Physics 104

Radiation

Driving Questions
What is radiation and how can it affect me?
Does radiation behave in a predictable way?

Background
Nuclear science is an important aspect of our physical world. We use X-rays to inspect our bones,
we use radiation therapy to battle cancer, and we use radioactive decay to generate power.
Scientists such as Henri Becquerel, Pierre and Marie Curie spent most of their careers in search
of understanding the nucleus, radioactive materials, and nuclear chain reactions. Ionizing
radiation is radiation with enough energy to eject electrons from atoms or molecules. This can
have a profound effect on biological systems like us, so we have a vested interest in how it
behaves. For example, what happens to the intensity of radiation as you get farther from the
source? Or what kinds of materials can protect you from different types of radiation?
Radiation can be particles or the entire spectrum of electromagnetic waves, but ionizing
radiation tends to be in the higher energy region of the spectrum. Alpha particles are helium
nuclei, beta particles are electrons, and gamma rays are photons. A natural source of ionizing
radiation is radioactive decay. Radioactive decay is a spontaneous change to the nucleus of an
atom, and only observable using special detection devices, such as a Geiger-Müller Tube.
Because we are interested in ionizing radiation it makes sense that the Geiger-Müller Tube uses
an ionic cascade to register a count. Some particles readily pass through materials and others
are easily blocked. The Geiger-Müller Tube enables you to count the number of emitted particles
or photons that reach the tube over a fixed interval of time.
When an unstable nucleus, one with either too many protons or neutrons, decays, it does so at a
rate defined by its disintegration constant (sometimes called the decay constant), λ. The
relationship between the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample at t=0s, N0, and the number of
radioactive nuclei remaining at some later time, N is:
(1)
The rate of radioactive decay of unstable nuclei is found with this formula

(2)

where R is the rate of decay at some time t,

and R0 is the initial decay rate. The graph
to the right shows the exponential decay of
Carbon 14, an isotope of Carbon, used by
paleontologists, geologists, and biologists to
date the age of organic material in rocks.
While radioactive elements have different
decay constants, the number, or %, of
parent and daughter at any time follows
the same exponential function of decay for
all nuclei that are radioactive.

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Materials and Equipment

For each student or group:

 Capstone and 850 Interface  Three-finger clamp
 Geiger-Müller tube  Shielding materials (paper, plastic, lead)
 Rod stand
 Radioactive sources (alpha, beta, and/or gamma)  Meter stick

Safety
Add these important safety precautions to your normal laboratory procedures:

 Radioactive materials are harmful. Do not to tamper with the plastic discs which contain a
small (microgram) of radioactive material.
 Although the dose rate of most radioactive sources used for educational purposes is far too
small to pose any health threat, do not handle exposed radioactive materials with hands;
however, if contact occurs, thoroughly wash the contact site with soap and water.
 The front surface of the Geiger-Müller tube is very sensitive. Do not to touch it. In addition
when removing and replacing the protective cap, do not cover the small vent hole on the cap.

Procedure
After you complete a step (or answer a question), place a check mark in the box () next to that step.

Part 1 – Background Radiation

Set Up
1.  Connect the Geiger-Müller tube to Digital Input 1 on the 850 Interface.

2.  In Capstone, open the Hardware Setup dialog and select Geiger Counter for Digital Input
1. Then, create a Table.

3.  Adjust the sampling rate for the Geiger Counter to 5.00 s (the Hz units will change to s
units by clicking the down arrow several times).

4.  In the Recording Conditions dialog, create a Time Based condition with a Record Time of
20.000s. This will automatically record 20 seconds of data

5.  Display Geiger Counts in the Table display.

6.  Use the three-finger clamp to attach the Geiger-Müller tube to the rod stand with the
sensing element pointed down at the table. Ensure that your sources are as far away
from the tube as possible.

7.  Carefully remove the cap from the

Geiger-Müller tube.

8.  Do you think there will be radiation

detected even when the sources are not present? Where are these particles coming from?

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Collect Data

9.  Record data. Capstone will automatically stop data recording after 20 seconds.

Analyze Data

10.  Using the Sum button on the top of the Table, choose to view the mean or average counts
and record this value in the Data Analysis section.

Part 2 – Radiation versus Distance

Set Up

11.  Place a radioactive source on the table.

12.  Place the sensor end on the radioactive source so that it is centered in the middle of the
yellow, plastic circle. Take care not to touch the surface of the sensor or it will be
damaged.

Collect Data

13.  Record at least 4 time intervals of data (approximately 20 s).

14.  View the mean or average counts.

Record this value next to the 0m
distance in Table 1 of the Data
Analysis section.

15.  Attach the sensor to the ring stand as

shown in the picture. Adjust the
distance between the source and the
Geiger-Muller tube to 1cm.

