EE5204: Electric Vehicles and Renewable Energy

MII: Vehicle Dynamics

Ashok jhunjhunwala and Prabhjot Kaur, IIT Madras
ashok@tenet.res.in ; prabhjot@tenet.res.in

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 1

Driving an Electric Vehicle
How much Power is required to drive a vehicle?
How much energy is required to carry out a road-trip?

◦ What is the composite mass of the vehicle (including passenger and goods)
◦ What is the condition of the roads (rolling resistance)
◦ What is the aerodynamics of the vehicle (Aerodynamic drag)
◦ What is the maximum speed, maximum acceleration of the vehicle?
◦ What is incline that it needs to traverse?
◦ What is the drive-cycle that the vehicle uses?

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 2

 Electric Vehicle manufacturing
Parts that go out of ICE vehicles New subsystems added
◦ Fuel tank ◦ Battery: Pack, cells and recycling for materials
◦ Engine and connections ◦ Electric Motors and Controllers
◦ Clutch and transmission ◦ Chargers
◦ ECU and connections ◦ DC-DC converters
◦ Fuel pump and other engine subsystems ◦ Electrically-driven power-steering and brakes
◦ Vehicle Control Unit
Electrically-driven instead of hydraulics ◦ Software
◦ Air conditioning system
◦ Cooling system

FAME-II: progressive manufacturing and value-add in India

• Can generate huge number of jobs
• Large economic activity (in addition to vehicle manufacturing)

3
 What does tractive force overcomes?
Aerodynamic Drag = 0.5*ρ*CD*A*v2
◦ v = velocity (m/sec)
◦ Air density @27°C = ρ = 1.2 (kg/m3)
◦ Vehicle Frontal Area =A (sq m)
◦ Drag coefficient = CD
Aerodynamic Rolling Resistance = m*g*μ
drag
◦ Permissible load = m (kg)
◦ Weight = mg (newton or kg.m/s²), where g = 9.80665 m/s²
◦ μ = rolling coefficient

Rolling Uphill Resistance (climbing resistance) = mg sinθ

Resistance ◦ Maximum grade = θ° = θ/(2π) radians
θ Tractive force created by power-train first overcomes
mg these resistances and then provide acceleration

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 4

 Aerodynamic Drag
Aerodynamic Drag = 0.5*ρ*CD*A*v2 ◦ For 2-wheeler with velocity of 50 kmph or
(50*1000/3600) m/sec or (50/3.6) m/s
Vehicle CD A (sq m) ◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.9*0.5*(50/3.6)2 = 52.1N
◦ Reduces to 13N at 25 kmph and 2N for 10kmph
2-wheeler 0.9 0.5 to 0.9
3-wheeler rickshaw 0.44 2 ◦ For e-rickshaw at 25 kmph
◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.44*1.6*(25/3.6)2 = 20.37N
Open Convertible 0.5 to 0.7 1.7 to 2.0
Limousine 0.22 to 0.4 1.7 to 2.3 ◦ For a car (Limo) at 50 kmph,
◦ FD = 0.5*1.2*0.35*2.5*(50/3.6)2 = 101.27N
Coach 0.4 to 0.8 6 to 10
◦ At 70 kmph, it is 198.5N, at 90 kmph, it is 328N
Truck without trailer 0.45 to 0.8 6 to 10
◦ Power required to overcome drag =
Truck with trailer 0.55 to 1 6 to 10 FD(Newton)*v (m/sec) or FD*v (Watts)
Articulated Vehicle 0.5 to 0.9 6 to 10 ◦ For car at 50 kmph, it is 101.27*50/3.6 or 1406W

1 watt = 1 newton meter/second [Nm/s]

