silicates (e.g.

pyroxenes) can form.

At this point, olivine is no longer stable; it is out of chemical equilibrium with the
silicate-enriched melt. The melt is too enriched in SiO4 and too depleted in Fe and Mg.

5) Olivine crystals begin to break down and are assimilated (dissolved) back into the
melt!
· Since pyroxene is now stable in the SiO4 -rich melt, it begins to grow at the
expense of olivine; often, pyroxene forms a rim around old olivine crystals. Note that
olivine has become separated from melt by rim of pyroxene; Fe,Mg are "trapped" in
olivine and isolated from the melt, and the composition of the melt has permanently
changed!

Note: As we saw in the last lecture

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1) Olivine is a single tetrahedra silicate;
2) Pyroxene is a single chain silicate (completely different structure).

Thus, for pyroxene to form at the expense of olivine, olivine must completely break
down ("dissolve") and pyroxene must form.
This is called a discontinuous reaction series. The Discontinuous reaction Series is
the group of silicate minerals with completely different chemical structures that form in
a series during the chemical evolution of a silicate magma.

Thus each mineral must completely break down for the next mineral to form.

The Discontinuous reaction

The Continuous reaction Series:

1) Evolves in parallel (at same time) as discontinuous series;

2) Is formed by single mineral (plagioclase) which has a wide range of chemical
compositions but always has the same chemical structure.

· Albite (Ab) and Anorthite (An) are the same mineral (plagioclase), but have different
proportions of Ca2+ and Na1+ (cations) and Si4+ and Al3+(within the anion
tetrahedra)
· This is a good example of the Solid Solution Series.
Solid Solution Series = Change in mineral composition by change in
proportion of different cations in a mineral without change in the mineral
structure. Mineral compositions change through solid diffusion of cations (without
melting) into and out of mineral crystal.

Bowen's Reaction Series:

Discontinuous Series and Continuous Series viewed together make up the Bowen's
Reaction Series:

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As silicate melts cool, both discontinuous series and continuous series are operating
simultaneously.

a) Early formed crystals (e.g. from basalt magma) are:

continuous series: plagioclase rich in Ca

b) Late formed crystals (e.g. from granitic magma) are:

from continuous series: plagioclase rich in Na
c) Eventually, enough SiO4 is left in melt for quartz (a pure silica framework mineral) to
form

d) Cations and elements not incorporated into other earlier formed minerals will be
incorporated into the last minerals to form such as K-spar, muscovite mica (which
contains water), and strange minerals, often with economic significance (e.g. fluorite,
U-bearing minerals, etc.)

Volcanic (extrusive) Vs plutonic (intrusive) rocks

Magmas can up well to surface or may emplace at depth. Thus they can be either
intrusive (forced into the existing rocks) or extrusive i.e. flowed out at the surface.

a) Plutonic rocks: magma rises through crust and solidifies before reaching surface to
form intrusive rocks

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Rocks that cool at great depth do so slowly, giving crystals time to grow
large. Thus coarse grained texture is typical of these intrusive (or plutonic) igneous
rocks.

b) Volcanic rocks: magma rises all the way to surface, where it erupts to form extrusive
rocks.
Molten rock that comes up closer to surface will cool rapidly so that crystals that
result will have less time to grow. Thus fine grained texture of Extrusive (or
Volcanic) igneous rocks

PLUTON /BATHOLITH
– Large intrusive body
– Exposed in an area greater than 100 square km
– Coalesced smaller plutons
• Smaller bodies are called STOCKS
• Magma moves upward from depth as diapirs

Minerals in igneous rocks

Minerals in igneous rocks can be grouped as:
1. Primary minerals: Minerals crystallizing directly from magma and may either be
essential or accessory. Essential minerals, as opposed to the accessory minerals, are
those whose presence or absence decides the name of the rock. They need not be
present in large quantities.

2. Secondary minerals: These are formed from the alteration of primary minerals as
a result of hydrothermal reaction or weathering.

Essential minerals
The most abundant minerals in the parts of the earth’s crust are the Feldspars (particularly
Plagioclases) occurring in both volcanic and plutonic rocks. Quartz occurs in both groups and

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so do pyroxenes, amphiboles, and olivines (especially Mg). Micas are more restricted to
plutonic rocks because they need a high water vapor pressure for their formation. Muscovite is
completely absent in volcanic rocks whereas biotite occurs in lava rocks. Leucite is practically
restricted to volcanic rocks.

An important constituent of many volcanic rocks is glass whose existence indicates an extreme
amount of super-cooling, only possible in magmas at the surface.

More than 99% of weight of magmas is formed by 9 elements: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, Mg &
Ti.

Magma containing trapped volatile gases (H, Fe, Cl, S) can erupt with an explosive force from a
vent or volcano.

Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks have a wide variety of composition. This is due to the fact that magmas originate
from varying rocks by either complete or partial melting. Finally, magmas can incorporate
material from the surrounding rocks (assimilation) or they can mix with one another.

According to increase in their silica content (chemical composition classification), igneous rocks
are divided into four categories of Ultra-basic, Basic, Intermediate and Acidic (Felsic).

Basic rocks are the parent of all igneous rocks in the earth’s crust. The first
minerals to form at the top of the reaction series have the greatest density such that
under gravity, they would settle at the bottom of the magma chamber out of reach for
further reaction (gravity fractionation). Crystals can also be separated by filter pressing
and flow differentiation processes.