16.  Record at least 4 time intervals of data distance

(approximately 20 s).

17.  Continue to move the Geiger-Müller

sensor 1 cm further away from the
source and repeat the data recording
steps until you have fully populated
Table 1.

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Part 3 – Radiation versus Shielding

Set Up

18.  Set the Geiger-Müller tube 1 cm above the sample.

19.  Place a source under the Geiger-Müller tube.

Collect Data

20.  Record at least 4 time intervals of

data (approximately 20 s) for the
source without any shielding.

21.  Place a shield material between the

source and the Geiger-Müller tube.
Record the shield material and its
thickness in Table 2.

22.  Record at least 4 time intervals of

data (approximately 20 s).

23.  View the mean or average counts.

Record this value next to the
appropriate material in Table 2 of
the Data Analysis section.

24.  Repeat the data collection steps for

each of the shield materials and
record the mean or average counts in
Table 2.

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Data Analysis
Average background count:

Table 1: Distance and average count

Average Gamma
Distance (m)
Count

0m

0.01m

0.02m

0.03m

0.04m

0.05m

1.  Plot a graph of Average Count versus Distance for the gamma source in the associated
blank graph axes below.

Graph 1: Average Count versus Distance (gamma source)

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Table 2: Shield material and average count

Shield Average Gamma

Shield Material
Thickness Count

None

Aluminum

Quarter

Plastic Ruler

Disc Mass

Paper (1 sheet)

Paper (5 sheets)

Analysis Questions

1. What mathematical relationship was shown in the data for # of particles vs.
distance from the sensor? Write the best-fit formula below.

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2. What first action would be important to protect yourself from the radiation
released from a broken container of radioactive material?

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3. What generalizations can you make about the effect of the thickness of the
shielding material on the count rate?

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4. What generalizations can you make about the effect of density of the shielding
material on the count rate?

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Synthesis Questions
Use available resources to help you answer the following questions.

1. How would the risk of exposure to radioactive substances be different if nuclear

radiation followed an inverse cube law?

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2. Because the energy of the radiation is absorbed by the shield (such as paper,
plastic, lead), what effect does the absorbed energy have on the shield?

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3. How effective would other shielding materials such as air or water be at stopping
radiation?

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4. What every-day material is the most effective in absorbing the energy of nuclear
radiation due to its density?

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5. A radioactive isotope of mercury, 197Hg, decays to gold, 197Au, with a disintegration

constant of 0.0108hrs.-1. What % of the sample of mercury will remain after 10 days?
Show all work including formula, substitution, and units.

6. What is the decay rate of mercury sample used above after 10 days? Show all work
including formula, substitution, and units.

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Multiple Choice Questions

Select the best answer or completion to each of the questions or incomplete statements below.

1. The graph of Average Counts versus Distance demonstrates a trend that is:

A. An exponential relationship
B. An inverse relationship
C. A direct relationship
D. An inverse squared relationship

2. Which particle penetrates materials the least?

A. Gamma C. Alpha
B. Beta D. They are all the same

3. Rank the materials (paper, plastic, lead) in order of their effectiveness in

absorbing radiation. Start with greatest first.
A. Plastic, lead, paper
B. Lead, paper, plastic
C. Plastic, paper, lead
D. Lead, plastic, paper

4. The half-life, T1/2, of a radioactive material is the amount of time it takes for half of
the parent nuclei to decay to daughter nuclei. The half-life is related to the
disintegration constant of the material by this formula: . What is the
disintegration constant of Strontium 90, also called 90Sr, if its half-life is 29 years?
A. 6.5484days-1
B. 0.0239yr-1
C. 2.7285hr-1
D. All of the above
E. None of the above

5. When aboveground nuclear tests were conducted, the explosions shot radioactive
dust in to the upper atmosphere. Global air circulations then spread the dust
worldwide before it settled out on ground and water. One such test was conducted in
October 1976. What % of the 90Sr produced by that explosion existed in October 2012?
A. 0.42%
B. 2.36%
C. 236%
D. 42.3%
E. 0%

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Key Term Challenge

Fill in the blanks from the list of randomly ordered words in the Key Term Challenge Word Bank.

1. A _________________ tube is a device used to detect radioactive emissions from a radioactive

source. The closer the radioactive source is positioned to the sensor, the _________________ the
amount of counts per second. Helium nuclei known as _________________ particles, electrons
known as _________________ particles, and photons known as _________________ rays are types
of radiation. The amount of penetration, or absorbance, of radioactive particles in a material is
based upon the _________________ of the material and the nature of the particle. Dense
substances, like _________________, are excellent shields for all types of radiation.

Key Term Challenge Word Bank

Paragraph 1
Nature
Density
Lead
Beta
Gamma
Materials
Greater
Alpha
Geiger-Müller
Nuclear
Shielding
Paper
Radiation
Aluminum

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