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 5

Rolling Resistance
Rolling Resistance = m*g*μ, where μ is Typical Values of μ
the rolling resistance coefficient ◦ Car tire on smooth tarmac road: 0.01
◦ The rolling resistance coefficient is a ◦ Car tire on concrete road : 0.011
function of ◦ Car tire on a rolled gravel road: 0.02
◦ tire material ◦ Tar macadam road 0.025
◦ tire structure ◦ Unpaved road 0.05
◦ tire temperature ◦ Bad earth tracks 0.16
◦ tire inflation pressure ◦ Loose sand 0.15-0.3
◦ tread geometry ◦ Truck tire (concrete/ asphalt) 0.006-0.01
◦ road roughness ◦ Wheel on iron rail 0.001-0.002
◦ road material ◦ μ function of velocity: μ ≈ μ0 (1 + v/160) for
◦ presence of absence of liquids on the road cars on concrete up to 120 kmph; μ0: 0 velo

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 6

Rolling Resistance (Examples)
Two wheeler: typical m=(vehicle of 90kg + 100kg load), typical μ is 0.013
◦ FR = 190 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 24.21 N → twice as much as aerodynamic drag
◦ Power required = FR *v= 168. 3 Watts for 25 kmph or 336.6 W for 50 kmph
E-rickshaw: typical m=(vehicle of 300kg + 380kg load), typical μ is 0.013
◦ FR = 680 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 87 N → much higher than aerodynamic drag
◦ Power required = 602 Watts for 25 kmph
Car: typical m = (800 kg + 400 kg), typical μ is 0.013
◦ FR = 1200 kg * 9.81 m/s2 * 0.013 = 153 N → twice as much as aerodynamic drag
◦ Power required = 1062W at 25 kmph, 2125W at 50 kmph, 2975W at 70 kmph and
3825W at 90 kmph
◦ At 90 kmph, drag and rolling resistance power is similar

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 7

Gradient resistance
Fg = mg sinθ Let gradient be 5° or 0.0873 radians
◦ For small θ, one can approximate sinθ as ◦ 2-wheeler (wt=180kg): Fg = 162.5 N
(H/L) ◦ 3-wheeler (wt=680kg): Fg = 581.4 N
◦ 4-wheeler (wt=1200kg): Fg = 1025 N

Climbing Power required is a function

of velocity: Pg (W) = Fg (Nt)*v (m/s)
◦ Assuming that velocity during climbing can
be one third of peak, Pg = Fg*v/3 watts
H
◦ 2w at 25kmph: Pg = 162.5*25/(3.6*3) = 376W
θ
mg ◦ 3w at 25 kmph: Pg = 581*25/(3.6*3) = 1345W
L ◦ 4w at 50 kmph: Pg = 1025*50/(3.6*3) = 4745W

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 8

Power required for acceleration
What is the Force required to reach velocity while acceleating

maximum speed in T seconds? 16

14
◦ Depends on how acceleration takes place
12

◦ Assuming linear acceleration 10

◦ Acceleration a = v (meter/sec)/T(sec) 8

◦ Fa (Newtons) = m (kg)* a (meter/sec2) 6

◦ Acceleration distance s = 0.5*a*T2 4

◦ Work during accel W = Fa * s = 0.5*m* v2 2

◦ Acceleration Power = W/T = 0.5*m* v2/T 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
time (seconds)

