?

What Are Statistics

Statistics is a form of mathematical analysis that uses quantified models,

representations and synopses for a given set of experimental data or
real-life studies. Statistics studies methodologies to gather, review,
.analyze and draw conclusions from data

1.Define the concepts of data and information, and then clarify how
each is used.

??What is data

Data is a raw and unorganized fact that required to be processed to

make it meaningful. Data can be simple at the same time unorganized
unless it is organized. data comprise (facts, facts, perceptions numbers,
characters, symbols, image). So, we can say Data, are a set of values of
qualitative or quantitative variables about one or more persons or
.objects, while a datum is a single value of a single variable
we use data for (weights, prices, costs, numbers of items sold,
employee names, product names, addresses, tax codes, registration
marks, etc.)

Types and examples

Categorical Data.1
Categorical data represents characteristics. Therefore, it can represent
things like a person’s gender, language etc. Categorical data can also
take on numerical values those numbers do not have mathematical
.meaning
A1. Nominal Data
Nominal values represent discrete units and are used to label variables,
that has no quantitative value. its just labels. the nominal data that has
no order. Therefore, if they change the order of its values, the meaning
.would not change
A1. Examples
?Are you student
Yes No
?What languages do you speak
Arabic Spanish Turkish English

A2. Ordinal Data

Ordinal values represent discrete and ordered units. It is therefore
.nearly the same as nominal data, except that it’s ordering matters

A2.Examples
??What is your education level in English
Beginner
Elementary
pre intermediate
intermediate

Numerical data.2
is data that is measurable, such as time, height, weight, amount, and so
on. so, we can identify numerical data by seeing the average or order
.the data in either ascending or descending order

B1. Discrete Data

We describe discrete data if its values are distinct and separate.so we
speak of discrete data if the data can only take on certain values. This
type of data cannot be measured but it can be counted. It basically
.represents information that can be categorized into a classification
An example is the number of heads in 100-coin flips

B2. Continuous Data

Continuous Data represents measurements and therefore their values
.cannot be counted but they can be measured

An example would be the height of a person, which you can describe

by using intervals on the real number line

?What is Information

to define the information, we will describe it as: statements or facts that

are received by a human and it has some form of values to the receiver
formation produced by all processes that collected, and it is the values
of characteristics in the processes. so, we can describe the information
is a set of data which is processed in a meaningful way according to the
.given requirement

We can use the information to transaction processing systems, decision

support systems, knowledge management systems, learning
management systems, database management systems, and office
.information systems
 differences between data and information

Data Information

Data is a collection of facts1 . information is how we understand .1

Data is unorganized.2
Data is a mass3 .
Data is not typically useful .4
Data generally includes the raw .5
forms of numbers, statements, and
characters
data never depends on Information .6
.those facts
.information is organized.2
Information is uncountable3 .
Information is useful.4
Information does not include5 .
Information depends on data .6

Explain the different sources of data, and then evaluate .2

.them by stating their benefits and limitations

Primary data .1
is a type of data collected by researchers directly from main sources
through interviews, surveys, experiments, etc. in another way Primary
.data is the data that collected by the searcher for a specific purpose

Examples of primary data

 Market Research
 Trauma Survivors
 Main examples to understand primary data the Population
census conducted by the government of India after every 10
years

The advantage and disadvantage of primary data

Advantages of using Disadvantages of using

Primary data Primary data

The investigator collects .1 1.It can be expensive

data specific to the problem
.under study
There is no doubt about the .2
quality of the data collected
.(for the investigator)
3.If required, it may be
possible to obtain additional
data during the study period.
2.time-consuming and take a
long time to complete
3.The respondents may not
understand or misinterpret
some questions.
4.the respondent may not take
enough care to answer all
questions correctly
2. Secondary data

Secondary data is data gathered from studies, surveys, or

experiments that have been run by other people or for another research

Sources of secondary data includes (books, personal sources, journal,

newspaper, website, government record, Published Sources,
Unpublished Personal Sources etc.)

For example, the Address of a person taken from the Telephone

Directory or the Phone number of a company taken from ‘Just Dial’

The advantage and disadvantage of Secondary data

Advantages of using Disadvantages of using

Secondary data Secondary data
.Ease of Access 1 1. Irrelevant Data

It is less expensive.2 . 2. no control over data quality

3.The investigator is not 3. Biasness in the research

personally responsible for the
quality of data. 4.maybe it is Outdated
Information
4. Timesaving

types of secondary data

Internal data is information generated from within the business,
covering areas such as operations, maintenance, personnel, and
finance. External data comes from the market, including customers
and competitors. It is things like statistics from surveys,
questionnaires, research, and customer feedback

1.Internal sources of data

Is information gathered within the researcher’s company or organization

examples (a database with customer details, sales reports, marketing
analysis, etc.).

Pros

Internal data likely is better trusted, as company created it so know

.better how good or bad it is

Determinants
Internal data takes more time and money to create than just buying data
from external source

2.External sources of data

External data is data that is stored outside the current database .the
data collected outside the organization examples (government
statistics, mass media channels, newspapers, etc.)