Through such differentiation, the remaining melts are always enriched in those
components of solid solution series having the lowest melting point: plagioclases rich in
albite, olivines rich in Fe, pyroxenes equally rich in Fe. On the other hand, early
crystallization products are richer in anorthite and Mg-olivines & pyroxenes.

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Nomenclature of igneous rocks
Rocks are classified and given names so that information about their constitution can be
conveyed in a condensed fashion.

Igneous rocks display several important features that form part of the criteria for
classification and eventual naming. Example: Texture is indicative of cooling conditions
of the magma whereas mineralogical composition is suggestive of composition of parent
magma and fractionation history.
Based on mineralogy, texture and grain size, igneous rocks can be named.

VOLCANIC ROCKS

Volcanic Activity = Surface expression of igneous activity.

Volcanic rocks:

Usually extrusive (erupt and cool at earth's surface)

Sometimes intrusive, but at very shallow depths (<1 km). Extrusive and shallow
intrusive volcanics are texturally (grain size and grain shape) similar

Volcanoes: Vent through which molten rock and associated gas passes upward from
Earth's interior to Earth's surface

Materials erupted (ejecta) from volcanoes include:

1) Solids:

a) volcanic bombs: big chunks of rock or wads of liquid that cool to rock while
flying through the air;

b) Tephra: mineral crystals that solidified below ground and are blown out of vent;

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 c) Ash: very fine dustlike material

2) Gas:

1) Includes many gases (H2O, CO2, S);

2) Ultimate source for all water in hydrosphere;
3) Ultimate source for most gas of atmosphere

3) Liquid (lava), usually silicate in composition

4) Combinations of solids, liquids, and gases

Physical properties of liquid lavas: controlled mostly by lava chemistry

A) Mafic Volcanic rocks:

1) Rich in Fe, Mg; relatively low in SiO4;

2) Common minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and Ca-rich plag;
3) Basalt composition;
4) Usually relatively dry;
5) Characterized by quiet eruptions (low explosivity; e.g. Hawaiian eruptions.

Mafic volcanic eruptions are:

a) Very hot (1100-1400C), so not very viscous (flows like very hot taffy);
b) Low silica content = relatively little polymerization (forming of long single and
double chained silicates);
c) Relatively dry

B) Felsic Volcanic rocks:

1) Relatively low in Fe, Mg; rich in SiO4;

2) Common minerals include: quartz (pure silica), Na- rich plagioclase, biotite, maybe
some amphibole;
3) Rhyolitic (granitic) composition;
4) Characterized by high explosivity.

Felsic eruptions are:

a) Relatively cool (600-900C), so more viscous (cool or cold taffy);
b) High silica content = abundant polymerization;
c) a lot of volatiles (H2O, CO2, etc.)

The significance of volatiles

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A) At depth (plutonic environment):
1) Pressure is high;
2) Gases are dissolved in magma;
3) Analogous to coke or beer in sealed bottle

B) As magma rises to shallow depths (i.e. approaches the volcanic realm):

1) Pressure decreases;
2) Gases begin to come out of solution;
3) Analogous to coke or beer bottle being opened; gas bubbles appear in liquid

Example= Mt. St. Helens:

1) Before eruption (1981) shallow magma chamber, but still underground under some
pressure; gases beginning to come out of solution and creating initial dome. Each time
magma shifts, small earthquake is produced.

2) One earthquake initiates a landslide, which releases pressure over magma chamber

3) Because of rapid pressure decrease, gas in magma comes out of solution all at once
and produces main blast of 1981 eruption.

Volcanic Landforms:
Volcanoes with magma of different compositions (e.g. basaltic, rhyolitic, etc.) are
associated with different landforms

A) Mafic volcanic features: due to low viscosity of most mafic magmas, they are
able to flow over earth's surface.
1) Kinds of lava flows
· pahoehoe: ropy texture, as though flowing stream frozen in place
· aa: slow-flowing, with large blocks of semi-solidified lava.

2) Kinds of physiographic features

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 · Flood basalts (e.g. Batoka flood basalts)
· Plateau basalts (e.g. Muzoka plateau)
· Shield volcanoes: very low slope angle, due to pahoehoe and aa flows; e.g.:
Hawaiian islands)
· Spatter cones: spattering of volcanic material (liquid blobs) out of vent and piling up
of semi-molten material near vent, e.g. Hawaii
· Cinder cones: piles of smaller-sized solid debris (tephra, small bombs) to form
symmetric cone, e.g. Craters of the Moon

B) Felsic volcanic features: due to high viscosity and dominance of solid material
(tephra, bombs), they tend to form high relief features.

1) Composite volcanoes: "classic" volcanoes, formed by inter-layering of tephra and

pyroclastic flows

2) Pyroclastic flow: "flow" of very hot gases mixed with glowing red (hot) solid material
and very little liquid that together flow down slope from vent.

3) Caldera: back-collapsed hole produced by caving in of volcano after all magma and
other materials have erupted;

C) Volcanoes of intermediate composition: tend to form features more similar to felsic

than mafic features (e.g. Cascades)
VOLCANOES Types: Shield, Cinder Cone, Composite

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Volcanic Landforms

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VOLCANISM: EFFECTS ON HUMANS

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Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia lahar kills 23,000; November 13, 1985

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