v (m/sec) vl (m/sec)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 9

Let us now take S curve velocity-increase
Acceleration: a/2 (0 to T/20); a (T/20 to
16T/20); and a/2 (16T/20 to T)
◦ vf-v0 = (a/2)*T/20 +a*(15T/20) + (a/2)*(4T/20)
= (35/40)*aT
◦ or a = (vf-v0)*(8/7)/T
◦ s1= 0.5 * a/2*(T/20)^2 = aT^2/1600
◦ v1 = v0+ a/2*(T/20) = v0+aT/40
◦ w1= m*(a/2)* a*T^2/1600 =m*(a*T)^2*(1/3200)
◦ s2 = v1*(15T/20) + 0.5*a*(15T/20)^2 =
(15T/20)*[(v0+16aT/40)
◦ v2= v1+ a*(15T/20) = v0+ 31aT/40
◦ s3 = v2*(4T/20)+ 0.5*(a/2)*(4T/20)^2 =
v0*(4T/20)+(62+4)*aT^2/400
=v0*0.2T+ 66/400*aT^2
August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS
◦ w2 = m*a * s2 = m*a*(15T/20)*[v0+16aT/40]
◦ w3= m*(a/2)*s3 =
m*a*T/2*[0.2*v0+66*a*T/400]
◦ Total work w=w1+w2+w3 =
0.85*m*a*T*v0+m*(aT)^2*(1/400)[0.125+12
0+66/2]
= m*a*T*[0.85v0+a*T*153.125/400]
◦ Average Power during acceleration= w/T
= m*(0.85v0/T)(8/7)(vf-v0)+
(153.125/400)*m/T*(64/49)*(vf-v0)^2
= m*(vf-v0)*[0.97v0/T+ 0.4995*(vf-v0)/T]
If v0=0; vf=v then Average power during
acceleration Pa = 0.4995m/T*v2
◦ not much different from linear velocity
10
Power required for Linear acceleration
◦ Let T = 20 seconds for max speed Car (50 kmph)
◦ FR = 1200*(50/3.6)/20 = 833 N
2-wheeler (25 kmph)
◦ Power required = 5.79 kW
◦ Fa = mv/T= 190*(25/3.6)/20 = 66N
◦ At 70 kmph, power required is 11.3 kW
◦ Power required = 229 Watts
◦ At 90 kmph, power is 18.7 kW
◦ At 50 kmph, power required is 916W

E-rickshaw (25kmph) What about deceleration and climbing

◦ Fa = 680 *(25/3.6)/20 = 236.1 N
down?
◦ EV can regenerate power and push to battery
◦ Power required = 820 Watts
◦ Regeneration efficiency = 40% to 50%
◦ At 50kmph, power is 3.28 kW
◦ or even less

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 11

 Comparing Force and Power: 2-wheeler
Force required to
overcome various resitance for a 2-wheeler Power (W) vs velocity (kmph)
4500.00
250.00
Fa
4000.00
Pd
200.00 3500.00

Fg 3000.00 Pa
150.00

Powe (W)
Force (N)

2500.00
Fd
2000.00
100.00
1500.00 Pg

50.00 1000.00
Frr
500.00 Prr
0.00 0.00
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
velocity (kmph) velocity (kmph)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 12

2-wheeler
Acceleration (pick-up) force as well as
power is dominant
◦ Overcoming gradient requires considerable
force, but gradient power and acceleration
unlikely to go together
◦ As long as one designs for decent pick-up,
gradient can be handled
◦ Drag force and power becomes dominant at
high speed
◦ Rolling resistance on decent road is low
Speeds below 25 kmph
◦ 500 Watts power-plant will be enough
August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS
With 20 sec pick-up to 50 kmph
◦ Acceleration Power itself is one kW
◦ Drag is considerable, with RR requires 1 kW
◦ Power-plant of 2 kW
For 60 kmph with 20 sec pick-up
◦ 3 kW will just about be enough
At 80 kmph, power required is 6 kW
◦ And at 90 kmph, it is 9 kW
For slower pick-up, a 5 kW drive will
just about be ok for up to 90 kmph
13
 E-rickshaw: Power/ Force for drive-train
Force (N) for e-rickshaw Power for e-rickshaw
700.00
5000.00
Fg
600.00 4500.00 Pa
4000.00
500.00
Fa 3500.00 Pg

Power (Watts)
400.00
Force (N)

3000.00

2500.00
300.00 Pd
2000.00
200.00
1500.00
Prr
Frr 1000.00
100.00

Fd 500.00
0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Velocity (kmph)
Velocity (kmph)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 14

E-rickshaw
Gradient force (for 5°) is largest Drag power is 50% of Prr till about 35
◦ Gradient power dominates even at 25 kmph kmph
◦ As Power is taken at a third of peak velocity ◦ Equals at 55 kmph
during climbing, a 1.5 kW drive will barely be
enough to climb (including RR and drag) At 50 kmph, a 5 kW drive would not be
able to give desired pick-up (20 sec)
A 1.5 kW drive for 25 kmph max
◦ If one accepts lower pick-up, 4 kW may just
◦ will just be able to also carry out be enough
acceleration in addition to drag and RR
◦ Even a speed max of 30 kmph, will require E-rickshaws are not supposed to
2.5 kW drive for pick-up operate above 25 kmph speed