Pros
providers make available high-quality information and data for reuse
by organizations to support strategic planning. The quality of data held
is assured. Large quantities of data are freely available to organizations
from providers

Determinants
1.A limited understanding of the company
2. Higher risk
3. Time-consuming

Methods of Collecting Primary Data

Primary data collection methods are different ways in which
primary data can be collected. Such us

 Interviews

An interview: is essentially a structured conversation where

one participant asks questions, and the other provides
answers
 Pros Determinants
 In-depth information can  It is more time-consuming.
be collected.
 It is expensive.
 Non-response and response
bias can be detected.  The interviewer may be
biased.
 The samples can be
controlled.

 Observation

Observation method is mostly used in studies related to behavioral

science. The researcher uses observation as a scientific tool and
method of data collection Observation as a data collection tool is
usually systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.

Pros Determinants
 The data is usually  The information is limited.
objective.
 It is expensive
 Data is not affected by past
or future events.
  Questionnaires

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of

questions for the purpose of gathering information from
respondents.

Pros Determinants
 Respondents have adequate  A high rate of non-
time to give responses. response bias.

 It is free from the bias of  It is inflexible and cannot

the interviewer. be changed once sent.

 They are cheaper compared  It is a slow process.

to interviews.

3.Define the different methods of analysis, for example: descriptive,

exploratory, and confirmatory. Support your answer with an example
of data for each analysis method then state your opinion regarding the
differences in application between them. You need to highlight the
usefulness of each.
1. A descriptive statistic is a summary statistic that
quantitatively describes or summarizes features from a
collection of information, descriptive statistics is the process of
using and analyzing those statistics it used to describe the basic
features of the data in a study. that provide simple summaries
about the sample and the measures. Together with simple
graphics analysis, and it forms the basis of virtually every
quantitative analysis of data.

Examples
If we do a survey to 40 respondents about their favorite car color.
And now we have a spreadsheet with the results. However, this
spreadsheet is not very informative, and we want to summarize
the data with some graphs and charts that can allow you to come
up with some simple conclusions (e.g., 24% of people said that
white is their favorite color).

Pros
Mean does not require .1
sorting of data, as sorting of
.data is costly
producing detailed .2
.information
Determinants
1. Descriptive statistics are
limited
2. cannot use the data that
collected to generalize to other
people or objects

3.It can be used for both

continuous and discrete
numeric data.
Exploratory Data Analysis refers to the critical
process of performing initial investigations on data to
discover patterns, to spot anomalies, to test hypothesis
and to check assumptions with the help of summary
statistics and graphical representations.

Examples
Using EDA, you are open to the fact that any number of people
might buy any number of different types of shoes. You visualize
the data using exploratory data analysis to find that most
customers buy 1-3 different types of shoes. Sneakers, dress
shoes, and sandals seem to be the most popular ones.

Pros Determinants
1. obtain confidence in 1. maybe its including
data generating inaccurate models
confirmatory analysis is a special form of factor analysis,
most used in social research. It is used to test whether measures
of a construct are consistent with a researcher's understanding
of the nature of that construct so confirmatory Data Analysis is
the part where evaluate evidence using traditional statistical
tools such as (significance, inference, and confidence.)

Example
if it is posited that there are two factors accounting for the
covariance in the measures, and that these factors are unrelated
to one another, the researcher can create a model where the
correlation between factor A and factor B is constrained to zero.

Pros Determinants

1. ability to aid 1. yielding factors that

researchers in differ in number and
bridging the often- content from the
observed gap test scales.
between theory and
observation

2. secondary factor
loadings are not part
2. give the investigator of the output.
valuable information
regarding the fit of 3. A consequence is
the data to the perhaps that the
 specific, theory- deviation from the
derived prediction less
measurement model visible

3. point the potential

weakness of specific
items

Conclusion
in my opinion, descriptive, exploratory, and confirmatory
methods for data analyze is it the most effective method to
study sociological phenomena. because it gives us huge
feedback about our research by the Graphic representation
and discretionary models so it's an easy way to read the data
covering all bases of collecting, presenting and testing
evidence to help reach a genuinely insightful conclusion so I
think descriptive data analysis is the best method because it
provides plenty of options to visualize data such as pie charts,
line charts this would be much more representative and clear
than a spreadsheet so it will give a simple conclusion to
understand it

List of resource
https://www.guru99.com/difference-information-data.html

https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/statistics.asp
https://towardsdatascience.com/data-types-in-statistics-347e152e8bee

https://www.slideshare.net/kishorsakariya/data-information-knowledge-65016895

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/097324700800400402

https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/statistics/data/

https://www.statisticshowto.com/primary-data-secondary/

https://communitymedicine4all.com/2013/01/07/types-of-data-primary-and-secondary-data/

https://www.formpl.us/blog/primary-data

http://www.intellspot.com/secondary-data/

https://www.formpl.us/blog/secondary-data

https://byjus.com/commerce/what-are-the-sources-of-data/

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/statistics/dc_observation.htm

https://www.researchgate.net/post/Do_you_agree_that_confirmatory_factor_analysi_is_problemati
c_as_a_method_for_construct_validation_of_tests

https://insidebigdata.com/2014/11/09/ask-data-scientist-importance-exploratory-data-
analysis/#:~:text=The%20goal%20of%20exploratory%20data,used%20later%20for%20machine
%20learning.

https://stats.stackexchange.com/questions/118634/what-are-some-good-examples-of-exploratory-
data-analysis-today

https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics-
faqs.php#:~:text=Descriptive%20statistics%20are%20limited%20in,%2Fparameters%20of%20a
%20population).

https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Advantages-And-Disadvantages-Of-Descriptive-And-Inferential-
F3KCSA4T79F