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 15

 4W Compact Sedan: Force and Power
Power for a small car
Force for a small Car
1600.00 20000.00

18000.00
1400.00 Fa
16000.00
1200.00
Pa
Fg 14000.00
1000.00

Power (Watts)
12000.00
Force (N)

800.00 10000.00

600.00 8000.00 Pg

6000.00 Pd
400.00 Fd
4000.00 Prr
Frr
200.00
2000.00

0.00 0.00
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
velocity (kmph) velocity (kmph)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 16

Sedan: drive-train Power
Speed of 25 kmph
◦ A 3kW drive is enough to take care of
acceleration, drag and RR
◦ Pg dominates: may just be ok if no accel.
Speed of 50 kmph
◦ A 10 kW drive required: will give pick-up
Speed of 60 kmph
◦ A 13kW required for pick-up
◦ A 10 kW enough, with slower pick-up
◦ At 65 kmph: Pd same as Prr
Speed of 70 kmph
◦ 18.5 kW required for pick-up
◦ 15 kW may be enough with slower pick-up
Speed of 80 kmph
◦ 25 kW required for full pick-up
◦ 15 kW may be enough with slower pick-up
Speed of 90 kmph
◦ 30 kW required for full pick-up
◦ 20 kW will give slower-pick up, but will
handle cruising / gradient

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 17

Drive-train Design
A drive-train is to be designed to provide
◦ Adequate Force / Torque at different speeds to overcome drag, rolling resistance, gradient
resistance and also provide the right acceleration (pick-up) at different speeds
◦ Adequate power for each drive-requirement

Optimise the energy that it requires for a travel

◦ What is the voltage used for drive-train?
◦ How much current will it draw form a battery?
◦ What are the losses in each sub-system?

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 18

How much energy will a vehicle take per km?
Concept of Energy-efficiency of a vehicle: Wh/km
Depends upon how the vehicle travels and how much energy it takes in each cycle
◦ Energy required will depend upon
◦ Speed
◦ Acceleration
◦ idling
◦ Deceleration
◦ Vehicles tested as per a Standard Drive-cycle, which can be used to compare vehicles
◦ How long it travels at what speed
◦ How long it accelerated from a certain velocity to another and so on
◦ Usually climbing a slope and coming down a slope not a part of drive-cycle
◦ A hill-terrain drive cycle should include it

Each vehicle type (two-wheeler / small car / bus) may have its own drive-cycle
◦ Each city may have its own drive-cycle

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 19

2-wheeler / Auto No. of operation

1 Idling
Acceleration
(m2/sec )
--
Speed
(Km/h)
---
Duration of each Cumulative
operation (S)
16
time( s)
16

India Drive Cycle (IDC) 2

3
4
Acceleration
Acceleration
Deceleration
0.65
0.56
-0.63
0-14
14-22
22-13
6
4
4
22
26
30
5 Steady speed -- 13 2 32
6 Acceleration 0.56 13-23 5 37
7 Acceleration 0.44 23-31 5 42
8 Deceleration -0.56 31-25 3 45
9 Steady speed -- 25 4 49
10 Deceleration -0.56 25-21 2 51
11 Acceleration 0.45 21-34 8 59
12 Acceleration 0.32 34-42 7 66
13 Deceleration -0.46 42-37 3 69
14 Steady speed -- 37 7 76
15 Deceleration -0.42 37-34 2 78
16 Acceleration 0.32 34-42 7 85
17 Deceleration -0.46 42-27 9 94
18 Deceleration -0.52 27-14 7 101
19 Deceleration -0.56 14-0 7 108

BREAK DOWN OF OPERATING CYCLE USED FOR THE TYPE ITEST

A: BREAK DOWN BY PHASES
Sr. No. Particulars Time(s) Percentage
1 Idling 16 14.81
2 Steady speed periods 13 12.04
3 Accelerations 42 38.89
4 Deceleration’s 37 34.26
108 100
B: AVERAGE SPEED DURING TEST : 21.93 Km/h
C: THEORETICAL DISTANCE COVERED PER CYCLE : 0.658 Km.
D: EQUIVALENT DISTANCE FOR THE TEST (6 cycles) : 3.948 Km.

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 20

Compute Distance and Energy for drive-cycle
Take velocity at every small interval ΔT (say 1 second or even lower) and
compute in a spread-sheet
◦ distance: Vel (m/sec) * ΔT (sec) at each point
◦ Acceleration = ΔVel / ΔT in m/sec2
◦ Acceleration Force Fa = M * Acceleration (Newtons)
◦ Rolling Resistance Force Fr = M*g*μ
◦ Drag Force FD = 0.5* Cd * ρ* A * v2
◦ Traction Force Ftrac = Fa +Fr + FD (Newton)
◦ Traction torque Torque (Nm) = Ftrac *wheel radius (m)
◦ Ptrac(Watts) = Ftrac*V (Nm/sec) and (R*Ftrac)*V with Regeneration Efficiency R, when Ftrac is -ve
◦ Energy (Wh) = Ptrac * ΔT Integrate to give drive-cycle energy

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 21

 Mass (kg) M 190
g (m/s2) 9.81
Rolling Resist μ (kN/kN) 0.013
Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.9

Spread-sheet for 2-wheeler

ρ (kg/m3) 1.2
A (m2) (Projected Area) 0.5
Drive cycle IDC-2W
wheel radius(m) 0.28
regen eff factor R 0.5
time(s) vel(km/h) dist (meters) vel (m/s) dv/dt
0 0 0
16 0 0 0 0 velocity and distance (total dist = 658 m)
45.0000
17 2.333333333 0.648148148 0.648148148 0.648148148
40.0000
18 4.666666667 1.296296296 1.296296296 0.648148148
35.0000
19 7 1.944444444 1.944444444 0.648148148 30.0000
20 9.333333333 2.592592593 2.592592593 0.648148148 25.0000
21 11.66666667 3.240740741 3.240740741 0.648148148 20.0000

22 14 3.888888889 3.888888889 0.648148148 15.0000

10.0000
23 16 4.444444444 4.444444444 0.555555556
5.0000
24 18 5 5 0.555555556
0.0000
25 20 5.555555556 5.555555556 0.555555556

0
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105 6 1.666666667 1.666666667 -0.555555556 vel(km/h) dist (meters)
106 4 1.111111111 1.111111111 -0.555555556
107 2 0.555555556 0.555555556 -0.555555556
108 0 0 0 -0.555555556

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 22

 100% regenartaion efficiency
Energy with 100%
Fa (N) Frr (N) Fd (N) Ftrac (N) Torque (Nm) Ptrac (kW) regen (Wh)
Mdv/dt Mgμ 0.5ρCdAv2 Fa+FR+Fd Ftrac*r Ftrac*v Ptrac*dt
100.4630 19.7672 0.4537 120.6838 33.7915 0.1173 0.0000 0.0434
100.4630 19.7672 1.0208 121.2509 33.9503 0.1965 0.0001 0.0980
100.4630 19.7672 1.8148 122.0449 34.1726 0.2769 0.0001 0.1749
100.4630 19.7672 2.8356 123.0658 34.4584 0.3589 0.0001 0.2746
100.4630 19.7672 4.0833 124.3134 34.8078 0.4432 0.0001 0.3977
86.1111 19.7672 5.3333 111.2116 31.1392 0.4634 0.0001 0.5264 Total Energy decreases
86.1111 19.7672 6.7500 112.6283 31.5359 0.5319 0.0001 0.6742 when Power is negative
86.1111 19.7672 8.3333 114.2116 31.9792 0.6028 0.0002 0.8416
86.1111 19.7672 10.0833 115.9616 32.4692 0.6764 0.0002 1.0295
-96.8750 19.7672 8.1263 -68.9815 -19.3148 -0.4000 -0.0001 0.9184
-96.8750 19.7672 6.3802 -70.7276 -19.8037 -0.3659 -0.0001 0.8168
Total Energy (Wh) with 100% Regen
10.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 17.5208 -48.8231 -13.6705 -0.4069 -0.0001 2.4647 9.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 15.1875 -51.1565 -14.3238 -0.3979 -0.0001 2.3541 8.0000
7.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 13.0208 -53.3231 -14.9305 -0.3851 -0.0001 2.2472 6.0000
5.0000
4.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.3333 -66.0106 -18.4830 -0.0917 0.0000 7.4619 3.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.0833 -66.2606 -18.5530 -0.0552 0.0000 7.4466 2.0000
1.0000
-86.1111 19.7672 0.0000 -66.3440 -18.5763 -0.0184 0.0000 7.4415
0.0000

0
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Energy with 100% regen (Wh)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 23

Consider Regeneration Efficiency R = 0.5
◦ Ptrac (Watts) = (Fr+FD+Fa)*R*V when Ftrac is negative, else R is taken as 1
◦ Regeneration Efficiency R is fraction energy recovered
◦ Energy (Wh) = Ptrac * ΔT
◦ Regeneration recovers only part of the energy generated
◦ Total distance = 658 m 10.0000
Energy (Wh) 9.0000

Energy Efficiency 8.9348 8.0000

7.0000
8.9024
◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km) 8.8707 6.0000
5.0000
◦ = 8.78 Wh / 0.658 km = 13.34 Wh/km 8.8434
4.0000
8.8208
◦ With 100% regeneration 8.8031
3.0000
2.0000
◦ Eff = 7.44 Wh / 0.658 km = 11.31 Wh/km 8.7904 1.0000
8.7827
◦ Without regeneration, it is 15.38 Wh/km 0.0000

0
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8.7802
Energy with R% regen (Wh) Energy with 100% regen (Wh)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 24

 Mass (kg) 600
g (m/s2) 9.81
Roll Res μ 0.013

E-auto: same drive cycle is 2-W Cd (Drag)

Dens ρ (kg/m3)
Proj Area A (m2)
0.44
1.2
1.6
Drive cycle IDC-auto
time(s) vel(km/h) dist (meters) vel (m/s) dv/dt wheel radius(m) 0.2
0 0.0000 0.0000 regen eff factor R 0.5
16 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
17 2.3333 0.6481 0.6481 0.6481 velocity and distance (total dist = 658 m)
18 4.6667 1.2963 1.2963 0.6481 45.0000
19 7.0000 1.9444 1.9444 0.6481 40.0000
20 9.3333 2.5926 2.5926 0.6481 35.0000
25 20.0000 5.5556 5.5556 0.5556 30.0000

26 22.0000 6.1111 6.1111 0.5556 25.0000

20.0000
27 19.7500 5.4861 5.4861 -0.6250
15.0000
28 17.5000 4.8611 4.8611 -0.6250 10.0000
29 15.2500 4.2361 4.2361 -0.6250 5.0000

105 6.0000 1.6667 1.6667 -0.5556 0.0000

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106 4.0000 1.1111 1.1111 -0.5556
vel(km/h) dist (meters)
107 2.0000 0.5556 0.5556 -0.5556
108 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -0.5556

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 25

Energy Efficiency of e-auto with R = 0.5
Energy with 100% Energy with R%
Time(s) regen (Wh) regen (Wh) 35.0000

105 20.1523 26.7312

30.0000
106 20.0534 26.6817
107 19.9940 26.6520 25.0000
108 19.9742 26.6421
20.0000

Distance travelled in a cycle is 658m 15.0000

10.0000
◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km)
5.0000
◦ = 26.64 Wh / 0.658 km = 40.49 Wh/km
◦ With 100% regeneration 0.0000

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103
107
◦ Eff = 19.97 Wh / 0.658 km = 30.36 Wh/km Energy with R% regen (Wh) Energy with 100% regen (Wh)

◦ Without regeneration, it is 50.63 Wh/km

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 26

 No of Operation Operation Cumulative (s) Speed (km/h)
1 Idling 5.0 0
2 Acceleration 9.4 8
3 Steadyspeed 18.4 8
4 Deceleration 21.4 0

e-rickshaw: IDC 5
6
7
Idling
Acceleration
Acceleration
26.4
30.9
36.4
0
8
16
8 Steadyspeed 48.4 16
9 Deceleration 52.1 8
10 Deceleration 55.3 0
Maximum Speed limited to 25 kmph 11 Idling 60.3 0
12 Acceleration 64.8 8
13 Acceleration 70.3 16
14 Acceleration 77.7 24
15 Steadyspeed 89.7 24
16 Deceleration 94.2 16
17 Steadyspeed 99.2 16
18 Deceleration 102.9 8
19 Deceleration 106.1 0
20 Idling 111.1 0
21 Acceleration 119.4 12
22 Acceleration 124.9 18
23 Steadyspeed 136.9 18
24 Deceleration 140.3 12
25 Steadyspeed 152.3 12
26 Acceleration 157.0 18
27 Acceleration 162.6 24
28 Steadyspeed 186.6 24
29 Deceleration 193.3 12
30 Deceleration 198.8 0
31 Idle 203.8 0

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 27

e-rickshaw
velocity and distance (total dist = 727 m)
30
Vehicle
Specifications e-rickshaw
Mass (kg) 680 25
g (m/s2) 9.81
Roll Res μ 0.013 20
Cd (Drag) 0.44
Dens ρ (kg/m3) 1.2 15
Proj Area A (m2) 1.6
Drive cycle IDC-auto
10
wheel radius(m) 0.2
regen eff factor R 0.5 5

time(s)
6
13
20
27
34
41
48
55
62
69
76
83
90
97
104
111
118
125
132
139
146
153
160
167
174
181
188
195
velocity distance

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 28

Energy Efficiency of e-rickshaw
Distance travelled in a drive- 35.00000

cycle is 727m 30.00000

25.00000

◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km) 20.00000

◦ = 24.53 Wh / 0.727 km = 33.7 Wh/km 15.00000

◦ With 100% regeneration, Efficiency 10.00000

◦ 19.93 Wh / 0.727 km = 27.36 Wh/km

5.00000

0.00000
◦ Without regeneration, it is

time(s)
5
11
17
23
29
35
41
47
53
59
65
71
77
83
89
95
101
107
113
119
125
131
137
143
149
155
161
167
173
179
185
191
40.04 Wh/km Energy with 100% regen (Wh) Energy with R% regen (Wh)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 29

Electric compact-Sedan: Modified Indian
Drive Cycle (MIDC)
MIDC (20 minutes) Distance 10.7km

100.00 12000.0
90.00
10000.0
80.00
70.00
8000.0
Speed (km/h)

Distance (m)
60.00
50.00 6000.0
40.00
30.00 4000.0
20.00
10.00 2000.0
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0.0
Time (s) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s)

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 30

 Vehicle Specifications
Mass (kg) 1400
g (m/s2) 9.81
Roll Res μ 0.006
Compact Sedan Energy Efficiency Cd (Drag)
Dens ρ (kg/m3)
0.40
1.2
Proj Area A (m2) 1.9
Traction Energy (Wh) wheel Rad (m) 0.31
Regen Eff 0.5
900.000
800.000 Distance travelled in a drive-cycle is
700.000
1070m
600.000
500.000
400.000 ◦ Eff = Total Energy / Distance (km)
300.000 ◦ = 815.9 Wh / 1.07 km = 76.3 Wh/km
200.000
100.000
◦ With 100% regeneration, Efficiency
0.000 ◦ 650.23 Wh / 1.07 km = 60.8 Wh/km
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s) ◦ Without regeneration, it is 91.8 Wh/km
Energy with 100% regen (Wh) Energy with R% regen (Wh) Highly dependent on drag
◦ If Cd reduced to 0.33, Eff is 69.8 Wh/km

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 31

Drag and rolling resistance dependence
Eff(Wh/km) as Cd varies with μ=0.006 Energy Efficiency for a compact Sedan
90.000
80.000
(assuming R of 0.5)
70.000 ◦ Dependent strongly on aerodynamics
60.000
50.000
◦ Varies strongly with drag coefficient Cd
40.000 ◦ Better aero-dynamics of vehicle will help
0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Cd

◦ Also depends on rolling resistance μ

Eff(Wh/km) as μ varies with Cd=0.4
100 ◦ Better tyres could help
90
80
70 ◦ For Cd of 0.3 and μ of 0.009, energy
60 efficiency with R of 0.5 is 77.9
50
0.005 0.006 0.007 0.008 0.009 0.01 ◦ With 100% regeneration, it is 62.8
μ

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 32

 Mass (kg) 1000
g (m/s2) 9.81
Roll Res μ 0.2

Tractor (with 0 to 30 kmph in 8 sec) Cd (Drag)

Dens ρ (kg/m3)
Proj Area A (m2)
1
1.2
1.41
gradient θ deg 25
◦ Pd negligible wheel Dia (m) 0.889
◦ Rolling resistance dominates Regen Eff 0.5
Tractor Power required
18.000
Pg (kW) at 16.000
Pa (kW) Prr (kW) Pd (kW) v/3 14.000

time(s) vel(km/h) Fa*v/1000 Frr*v/1000 Fd*v/1000 Fg*v/3000 12.000

Power (kW)
0 0.00 10.000
8.000
1 3.75 0.543 1.022 0.000 0.720
6.000
2 7.50 1.628 3.066 0.006 2.159
4.000
3 11.25 2.713 5.110 0.022 3.599
2.000
4 15.00 3.798 7.154 0.054 5.039
0.000
5 18.75 4.884 9.198 0.108 6.478 0.00 3.75 7.50 11.25 15.00 18.75 22.50 26.25 30.00
6 22.50 5.969 11.242 0.189 7.918 Velocity kmph
7 26.25 7.054 13.285 0.305 9.358
Pa (kW) Fa*v/1000 Prr (kW) Frr*v/1000
8 30.00 8.139 15.329 0.459 10.797 Pd (kW) Fd*v/1000 Pg (kW) at v/3 Fg*v/3000

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 33

 Tractor: Torque –Speed
usage percentage

Assuming 20:1 gear for engine speed

◦ Distance travelled = 3.45 meters
◦ Energy Consumed = 2.82 kW*sec = 0.78 Wh

Energy used per km = 226 Wh/km

Engine Energy distance
Torque (nm) rpm duty time Ptrac (W) (W.sec) (m)
50.000 900 15.8% 235.6193 37.22784 0.330956
50.000 1100 3.5% 287.9791 10.07927 0.089605
50.000 1300 2.5% 340.3389 8.508473 0.07564
50.000 1500 1.1% 392.6988 4.319686 0.038402

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 34

Drive-train Requirement
Parameters that we need to consider
◦ Power and Energy
◦ Derived from combination of rolling resistance Power, aerodynamic Power, acceleration power (or
pick-up power) and power to overcome gradient
◦ maximum power in combination required
◦ Minimum energy to save Battery-energy
◦ Speed and RPM
◦ Gear Ratio
◦ Efficiency of Controller and Motors at various speeds and not at some speed
◦ Will impact energy used

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 35

We also need to consider
Drive-train Voltage used: derived form Battery voltage
◦ 48V or 72V for small vehicles
◦ 2-wheelers, three-wheelers and small four-wheelers (a few hundred Watts to up to 15 kW)
◦ As current increases, the losses in motor conductors will increase: will need thicker conductors

◦ 350V for larger cars and pick-ups

◦ Motors up to 50 to 60 kW

◦ 750V for motors for buses and trucks

◦ 80 kW to 300 kW

Use of Distributed motors could reduce power required

August 2018 MII: VEHICLE DYNAMICS 36